2005年中国性别平等与妇女发展状况

中国性别平等与妇女发展状况

Gender Equality and Women's Development in China

前言

Foreword

中国是世界上人口最多的发展中国家，女性约占13亿总人口的一半。促进性别平等和妇女全面发展，不仅对中国的发展有着重要意义，而且对人类的进步有着特殊影响。

China is a developing country with the largest population in the world.Of its total population of 1.3billion,women account for about half.Therefore,the promotion of gender equality and the overall development of women is not only of great significance for China's development,it also has a special influence on the efforts for the advancement of mankind.

促进男女平等是中国的一项基本国策。自1949年新中国成立以来，特别是20世纪70年代末实行改革开放政策以来，随着中国经济持续增长和社会全面进步，妇女与男子平等的权利和机会不断得到保障，妇女发展获得了前所未有的机遇。

It has always been a basic state policy of China to promote equality between men and women.Since New China was founded in 1949,especially since the adoption of the reform and opening-up policy in the late 1970s,and along with the continuous growth of China's economy and the overall progress of its society,women are being given more guarantees of enjoyment of equal rights and opportunities with men and the development of women is being given unprecedented opportunities.

近年来，中国政府将包括性别平等在内的公平正义作为构建社会主义和谐社会的重要内容，运用经济、法律、行政及舆论等多种措施，努力保障妇女在政治、经济、文化、社会和家庭生活等方面享有与男子平等的权利，不断促进妇女的全面发展。

In recent years,the Chinese government has made fairness and justice,with gender equality included,an important part of efforts to build a harmonious socialist society,and has utilized economic,legal,administrative,public opinion and other measures to ensure that women enjoy equal rights with men in terms of politics,economy,culture,and social and family life,and continuously pushes forward women's development in an all-round way.

1995年在中国北京举行的联合国第四次世界妇女大会，通过了《北京宣言》和《行动纲领》，对促进性别平等和各国妇女发展，产生了重要影响。值此纪念联合国第四次世界妇女大会十周年之际，这里重点就十年来中国性别平等和妇女发展状况作些介绍。

The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth UN World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995have produced great influence in promoting the progress of gender equality and women's development around the world.To commemorate the 10th anniversary of the conference,this white paper has been prepared to introduce to the rest of the world China's progress in promoting gender equality and women's development over the past decade.

一、促进性别平等与妇女发展的国家机制

I.State Mechanism to Promote Gender Equality and Development of Women 中国不断完善维护妇女权益的法律体系，制定并实施妇女发展纲要，进一步健全工作机构，加大资金投入，加强社会动员，努力促进性别平等和妇女发展。

To promote gender equality and the development of women,China is making unremitting efforts to improve its legal system to protect the rights and interests of women,formulate and implement programs regarding women's development,further improve relevant working organs,increase financial input and strengthen social awareness.

国家不断加大维护妇女权益法律法规的制定、修订和实施力度，切实维护妇女合法权

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益。作为中国最高国家权力机关和立法机关的全国人民代表大会及其常委会，将维护妇女权益和促进性别平等作为一项重要任务，重视制定有关妇女的法律，认真办理维护妇女合法权益的议案，积极督促检查有关法律的执行和落实情况。中国政府及其有关工作部门，通过执行法律，制定并实施有关行政法规和规章，保障妇女权益，促进性别平等。在当今中国，已形成以《中华人民共和国宪法》为基础，以《中华人民共和国妇女权益保障法》为主体，包括国家各种单行法律法规、地方性法规和政府各部门行政规章在内的一整套保护妇女权益和促进性别平等的法律体系。国家司法机关不断加大执法力度，依法对各种侵犯妇女权益的犯罪行为予以制裁。

The state has continuously intensified its efforts in the formulation,revision and enforcement of relevant laws and regulations to protect the legitimate rights and interests of women in earnest.As the supreme organ of state power and the top legislative organ of China,the National People's Congress and its Standing Committee have taken the protection of women's rights and interests and the promotion of gender equality as a key assignment,paid great attention to the formulation of laws concerning women,seriously dealt with bills related to the protection of women's legitimate rights and interests,and actively urged and supervised the enforcement and implementation of relevant laws.The Chinese government and its departments concerned have enforced laws and formulated and implemented relevant administrative rules and regulations to guarantee women's rights and interests,and promote gender equality.China now has built a complete legal system concerning the protection of women's rights and interests,and promotion of gender equality,based on the Constitution of the People's Republic of China,and with the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women as the main body and various separate laws and regulations,local regulations and administrative rules adopted by various government departments as supplementary provisions.The state judicial organs have augmented their law enforcement steps,and punished the perpetrators of various kinds of criminal infringements of women's rights and interests in accordance with the law.

国家制定并实施妇女发展纲要，把妇女发展纳入经济社会发展总体规划之中。中国妇女发展纲要是实施北京《行动纲领》、全面推进性别平等和妇女发展的国家行动计划。在《中国妇女发展纲要（1995—2000年）》目标基本实现的基础上，为适应国家经济与社会协调发展的需要和联合国《千年发展目标》的要求，中国又于2001年颁布了《中国妇女发展纲要（200l—2010年）》。这一纲要包括妇女与经济、妇女参与决策和管理、妇女与教育、妇女与健康、妇女与法律、妇女与环境六大领域的34项主要目标和100项策略措施。国务院有关部门和地方各级政府，制定了本部门的纲要实施方案和本地区的妇女发展规划。

The state has enacted and implemented outlines for the development of women,and included women's development in the overall plans of economic and social development.The Outline for the Development of Chinese Women is a national program of action to carry out the Platform for Action adopted in 1995in Beijing and push forward gender equality and women's development in a comprehensive way.Since the goals set in the Outline for the Development of Chinese Women (1995-2000)have been basically realized,and to meet the demands of China's coordinated economic and social development and the requirements of the UN Millennium Development Goals,China promulgated in 2001its Outline for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010).The new document outlines 34major goals and 100policies and measures in six fields:women and the economy;women's participation in decision-making and administration;women and education;women and health;women and the law;and women and the environment.The departments concerned under the State Council and local governments at all levels have all worked out their own programs for the implementation

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of the outline and plans for women's development in their respective areas.

中国政府负责全国妇女儿童工作的协调议事机构——国务院妇女儿童工作委员会（以下简称国务院妇儿工委），在协调和推动政府有关部门做好维护妇女儿童权益工作，制定和组织实施妇女儿童发展纲要，为开展妇女儿童工作和发展妇女儿童事业提供必要的人力、财力、物力，以及指导、督促和检查各省（自治区、直辖市）政府妇女儿童工作委员会工作等方面，发挥了重要作用。本届国务院妇儿工委主任由国务院一位副总理担任，成员单位由国家33个部门组成，委员由各成员单位的一名副部长级领导担任。目前，全国所有省（自治区、直辖市）、地（市、州、盟）和县（市、区、旗）人民政府均成立了妇女儿童工作机构，由同级政府负责人领导。各级妇儿工委逐步建立了有效的工作制度，督促和协调各职能部门切实履行职责，工作经费列入同级政府的财政预算。

The National Working Committee on Children and Women (NWCCW)under the State Council,the coordination and consultation organ of the Chinese government in charge of women and children's work,plays an important role in coordinating and promoting relevant government departments to do women and children's work well,as well as in formulating and organizing the implementation of the outlines for the development of women and children,providing necessary human,financial and material resources to the work on women and children and to the development of women and children's cause,and guiding,encouraging and supervising the work of its subordinates in all provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government.The current NWCCW is headed by a vice-premier of the State Council,and is composed of 33member units (ministries,commissions under the State Council and non-governmental organizations -ed.)each having one of its vice-ministerial-level officials as a member of the NWCCW.To date,working organs on children and women have been set up by the people's governments of all provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government,prefectures (prefecture-level cities and leagues)and counties (county-level cities,districts and banners)across China's mainland,which are under the direction of officials of governments at the corresponding level.An effective working system has been built within these working committees to coordinate the functional departments and urge them to perform their duties.Their expenditures are covered in the financial budgets of the governments at the corresponding level.

中国政府重视发挥与妇女发展有关的非政府组织的作用。中华全国妇女联合会、中华全国总工会、中国共产主义青年团中央委员会、中国残疾人联合会、中国科学技术协会等，都根据其宗旨有效开展推进性别平等工作。中华全国妇女联合会（以下简称全国妇联）是中国最大的促进性别平等和妇女发展的非政府组织，其组织体系包括各级地方妇女联合会和团体会员，具有广泛的代表性、群众性和社会性。全国妇联和地方各级妇联在团结、动员广大妇女参与经济建设和社会发展，代表妇女参与国家和社会事务的民主管理、民主监督，代表和维护妇女权益等方面发挥了重要作用。近年来，政府部门与妇联等非政府组织合作开展多种活动，使社会资源得到有效利用，并通过这些活动有力地促进了性别平等和妇女发展。

The Chinese government attaches importance to the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)related to the development of women.The All-China Women's Federation,All-China Federation of Trade Unions,Central Committee of the Communist Youth League,China Disabled Persons'Federation and China Association of Science and Technology have all effectively pressed ahead with their gender equality work in line with their respective guidelines.The All-China Women's Federation (ACWF)is the largest NGO in China dedicated to promoting gender equality and women's development.It has an organizational system that covers women's federations and group members at

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various levels,and enjoys wide representation and mass involvement.The ACWF and local women's federations play a significant role in uniting and motivating women to participate in the country's economic construction and social development,encouraging them to take an active part in the democratic management and supervision of state and social affairs,and representing and safeguarding the rights and interests of women as a whole.In recent years,government departments have cooperated with women's federations and other NGOs to organize all kinds of activities to effectively utilize social resources for the promotion of gender equality and women's development.

中央和地方财政逐年加大实施妇女发展纲要的经费投入，优化妇女发展的资源配置。2000年以来，中央和地方财政投入相当数量的资金，用于实现妇女发展纲要的重点难点指标，并注意向西部和贫困地区倾斜。1990年国家对妇幼保健和防治防疫的投入分别为3.05亿元和12.03亿元，1999年增加到10.46亿元和33.88亿元，2003年进一步增至15.79亿元和90.54亿元。国家重视对妇女状况的数据收集和分析研究工作，成立了实施纲要监测评估机构，制定了纲要监测统计指标体系和评估方案，各省（自治区、直辖市）建立了妇女状况监测统计网络和工作制度。国家有关部门不断改进统计制度，增加分性别统计指标，性别统计制度不断完善。近十年来，国家统计部门已编辑出版多种性别统计资料。

The central and local treasuries have both increased their inputs for the implementation of the outline for the development of women year by year,and optimized the allocation of resources to facilitate women's development.Since 2000,quite an amount of funds have been appropriated from the central and local treasuries to help achieve the key and difficult objectives that are difficult to fulfill in the outlines,with priority being given to the western and poverty-stricken areas.In 1990,the state input into women and children's health care and epidemic prevention and treatment stood at 305million yuan and 1.203billion yuan,respectively,which rose to 1.046billion yuan and 3.388billion yuan in 1999,and further to 1.579billion yuan and 9.054billion yuan in 2003.The state also pays great attention to the collection and study of statistics about the situation as regards women,and has set up a special organ to monitor and assess the implementation of the outline,and formulated a statistical monitoring indicator system and assessment program.In addition,networks for statistics monitoring and working systems have been established in various provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government.With the continuous improvement of the statistics-gathering and analysis systems by the departments concerned and gender statistics indicators added,a complete national gender statistics system has taken shape and is being constantly improved.Over the past decade,materials on gender statistics have been compiled and published by the state departments of statistics.

中国政府重视与联合国及有关国际组织的合作，积极加强与各国政府和妇女组织的交流与合作。中国认真履行国际公约，于2000年5月向联合国提交了《中华人民共和国1995年第四次世界妇女大会〈北京宣言〉〈行动纲领〉执行成果报告》，2004年2月提交了《关于〈消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约〉执行情况第五次和第六次定期报告》，2005年3月提交了《中华人民共和国执行〈北京行动纲领〉（1995年）和第二十三届联大特别会议成果文件（2000年）情况报告》。

The Chinese government sets great store by cooperation with the United Nations and other international organizations,and has actively strengthened its exchanges and cooperation with other governments and women's organizations around the world.China is serious about implementing international conventions.In May 2000,it submitted to the United Nations The Report on the Implementation Result of the People's Republic of China of the "Beijing Declaration"and the "Platform for Action"Adopted by the Fourth

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World Conference on Women in 1995;in February 2004,it submitted The Fifth and Sixth Regular Reports on the Implementation of the UN "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women;"and in March 2005,it submitted The Report on the Implementation of the People's Republic of China of the "Beijing Platform for Action"(1995)and the Document of Results of the 23rd UN General Assembly Special Session (2000).

二、妇女与经济

II.Women and the Economy

国家将保障妇女获得与男子平等的就业机会、共享经济资源和社会发展成果，作为推进性别平等与妇女发展的首要目标和优先领域，制定并采取了一系列政策措施，确保妇女平等参与经济发展、平等获得经济资源和有效服务，增强妇女的自我发展能力，改善妇女的社会经济地位。

The state has made the guarantee of equal employment opportunities between women and men and the sharing of economic resources and results of social development the top priority for the advancement of gender equality and the development of women,and has worked out and adopted a series of policies and measures to ensure that women can equally participate in the economic development,enjoy equal access to economic resources and effective services,enhance their self-development ability and improve their social and economic status.

促进妇女实现创业和再就业。就业是民生之本，也是妇女赖以生存发展的基本经济资源。近年来，中国政府制定和执行扶持妇女自主创业政策，在职业培训补贴、小额担保贷款、税费减免等方面给予优惠，为妇女自主创业提供有利条件。同时，各级政府采取开发公益性岗位、专设就业服务窗口、举办专场招聘会、组织专门培训、监控就业性别歧视等针对妇女的倾斜措施，帮助妇女特别是下岗失业妇女实现就业和再就业。在政府的支持下，各级妇联和工会等非政府组织创造性地开展妇女创业和再就业工作。1998—2003年,各级妇联组织积极争取小额信贷，直接帮助250万妇女实现再就业。十年来，妇女就业数量和比例一直保持较高水平。2004年底，全国城乡女性就业人数为3.37亿人，占全部从业人员的44.8％；全国城镇单位女性就业人员为4227万人，占城镇单位就业人员总数的38.1%。

Encouraging women to start business and become re-employed.Employment is the basis of people's livelihood and the basic economic resource that women rely on for subsistence.Over the past few years,the Chinese government has formulated and carried out supportive policies to encourage women to start businesses on their own initiative,and give them preferential treatment when granting employment training subsidies and small-sum guaranteed loans and conducting tax reduction and exemption.In the meantime,governments at all levels have adopted many favorable policies toward women,such as creating public-welfare jobs,opening employment service centers,sponsoring special recruitment activities and vocational training courses,monitoring sex discrimination against women in employment and help women,especially laid-off women,to find new jobs.With the support of the government,women's federations at various levels,trade unions and other NGOs have conducted their work regarding the employment and re-employment of women in a creative way.During the period from 1998to 2003,women's federations nationwide endeavored to get small-sum credit loans to directly aid a total of 2.5million women to get re-employed.Over the past decade,the number and ratio of women employed have remained fairly high.By the end of 2004,the number of both urban and rural women workers reached 337million nationwide,accounting for 44.8percent of the total employed;and the number of women workers in urban work units stood at 42.27million,accounting for 38.1percent of the national total.

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改善妇女就业结构。近年来，第三产业正在成为吸纳女性劳动力就业的主要渠道，越来越多的女性进入计算机、通信、金融、保险等高新技术行业，成为这些行业发展的重要力量。目前，以中小企业家为主的女企业家已占中国企业家总数的20%左右，其中有60%是近十年创业成功者。国家机关和企事业单位在专业技术人员招聘、培训、职务职称晋升中贯彻男女平等原则，促进优秀女性人才脱颖而出。2004年底，国有企事业单位专业技术人员中的女性比例达到43.6%，比1995年的37.3%提高了6.3个百分点，其中高、中级职务中的女性比例分别由20.1%、33.4%提高到30.5%和42.0%。

Improving the employment structure of women.Over the past few years,the tertiary industry has become the main channel for providing jobs to women,and an increasing number of women are entering the computer,communications,finance and insurance and other high-and new-tech industries,thus becoming an important force in these fields.At present,women owners of small and medium-sized enterprises account for about 20percent of the national total number of entrepreneurs,and 60percent of them have emerged in the past decade.State organs,enterprises and public institutions have long pursued the principle of equality between men and women in terms of recruitment,training of professionals and technicians,as well as promotion in ranks and granting of professional titles to encourage women to display their abilities and come to the fore.By the end of 2004,women accounted for 43.6percent of the total number of professionals and technicians in state-owned enterprises and institutions nationwide,up 6.3percentage points over the 37.3percent of 1995,among whom,the number of senior and intermediate-level women professionals and technicians rose from 20.1percent and 33.4percent to 30.5percent and 42.0percent,respectively.

提高城镇妇女的社会保障水平。近年来，中国政府不断加快完善以养老保险、失业保险、医疗保险、工伤保险和生育保险为主要内容的社会保障制度，同时对城市社会救济制度进行重大改革，逐步建立和完善了城市最低生活保障、下岗职工基本生活保障和失业保障三条保障线。1994年国家颁布《企业职工生育保险试行办法》，将原来由企业单位负责的生育保险改变为生育保险社会统筹，截至2004年底，全国已有28个省（自治区、直辖市）开展了生育保险的社会统筹，参保职工达4384万人，约占城镇企业职工总数的60%。1999年10月国家开始实施《城市居民最低生活保障条例》，截至2004年底，包括城镇妇女在内的2205万城镇居民领取到最低生活保障金，基本实现了应保尽保。

Enhancing social security for urban women.In recent years,the Chinese government has stepped up the construction of a social security system,with pension insurance,unemployment insurance,medical insurance,employment injury insurance and maternity insurance as the main contents.It has also carried out significant reforms of the urban social relief system,and gradually established and improved three funds:minimum urban living guarantee fund,basic living guarantee for laid-off workers fund and unemployment guarantee fund.The Trial Measures for Maternity Insurance of Enterprise Employees the state promulgated in 1994put maternity insurance,which used to be borne by employers,under overall social planning.By the end of 2004,the practice of overall social planning had been introduced in 28provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government,with 43.84million employees,or 60percent of the total number of urban employees covered.In October 1999,the Regulations on the Minimum Standard of Living for Urban Residents went into effect.By the end of 2004,22.05million urban residents,including women,were receiving minimum subsistence allowances.All those who needed such help were by and large covered.

发挥妇女在农村经济中的重要作用。中国是一个农业大国，占农业劳动力60%以上的妇女是农村生产活动的主力。2003年开始实施的《中华人民共和国农村土地承包法》规定，

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妇女与男子平等享有农村土地承包权利，任何组织和个人不得剥夺、侵害妇女的土地承包经营权。近年来，中国政府采取积极政策措施解决农业、农村、农民问题，加大农业投入力度，推进农村税费改革，实施科技兴农战略。各级政府有关部门与妇联组织合作开展“双学双比”活动，引导农村妇女学文化、学科技，比发展、比贡献，充分发挥农村妇女在振兴、发展农村经济中的重要作用。

Giving full play to women's role in the rural economy.China is basically an agricultural country,and women account for more than 60percent of the rural labor force and are a major force in farming activities.The Law of the People's Republic of China on Rural Land Contracting,which came into effect in 2003,states that women and men enjoy equal rights in contracting land in rural areas,and no organization or individual shall deprive women of the right to contract and operate land or infringe upon their right to do so.In recent years,the Chinese government has adopted active policies and measures to solve the problems concerning agriculture,rural areas and farmers,increased its input into agriculture,pushed forward tax reform in rural areas,and implemented the strategy of invigorating agriculture by applying science and https://www.doczj.com/doc/133418117.html,ernment departments and women's federations at all levels have jointly organized activities to encourage rural women to acquire knowledge and learn science and technology,and compete in their development and contributions,so as to bring their role in invigorating and developing the rural economy into full play.

维护农村进城就业妇女的合法权益。近年来，中国政府逐步减少和取消对农民进城就业的限制性规定，着力解决工资拖欠、职业安全、同工同酬、社会保障等问题，减少农村进城就业人员在户籍管理、子女就学等方面的困难，积极维护农村进城就业妇女的合法权益。同时，国家鼓励和支持通过建立培训学校、成立维权工作站和宣传典型侵权案例等途径，提高农村进城就业妇女的权利意识，增强其依法维权能力。

Safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of rural women working in cities.Over the past few years,the Chinese government has gradually reduced or eliminated the restrictive regulations on the employment of rural people in cities,and made great efforts to solve the problems of salaries in arrears,vocational safety,equal pay for equal work and social security for them so as to relieve rural migrant workers of anxieties regarding residence registration in cities and the schooling of their children,and actively protects the legitimate rights and interests of rural women working in cities.At the same time,the state also encourages and supports the building of training schools and legal aid centers,and the publication of typical cases of infringement as a means to raise awareness of their rights among migrant women workers and enhance their ability to safeguard their rights in accordance with the law.

为积极促进劳动就业领域中的社会性别主流化，提高妇女就业和创业能力，近年来，中国政府有关部门开展了与联合国开发计划署、国际劳工组织等国际机构的合作，取得积极成效。目前，中国政府正从国情出发，加快联合国《就业和职业歧视公约》在中国的批准进程。

To actively promote gender equality in employment and raise women's ability to find employment or start businesses,the Chinese government has begun to cooperate with the United Nations Development Program,International Labor Organization and other international organizations,with satisfactory results.At present,it is accelerating,proceeding from the national conditions of China,the process for the approval of the UN's Discrimination (Employment and Occupation)Convention in China.

三、妇女与消除贫困

III.Women and Poverty Elimination

缓解和消除贫困是中国政府矢志不渝的目标。中国政府通过实施大规模的、富有成效

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的专项扶贫开发计划，使妇女占多数的农村贫困人口数量从1994年的8000万下降到2004年的2610万，减少了5390万。

To alleviate and eliminate poverty is a goal that the Chinese government is determined to realize.With the implementation of large-scale and effective special poverty-reduction development programs,the government has succeeded in reducing the poverty-stricken rural population,the majority of whom are women,by 53.9million -from 80million in 1994to 26.1million in 2004.

制定有利于消除妇女贫困的倾斜政策。中国妇女发展纲要提出了缓解妇女贫困程度、减少贫困妇女数量的主要目标，要求在实施西部大开发战略中，加大对贫困妇女的扶持力度，使贫困妇女成为扶贫资源的获得者和扶贫成果的直接受益者。国家扶贫攻坚计划明确提出，要进一步动员贫困地区妇女兴办家庭副业，发展庭院经济；实施劳动密集型和适合妇女特点的扶贫项目；组织妇女学习实用技术，提高脱贫致富能力。2004年在中国上海召开的全球扶贫大会上，中国政府发表缓解和消除贫困的政策声明，强调按照同等优先的原则，积极支持贫困妇女参与实施扶贫项目，妇女参与人数占所有参与人数的比例不低于40%。

Formulating preferential policies for the elimination of poverty among women.The Outline for the Development of Chinese Women puts forth the main goals of reducing the extent of poverty among and the number of poor women,and calls for more support for poverty-stricken women in the country's western development strategy,so that women will be the main receivers of poverty-reduction resources and the direct beneficiaries of the achievements of the poverty-reduction efforts.The state poverty-reduction program has made it clear that the government strives to further motivate women in the poverty-stricken areas to engage in household sideline production and the "courtyard economy,"launch labor-intensive and other poverty-reduction projects that are particularly suitable for women,and organize women to learn practical skills and enhance their ability to shake off poverty and become well-off.At the Global Conference on Speeding Up Poverty Reduction,held in Shanghai in 2004,the Chinese government made a statement on its policy concerning the alleviation and elimination of poverty,which stressed the principle that,all factors being equal,preference will be given to poor women,and encouraged poor women to take part in poverty-reduction programs,and promised that the ratio of women participants would be no less than 40percent of the total.

采取有效措施逐步消除农村妇女贫困。从2001年起，中国政府将性别指标作为农村贫困监测的一项工作内容，强调关注扶贫工作中的性别平等。近年来，国家加大了扶贫资金投入力度，2004年中央财政投入扶贫资金达122亿元，地方政府也相应增加扶贫资金投入。同时，各级政府针对不同地区的具体情况，通过采取开展小额贷款、劳务输出、对口帮扶等渠道和方式扶持贫困地区发展，帮助农村妇女摆脱贫困。2001—2004年，国家扶贫贴息贷款中用于农户小额信贷的总量达到135.2亿元，其中半数以上的承贷人为妇女。从2001年开始，中国政府把参与式扶贫作为“整村推进”工作的主要方法，在全国14.8万个贫困村普遍推行。

Adopting effective measures to gradually eliminate poverty among women in rural areas.Since 2001,the Chinese government has made sex indicator a component of the poverty monitoring work in rural areas,and stressed that attention should be paid to gender equality in the poverty-reduction work.In recent years,the government has increased its financial input into poverty-reduction work.In 2004alone,12.2billion yuan was allocated by the central treasury for poverty reduction projects,and local governments also increased their inputs into this field.At the same time,and on the basis of the specific conditions in different areas,they have endeavored to help rural women

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get rid of poverty by way of provision of small-sum credit loans,labor export and pairing-off assistance.During the period from 2001to 2004,a total of 13.52billion yuan in small-sum credit loans for rural households was granted from the state poverty-reduction discount loans,and more than half of the money went to women.Since 2001,the Chinese government has taken poverty-reduction projects in the form of participation of the poor as the main way to "enhance the whole village,"and such projects now cover 148,000poverty-stricken villages nationwide.

支持和倡导非政府组织开展帮助妇女脱贫致富工作。近年来，在中国政府的支持和倡导下，各级妇联组织结合本地实际，积极开展小额信贷、连环脱贫、劳务输出、拉手结对以及东西互助等为主要内容的“巾帼扶贫行动”。中国人口福利基金会开展了以救助贫困母亲为宗旨的“幸福工程”，募集资金帮助贫困母亲参与经济和社会发展，提高健康和文化水平。中国妇女发展基金会启动“大地之爱·母亲水窖”项目，为西北缺水地区募集资金修建9万多眼蓄积雨水的水窖，建设小型集中供水工程1100处，受益的贫困人口近百万。此外，妇联等非政府组织还多方争取国际资金及物资援助，积极实施扶贫项目，帮助贫困地区妇女发展。

Supporting and encouraging NGOs to help women get rid of poverty and become well-off.In recent years,thanks to the support and initiative of the Chinese government,women's federations at all levels have launched,in view of local conditions,the "Poverty-Reduction Action for Women"with provision of small-sum credit loans,poverty elimination group by group,labor export,pairing-off assistance and mutual help between the eastern and western parts of the country as the main contents.The China Population Welfare Foundation has launched "Happiness Project"with an aim to help poor mothers.It raises funds to help poor mothers participate in economic and social development,and enhance their health and cultural level.The project of "Love of the Earth,Water Cellars for Mothers,"initiated by the China Women's Development Foundation,has raised funds for building more than 90,000rain-water collecting cellars and 1,100small central water supply projects in the water-short northwest part of China,benefiting nearly one million poverty-stricken people.In addition,women's federations and other NGOs have tried every means to get international funds and material aid to support the poverty-reduction projects and help women in poverty-stricken areas improve their lot.

四、妇女参与决策和管理

IV.Women's Participation in Decision Making and Management

妇女参与国家和社会事务管理的能力不断增强，参政水平逐步提高。中国宪法明确规定男女政治权利平等的基本原则，妇女权益保障法对实现妇女参与决策和管理的保障措施作出进一步规定，妇女发展纲要明确提出妇女参政的具体目标。这些为提高妇女参政水平奠定了法律政策基础。

Women's ability to be involved in the management of state and social affairs has been constantly strengthened,and their ability in handling political affairs has gradually enhanced.China's Constitution clearly stipulates the basic principle that men and women have equal political rights.The Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women has made further stipulations to ensure that women can participate in decision making and management.The Outline for the Development of Chinese Women clearly defines the specific goals to be reached for women to participate in government work.All these have laid the legal and policy foundation for increasing women's participation in government work.

人民代表大会制度是中国的根本政治制度，国家重视发挥妇女在各级人民代表大会中的重要作用。1995年颁布的《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法》规定：全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会的代表中，应当有适当数量的

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妇女代表，并逐步提高妇女代表的比例。十年来，广大妇女积极参加各级人民代表选举，行使自己的民主权利，女性参与地方人民代表选举的比例达到73.4%。在全国人民代表大会代表中，女代表的比例一直保持在20%以上。第十届全国人民代表大会女代表占代表总数的20.2%；女常委占全国人大常委总数的13.2%，比上届增长0.5个百分点；全国人大常委会副委员长中，有3位是女性。

The people's congress system is a fundamental political system in China,and the state pays great attention to the important role played by women in the people's congresses at all levels.The Election Law of the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses at All Levels of the People's Republic of China,promulgated in 1995,stipulates that deputies to the National People's Congress (NPC)and local people's congresses at all levels should include appropriate numbers of women,and the proportion of women deputies should be increased step by step.In the past decade,women have displayed great enthusiasm for participating in electing deputies to the people's congresses at all levels and exercising their democratic rights.Some 73.4percent of women turned out to elect deputies to local people's congresses.Of all the deputies to the various National People's Congresses,more than 20percent have been women.The proportion of women among the deputies to the Tenth National People's Congress is 20.2percent;and women members account for 13.2percent of all members of the Standing Committee of the NPC,an increase of 0.5percentage point over the previous national congress.Moreover,three of the vice-chairpersons of the NPC's Standing Committee are women.

中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度是中国的基本政治制度。中国共产党是执政党，各民主党派是参政党，是与中国共产党密切合作的友党。妇女在中共党员中占有一定比例，2004年，中共党员中的女党员人数为1295.6万人，占党员总人数的18.6%，比1995年增长了3个百分点。中国共产党第十六次全国代表大会代表中女性占18%，比上次代表大会提高了1.2个百分点；十六届中央委员会中，女性占委员和候补委员的7.6%，比上届提高了0.3个百分点。在中国八个民主党派中，女性占有较高比例，其中有七个党派女党员比例超过30%。中国人民政治协商会议是中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商的重要机构。目前，全国政协副主席中有4位是女性，十届全国政协一次会议委员和常委中的女性分别占16.7%和11.7%,比上届一次会议提高了1.2和1.7个百分点。

The system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC)is a basic political system in China.The CPC is the ruling party,while all other political parties are participants in state affairs.They are allies working closely with the CPC.Women account for a certain number of CPC members.In 2004,female membership in the CPC was 12.956million,accounting for 18.6percent of all CPC members,an increase of 3percentage points over 1995.Women deputies accounted for 18percent of all deputies to the 16th CPC National Congress,an increase of 1.2percentage points over the previous congress.Of the members of the 16th Central Committee of the CPC,7.6percent are women (as either members or alternate members),an increase of 0.3of one percentage point over the previous congress.Female membership is relatively high in the eight democratic parties,exceeding 30percent in seven of them.The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)is an important organ of the multi-party cooperation and political consultation system under the leadership of the CPC.At present,four of the vice-chairpersons of the National Committee of the CPPCC are women.Women members and women Standing Committee members of the first conference of the Tenth National Congress of the CPPCC accounted for 16.7and 11.7percent,respectively,up

1.2percentage points and 1.7percentage points over the first conference of the previous

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congress.

国家明确提出培养选拔女干部的工作目标，不断加强女干部的培养选拔工作，使妇女广泛参与国家和社会事务的管理，一大批优秀女性进入了各级领导班子。截至2004年底，各级党委、人大、政府、政协、法院、检察院、民主党派、人民团体县（处）级和地（厅）级干部中女干部分别占同级干部总数的16.9%和12.6%，比1995年增长了4.3和4.5个百分点；女正、副市长（专员、州长）共368人；省(部)级以上女干部占同级干部总数的

9.9%，比1995年增长2.8个百分点。目前，中国国务院副总理和国务委员中各有1位女性，最高人民法院、最高人民检察院以及国务院组成部门中有25位正副部长级女干部。2003年，全国新录用公务员的女性比例为27.8%，中央国家机关新录用公务员中的女性比例达到37.7%。此外，中国还重视少数民族女干部的培养，注重提高少数民族妇女的参政能力。

The state has clearly defined the objective for training and selecting women cadres,and has strengthened the work of training and selecting women cadres.As a result,women are now widely participating in the state and social administrative work,and a large number of outstanding women serve as leading cadres at various levels.By the end of 2004,women cadres at county (division)or prefecture (department)level accounted for 16.9percent and 12.6percent of all cadres at the corresponding level in all Party committees,people's congresses,governments,CPPCC organizations,courts,procuratorates,democratic parties and mass organizations across the country, 4.3percentage points and 4.5percentage points higher than in 1995,respectively;368incumbent or vice mayors (commissioners and prefects)were women;and women cadres at or above the provincial (ministry)level accounted for 9.9percent of the total at that level,an increase of 2.8percentage points over 1995.At present,China has one woman vice-premier and one woman state councilor on the State Council,and 25women incumbent or vice ministers or ministerial-level directors or heads in the Supreme People's Court,the Supreme People's Procuratorate,and the ministries and commissions under the State Council.The proportion of women civil servants recruited in 2003nationwide was 27.8percent of the total;and that in the organs o f the CPC Central Committee and central government was 37.7percent.In addition,China also attaches great importance to the training of women cadres of ethnic groups,and to strengthening their ability to participate in state affairs.

基层妇女参政水平不断提高。城乡妇女积极参加居民委员会和村民委员会选举。2004年，女性居委会委员达23.7万人、村委会委员达44.3万人，分别占居委会和村委会委员总数的55.8%和15.1%。一批女性居委会主任和村委会主任脱颖而出。

The level of participation in state affairs by women at the grassroots level has also risen continuously.Women in both rural and urban areas enthusiastically take part in the elections of neighborhood committees and village committees.In 2004,the number of women neighborhood committee members reached 237,000,and that of women village committee members reached 443,000,accounting for 55.8percent and 15.1percent of the total members of neighborhood committees and village committees,respectively.A large number of women have come to the fore as chairpersons of neighborhood and village committees.

妇联组织的民主参与和民主监督作用得到加强，妇女民主参与的渠道不断拓宽。各级妇联组织代表广大妇女参与制定、修改涉及妇女权益的法律法规，并参与监督法律法规的实施。政府有关部门认真听取妇联组织的意见，在政策和规划中注意吸纳妇联组织的建议。

The role of women's federations in participating in and supervising government work has been strengthened.The channels for women's democratic participation have been constantly widened.As the representatives of all China's women,women's

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federations at all levels are involved in formulating and revising laws and regulations regarding women's rights and interests.They are also involved in supervising the enforcement of such laws and regulations.Relevant government departments earnestly solicit the comments of women's federations and make a point of reflecting their opinions in related policies and plans.

五、妇女与教育

V.Women and Education

在中国，女性享有与男子平等的受教育权利和机会。中国的教育法、义务教育法和职业教育法等法律对女性受教育的权利和机会予以明确规定。国家采取切实措施和行动，保障女童接受九年义务教育的权利，增加女性接受中高等教育的机会，重点扫除青壮年女性文盲，提高妇女的终身教育水平和平均受教育年限。

In China,women enjoy the same rights and opportunities as men to receive education.Such rights and opportunities are clearly defined in China's Education Law,Compulsory Education Law and Vocational Education Law.The state takes concrete measures and actions to ensure that girls receive nine-year compulsory education and that women have more opportunities to receive secondary and higher education.The state is determined to eliminate illiteracy among young and middle-aged women,promote lifelong education for women and extend their average years of education.

中国政府致力于消除义务教育阶段的性别差距，不断改善女童的受教育环境。2004年，男女童入学率分别为98.97%和98.93%，男女差距由1995年的0.7个百分点下降到0.04个百分点。政府不断增加对农村义务教育的投入，改善农村地区义务教育环境，保障女童与男童平等地接受义务教育。2004年用于农村义务教育的国家财政性教育经费达1393.62亿元，是1995年的2倍。近年来，国家多渠道筹集资金设立中小学助学金，并由政府拨款实行免书本费、免杂费、补助寄宿生生活费的“两免一补”政策，重点扶持中西部农村地区家庭经济困难学生就学。各级政府对贫困地区、民族地区女童教育制定了专门政策措施，努力提高农村地区女童的义务教育普及水平。此外，国家还制定专门政策，保障包括女童在内的农村流动儿童接受义务教育的权利。多年来，各级政府积极推动非政府组织开展捐资助学活动，努力改善女童受教育状况。中国青少年发展基金会和中国儿童少年基金会组织的“希望工程”和“春蕾计划”，资助了大量失辍学女童重返校园。

The Chinese government makes great efforts to eliminate gender disparities at the stage of compulsory education,and improve the education environment for girls.In 2004,the enrollment of boys and girls was 98.97percent and 98.93percent,respectively.The difference in access to education between boys and girls was reduced from 0.7percentage point in 1995to 0.04percentage point.The government has unceasingly increased its input into compulsory education in the countryside,so as to improve the compulsory education environment there and ensure that all girls,like boys,have the chance to receive compulsory education.In 2004,the educational appropriation from the state treasury for compulsory education in rural areas reached 139.362billion yuan,two times the amount in 1995.In recent years,the state has raised money from many channels for grants to students in primary and middle schools.Under one policy known as "Two Exemptions and One Allowance,"the government provides subsidies so that students from families with financial difficulties in rural areas,particularly in central and west China,are exempt from paying textbook fees and other fees,and students attending boarding schools get https://www.doczj.com/doc/133418117.html,ernments at all levels have formulated special policies and taken measures concerning the education of girls in poor areas and areas inhabited by ethnic minorities,work hard to raise the level of compulsory education for girls in rural China.In addition,the state has adopted special policies to ensure that migrant children (including girls)from rural areas receive compulsory education.For

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many years,governments at all levels have worked hard to help NGOs in organizing donation activities to pool money to improve the education of girls.The Hope Project and the Spring Buds Program initiated by the China Youth Development Foundation and the China Children's Foundation have provided financial assistance to large numbers of girl dropouts to help them return to school.

国家努力保证女性平等接受中高等教育的机会，使各级各类学校中的女性比例显著提高。2004年，普通初中和高中在校女生的比例分别达到47.4%和45.8%；中等职业学校在校女生的比例达到51.5%；全国普通高等院校在校女生为609万人，占在校生总数的45.7%，比1995年提高10.3个百分点；女硕士、女博士的比例分别达到44.2%和31.4%，比1995年分别提高13.6和15.9个百分点。近年来，中国政府在全国普通高校推行国家助学贷款制度，并设立国家助学奖学金，为包括女性在内的贫困大学生提供贴息贷款和奖学金、助学金，帮助他们完成学业。同时鼓励企业、民间机构和个人捐资助学，支持家庭经济困难的女生接受各级教育。国家重视培养培训女教师，发挥女教师在促进女性教育中的作用。2004年普通初中和高中女教师比例分别为45.9%和41.7%，中等职业学校和普通高等学校专职女教师比例分别为46.5%和42.5%。

The state exerts great efforts to ensure that women have the opportunity to receive secondary and higher education.As a result,the proportion of women in all types of schools at all levels has increased considerably.In 2004,the proportion of girl students in junior and senior middle schools reached 47.4percent and 45.8percent,respectively;the proportion of girl students in secondary vocational schools reached 51.5percent;the number of girl students in institutions of higher learning nationwide reached 6,090,000,accounting for 45.7percent of all students in such schools and an increase of 10.3percentage points over 1995.The proportion of female postgraduate and doctoral students was 44.2percent and 31.4percent,13.6percentage points and 15.9percentage points higher respectively over the figures for 1995.In recent years,the Chinese government has introduced the state loan system and established state scholarships for students at institutions of higher learning,providing loans at discounted interest,scholarship and stipends to poor students (including girls)to help them complete their studies.Meanwhile,the government encourages enterprises,private institutions and individuals to donate to education and to help female students with financial difficulties receive education.The state attaches importance to the fostering and training of women teachers,and gives full play to their role in promoting women's education.In 2004,the proportions of women teachers in junior and senior middle schools were 45.9percent and 41.7percent,respectively;and the proportions of full-time women teachers in secondary vocational schools and institutions of higher learning was 46.5percent and 42.5percent,respectively.

多年来，中国政府重视扫除妇女文盲，遏制女性新文盲产生，防止脱盲女性复盲，并重点推进贫困地区和少数民族地区妇女的扫盲教育。政府有关部门和全国妇联共同开展了以妇女为对象的“巾帼扫盲行动”。2004年，全国城镇地区15岁及以上女性文盲率为8.2%，比1995年下降5.7个百分点；农村地区15岁及以上女性文盲率为16.9%，比1995年下降10.5个百分点。全国青壮年妇女文盲率为4.2%，比1995年下降了5.2个百分点，超过总文盲率的下降幅度。

For many years,the Chinese government has paid great attention to eliminating illiteracy among women,curbing emergence of new women illiterates,and preventing women from becoming illiterates again.Its policy priority in this respect is to promote illiteracy-elimination education for women in poor areas and areas inhabited by ethnic minorities.Relevant government departments and the All-China Women's Federation have jointly launched the Illiteracy-elimination Program among Women.In 2004,the

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illiteracy rate among women 15years of age and above in urban areas was 8.2percent,a decrease of 5.7percentage points from that of 1995;the illiteracy rate among women 15years of age and above in rural areas was 16.9percent,a decrease of 10.5percentage points from that of 1995.The illiteracy rate among young and middle-aged women across the country was 4.2percent,a drop of 5.2percentage points from that of 1995,and the rate of decrease is higher than the rate of decrease of illiteracy among the general population.

国家大力发展职业教育、成人教育和技术培训，妇女的终身教育水平得到提高，性别差异进一步缩小。第五次全国人口普查数据表明，中国妇女的平均受教育年限为7.0年，比1990年增加了1.5年，十年间男女差距缩小0.5年。2004年，接受函授、夜大等成人高校教育的女性有209万人，占学生总数的50%。近年来，国家加大了妇女的职业技能培训力度，通过各种培训方式，帮助城镇妇女提高职业竞争能力，促进农村妇女增收致富，提高包括流动妇女在内的广大农民工的就业能力。

The state has made energetic endeavors to develop vocational education,adult education and technical education,the level of lifelong education of women has been raised and the gap between the genders narrowed.According to the fifth national census,conducted in 2000,the average number of years of education of Chinese women was seven -one and a half years more than in 1990-and the gap between the genders had been narrowed by half a year in that decade.In 2004alone,the number of women studying at correspondence and night schools and other higher learning institutions for adults stood at 2.09million,50percent of the total number of students of such educational institutions.In recent years the state has intensified efforts to train women in vocational skills.By adopting various training methods,the state aims to help women in urban areas enhance their competitive abilities,to help women in rural areas get better harvests and become well-off,and to help migrant workers (including women)become better qualified for the labor market.

六、妇女与健康

VI.Women and Health

中国政府把妇女健康作为促进性别平等与妇女发展的优先领域。十年来，国家颁布实施了《中华人民共和国母婴保健法》、《中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法》等法律，并在妇女发展纲要中提出妇女健康目标。国家不断增加妇幼保健资金投入，逐步完善妇女保健服务网络。到2004年底，已建成覆盖城乡的2997个妇幼保健机构，全国妇产科床位达24.3万张。

The Chinese government considers women's health an area of priority in promoting gender equality and the development of women.Over the past decade,the state has promulgated and implemented such statutes as the Law of the People's Republic of China on Health Protection of Mothers and Infants and Law of the People's Republic of China on Population and Family Planning.It has also set the goals for women's health in the Outline for the Development of Chinese Women.The state has continuously increased its monetary input to improve the health of women and infants.It has gradually improved the women's healthcare service network.By the end of 2004,there were 2,997healthcare institutes for women and children throughout China,with 243,000beds for women.

重视满足妇女在生命周期各阶段的健康服务需求，提高妇女预期寿命。多年来，各级卫生部门把妇科病查治作为妇女保健的一项常规工作，全国每年有三分之一以上的65岁以下已婚妇女可以享受到妇科病检查，2004年检查率为37.3%。政府重视青少年健康和老年妇女健康，在各类学校和社区大力开展性知识和艾滋病预防知识宣传教育，提高女性青少年的性健康知识水平，增强她们的自我保护能力；采取多种途径宣传科学的保健方式，

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为老年妇女提供更多的健康咨询和服务的专科门诊，使老年妇女的生活质量有了较大提高。2003年妇女平均预期寿命为74岁。

Paying great attention to satisfying women's demands for healthcare service at all periods of their life,and extending women's life expectancy.For years,the healthcare departments at all levels have considered the examination and treatment of gynecological diseases routine work.Every year,over one third of married women under the age of 65across China go through examinations for gynecological diseases.In 2004,some 37.3percent of them had this examination.The government also pays attention to the health of teenagers and elderly women.It has launched educational campaigns in schools and neighborhood communities on knowledge about sex and the prevention of AIDS,so as to raise female teenagers'awareness of the importance of a healthy sex life and strengthen their self-protection ability.Scientific healthcare methods are disseminated through many channels,and more and more special outpatient services are available for elderly women,providing consultancy on healthcare and related services.As a result,the quality of life of elderly women has improved markedly.The average life expectancy for women was 74years in 2003.

降低孕产妇死亡率，确保母亲安全。2000—2001年，国家投资2亿元在378个国家级贫困县实施“降低孕产妇死亡率和消除新生儿破伤风”项目。2002—2005年中央财政和项目地区配套投入4亿元继续实施此项目，并扩展至全国1000个县，覆盖人口3亿多。几年来，数十万贫困孕产妇在项目支持下得到安全的接生服务。此外，中国政府还积极改善乡（镇）卫生院接生条件，通过开辟孕产妇急救绿色通道、实行贫困孕产妇救助等措施，提高农村孕产妇住院分娩率，改善母亲安全状况。十年来，中国孕产妇死亡率逐步下降，由1995年的61.9/10万下降到2004年的48.3/10万。

Lowering the mortality rate of women in pregnancy and childbirth to ensure the safety of the mother.In the 2000-2001period,the state invested 200million yuan in a project intended to "lower the mortality rate of women in pregnancy and childbirth and eliminate tetanus among the newborn,"which covered 378state-level poor counties.From 2002to 2005,the central treasury and relevant local areas allocated an additional 400million yuan for the continuation of this project,extending it to 1,000counties and benefiting more than 300million people.Over the past few years,hundreds of thousands of poor women have delivered children safely thanks to the support of this project.In addition,the Chinese government has made efforts to improve child delivery conditions in clinics in townships (towns).By taking measures such as opening emergency green channels for women in childbirth and giving financial support to poor women in childbirth,it has increased the number of women in the countryside who go to hospital to give birth,thereby increasing the safety of the mothers.In the past decade,the mortality rate of women in childbirth has declined steadily -from 61.9per 100,000in 1995to 48.3per 100,000in 2004.

积极开展以人为本的计划生育优质服务，保障妇女享有计划生育权利。1995年，中国政府从重视妇女的生殖健康权利出发，启动以人为本的计划生育优质服务项目，以育龄妇女的需求为中心，开展避孕方法知情选择、鼓励男性参与生殖健康等活动，并为青春期少女提供生殖健康咨询服务。十年来，项目经验已经在全国800多个县（市、区）得到推广，进一步满足了广大妇女的计划生育服务需求，维护了妇女的计划生育权利。

Actively promoting high-quality family planning services in line with the people-first principle to guarantee women's right to family planning.In 1995,out of consideration for women's reproductive health,the Chinese government launched the project of providing high-quality family planning services in line with the people-first principle.Centered on the demands of women of childbearing age,it informs women of their choices in terms of

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contraceptive methods,and encourages men to get involved in reproductive health activities.In addition,it gives adolescent girls consultancy on reproductive health.Over the past decade,this project has been promoted in more than 800counties (cities,districts)all over China,satisfying the demand of women for family planning services and safeguarding their rights in this respect.

努力为流动妇女提供卫生保健服务，维护她们的健康福祉。随着城乡流动人口的不断增加，国家努力遵循公平对待、合理引导、完善管理、优质服务的原则，为流动妇女提供与户籍人口同等的计划生育优惠政策和技术服务。妇女发展纲要强调将流动人口孕产妇保健纳入流入地孕产妇保健范围。各级政府有关部门积极探索流动妇女社区卫生保健服务模式，通过多种途径开展性与生殖健康教育和咨询服务，组织流动妇女进行健康检查，免费发放避孕工具，为贫困流动孕产妇实行免费服务，提高了流动妇女的健康水平。

Making every effort to provide healthcare services to migrant women.As the population of migrants moving between rural and urban areas keeps increasing,the state,by following the principle of equal treatment,appropriate guidance,better management and quality services,has made great efforts to provide migrant women with the same family planning preferential policies and technical services as enjoyed by women with permanent residence.The Outline for the Development of Chinese Women emphasizes that the healthcare of pregnant women and women in childbirth among the migrant population should be included in the healthcare services for such women in the places they migrate to.The relevant government departments at all levels are exploring a special mode of healthcare service for migrant women in the neighborhood https://www.doczj.com/doc/133418117.html,ing a variety of channels,they provide education and consultancy on healthy sex and reproduction.They organize migrant women to have medical checkups,distribute contraceptive devices to them free of charge and give free services to poor migrant women in childbirth.These measures have improved the health of migrant women substantially.

强艾滋病防治工作，关怀妇女艾滋病感染者。近年来，国家高度重视艾滋病防治工作，成立国务院防治艾滋病工作委员会，加大了资金投入，使艾滋病防治工作切实取得成效。面对妇女HIV/AIDS 感染逐渐增高的趋势，国家把预防艾滋病母婴传播作为妇幼保健工作的重要内容，成立母婴阻断专家组，开展预防和免费阻断艾滋病母婴传播、关怀检测阳性孕妇和阳性孕妇所生婴儿的试点工作，探索适合中国国情的干预模式和经验。政府有关部门认真组织开展预防艾滋病的知识宣传和服务活动，推广使用安全套，提高男性参与的力度，降低妇女艾滋病感染率。2004年世界艾滋病日，全国广泛开展了“关注妇女，抗击艾滋”的主题宣传活动。

Strengthening the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS,showing special concern for women in this regard.In recent years,the state has paid great attention to the prevention and treatment of AIDS,set up the State Council Work Committee on the Prevention and Treatment of AIDS,and earmarked extra funds for this purpose.As a result,practical effects have been achieved in the prevention and treatment of AIDS.Faced with the trend of more and more women being infected with HIV/AIDS,the state considers the prevention of the spread of AIDS from mother to baby an important part of the healthcare work for women and children.In order to find an intervention mode and experience suited to China's conditions,a team made up of specialists has been created to do pilot work regarding the prevention of AIDS,stemming the spread of AIDS from mother to baby free of charge,showing special concern for pregnant women tested HIV positive and their babies.Relevant government departments have launched campaigns to educate the public about the prevention and treatment of AIDS,and provide relevant services,promote the use of condoms,and get more men involved in AIDS prevention

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so as to reduce the number of women infected.On World AIDS Day in 2004,activities were launched throughout China under the theme "Show Concern for Women,Say No to AIDS."

支持非政府组织开展各种妇女健康项目，广泛开展国际合作。全国妇联开展了“母亲健康快车”等项目，在51个艾滋病综合防治示范区开展以“预防艾滋病，健康全家人”为主题的妇女“面对面”宣传教育活动。中国计划生育协会在全国大中学校和流动青少年中广泛开展以同伴教育为主的预防性病和艾滋病项目，在农村把帮助妇女增加收入与妇幼保健和计划生育相结合，有效促进了妇女健康水平的提高。近年来，中国政府与联合国人口基金、联合国儿童基金会、联合国妇女发展基金、世界银行、世界卫生组织以及联合国艾滋病规划署等国际组织在妇幼卫生、生殖健康和计划生育、艾滋病防治等领域开展了广泛合作，取得显著成效。在商务部管理协调的援华项目资金中，三分之一以上资金用于支持妇幼卫生事业。

Encouraging NGOs to launch various activities to promote women's healthcare and widely carry out international cooperation.One of the many programs launched by the All-China Women's Federation is known as "Health Express for Mother,"in which face-to-face publicity and educational activities under the theme "Stay away from AIDS to Benefit the Whole Family"were organized in 51areas for the prevention and treatment of AIDS in a comprehensive way.The Family Planning Association of China has launched programs in which children and young people teach each other knowledge about the prevention of venereal diseases and AIDS in universities and middle schools,and among migrant teenagers.In the countryside,the association combines efforts to help women increase their income with healthcare for women and children,as well as family planning,effectively improving women's health conditions.In recent years,the Chinese government has conducted international cooperation with many international organizations,including the United Nations Fund for Population Activities,United Nations Children Fund,United Nations Development Fund for Women,World Bank,World Health Organization,and Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS,in the fields of hygiene for women and children,reproductive health,family planning,and the prevention and treatment of AIDS.This cooperation has produced good results.More than one third of the capital for programs to assist China under the management and coordination of the Ministry of Commerce is used to support healthcare services for women and children.

七、妇女与婚姻家庭

VII.Women,Marriage and the Family

早在20世纪50年代，《中华人民共和国婚姻法》作为新中国成立后颁布的第一部法律，就对妇女在婚姻家庭中的平等地位作出明确规定。2001年中国颁布的婚姻法修正案重申男女平等基本原则，强调夫妻地位平等和婚姻家庭权利义务平等，有针对性地补充了禁止实施家庭暴力、禁止重婚等有利于维护妇女权利的条款。目前，妇女的婚姻自主程度明显提高，在家庭决策中的作用显著增强，人身、财产权利得到进一步保障。

In the early 1950s,the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China,the first law promulgated since the founding of New China in 1949,clearly stipulated women's equal status in marriage and the family.The revised Marriage Law,promulgated in 2001,reiterated the basic principle of equality between men and women,stressed the equal status of husband and wife and their equal rights and responsibilities in marriage and the family,and,in consideration of actual situation,added articles forbidding domestic violence and bigamy with the clear aim of protecting women's rights.Today,women have a lot more say in decision-making concerning their own marriage and play a bigger role in family decisions,and their personal and property rights are better protected.

坚持实行计划生育基本国策，提倡晚婚晚育。十年来，妇女早婚率下降，平均初婚年

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龄提高，总和生育率保持在较低水平，2004年为1.8。在计划生育活动中，国家强调社会性别意识，尊重妇女的生育权利，把计划生育和促进性别平等相结合。2002年开始实施的人口与计划生育法，进一步明确规定夫妻双方共同承担计划生育责任，为实现家庭生活中的性别平等提供了有利条件。

Adhering to the basic national policy of family planning and advocating late marriage and late childbirth.Over the last decade,the rate of early marriage among women has dropped,the average age for first marriage has gone up,and the general childbirth rate was kept at a fairly low level -1.8per couple in 2004.In the course of promoting family planning,the state stresses gender consciousness in society while respecting women's rights concerning childbirth,integrating family planning with the promotion of gender equality.The Law on Population and Family Planning,implemented since 2002,further stipulates that husband and wife must both be responsible for family planning,thus providing favorable conditions for gender equality in family life.

大力发展社会福利事业，在社区优先发展对家庭生活有直接影响的公共服务，努力实现家务劳动社会化，增加妇女的自我支配时间。家务劳动服务迅速发展，家庭劳务消费比例逐渐提高，家用电器日益普及，托幼事业不断发展，男性分担家务的比例有所上升，妇女家务劳动负担减轻，两性家务劳动时间差异进一步减小。

Greatly developing social welfare undertakings,giving priority to community public services that directly concern family life with the aim of socializing housework,and enabling women to have more free time.In tandem with the rapid development of housework services,the rate of expenditure on such services is increasing.The prevalence of household appliances and the development of nurseries and kindergartens,as well as the increased percentage of housework shared by men have all lightened women's housework burden and further narrowed the gap in housework time between men and women.

依法保障女婴和女孩的生存发展权利，遏制出生婴儿性别比偏高的现象。人口与计划生育法禁止利用超声技术和其他技术手段进行非医学需要的胎儿性别鉴定，不允许非医学需要的选择性别的人工终止妊娠。近年来，政府有关部门在全国范围内开展“婚育新风进万家”活动，深入宣传男女平等、生男生女一样好等新型婚育观。2003年启动“关爱女孩行动”，提出“消除性别歧视要从怀孕抓起，倡导男女平等要从娃娃开始”，通过广泛深入的宣传教育，逐步建立有利于女孩及其家庭发展的利益导向机制，改变男女不平等的生育偏好，维护女孩的合法权益，努力提高女孩的家庭地位。

Protecting girls'and baby girls'legal rights to subsistence and development and cutting down the disparity in number between baby boys and girls.The Law on Population and Family Planning forbids fetus gender identification by means of ultrasonic and other technical methods for non-medical purposes,and forbids termination of pregnancy out of consideration for a fetus'gender for non-medical purposes.In recent years,government departments concerned have initiated the drive to "Bringing a New Ethos of Marriage and Childbirth to Myriads of Households,"to further stress equality between men and women and promote social esteem for both male and female babies.In 2003,the "Care-for-Girl Action"started,which put forward the ideas that "gender discrimination should be eradicated from the prenatal stage and gender equality should be stressed in early childhood."Through wide and intensive publicity,the action is aimed at establishing,step by step,an interest-oriented mechanism favorable for girls and their family development,changing the traditional preference for boys to girls,safeguarding girls'legitimate rights and interests,and striving to enhance their status in the family.

重视保护老年妇女的合法权益，提高老年妇女的婚姻家庭地位。十年来，国家制定了以《中华人民共和国老年人权益保障法》为核心的一系列法律和政策，为维护女性占多数

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的老年人的合法权益提供法律和制度保障。中国政府关心老年妇女的特殊问题，保障老年妇女的基本生活和合法权益；积极发展老龄事业和产业，逐步实现老年服务社会化；保障老年妇女的身心健康，丰富老年妇女的精神文化生活。

Paying due attention to protecting elderly women's legitimate rights and interests,and raising their status in marriage and the family.To provide legal and institutional guarantees for the protection of the rights and interests of elderly people of whom women form the majority,the state has formulated a series of laws and policies over the last decade,with the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of the Aged as the core.The Chinese government is especially concerned about the special problems of elderly women,and provides guarantees for their basic subsistence and protection of their legitimate rights and interests.The state also encourages the development of undertakings and industries aimed at serving elderly people,and gradually achieving the goal of offering socialized services for the aged.It also pays attention to ensuring the physical and mental health of elderly women,and enriching their spiritual and cultural life.

努力营造尊重妇女、男女平等的家庭环境。2001年9月，国家颁布《公民道德建设实施纲要》，提出在家庭生活中实现男女平等，尊重和保障妇女的合法权益，反对歧视和迫害妇女；实行恋爱自由，婚姻自主；树立“尊老爱幼、男女平等、夫妻和睦、勤俭持家、邻里团结”的文明新风。在政府的大力推动下，在家庭领域推进性别平等的良好环境正在逐步形成。

Striving to create a household environment featuring respect for women and gender equality.In September 2001,the state promulgated the Implementation Outline for the Project for Enhancing the Moral Standards of Chinese Citizens,which sets forth the ideas of achieving equality between men and women in family life,respecting and protecting women's legitimate rights and interests,and opposing discrimination against and persecution of women.The outline also advocates making one's own decision in love and marriage,and promoting the new civilized ethos of "respect for the elderly and care for the young,equality between men and women,industrious and thrifty household management,and harmonious family life and neighborly unity."With great support from the government,a sound environment for gender equality in household affairs is taking shape.

积极开展家庭领域中的国际交流与合作。中国政府一贯积极参与联合国有关家庭问题的决议、磋商与活动。2001年中国加入了世界家庭组织。2004年，中国参加联合国国际家庭大会，赞同《多哈宣言》所倡导的婚姻双方忠诚和平等，谴责使用家庭暴力。同年，中国承办了世界家庭峰会，倡导性别平等从家庭开始，培育和谐的家庭伙伴关系。

Actively promoting international exchanges and cooperation in the aspect of families.The Chinese government has all along actively participated in UN resolutions,consultations and other activities concerning family issues.China joined the World Family Organization in 2001and attended the United Nations Doha International Conference on the Family in 2004.China supports the Doha Declaration in its encouragement of equal partnership between husband and wife within a committed marital relationship,and condemns domestic violence.In the same year,China hosted the World Family Summit,and advocated that gender equality should begin in the family,to foster a harmonious partnership among family members.

八、妇女与环境

VIII.Women and the Environment

中国政府不断优化妇女的生存和发展环境，积极发挥妇女在保护和改善环境中的作用，努力为妇女创造良好的生存环境和发展空间。

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The Chinese government has continuously tried to optimize women's living and development environment,to bring their role into full play in protecting and improving the environment,and to enable women to live and develop in a sound environment.

制定促进妇女参与可持续发展的战略目标。按照中国21世纪议程和妇女发展纲要的目标要求，各级政府积极促进妇女在环境科研、评价、规划、设计、监测和管理中的参与。目前，中国有不少女性在各级环保部门中任职，有的还担任主要领导职务，全国环境监察执法人员中女性约占30%。国家鼓励广大妇女积极参与民间环保活动，在政府的支持下，全国妇联开展“三八绿色工程”等社会动员和宣传教育活动，使每年都有一亿多妇女参加义务植树、防护林建设和小流域治理，1999年全国妇联因此获得联合国环境规划署“全球500佳”称号。此外，一些妇女参与发起的民间环保组织，推动企业承担社会责任，推广绿色生产和生活方式，在培训和动员公众参与环境保护方面发挥了积极作用。

Formulating a strategic goal for women to participate in sustainable development.In accordance with China's Agenda 21and the requirement for reaching the goal of the Outline for the Development of Chinese Women,governments at all levels have actively encouraged women's participation in scientific research,evaluation,planning,designing,supervision and management of the environment.At present,quite a number of women are serving in departments related to environmental protection at various levels,some even taking leading positions,with about 30percent of environmental monitoring and law-enforcement officials in the country being female.The state encourages women to take an active part in non-governmentally organized environmental protection activities.With the support of the government,the All-China Women's Federation has waged social mobilization and publicity campaigns,such as the March 8Green Project,which involves over 100million women volunteers a year in tree planting,shelterbelt construction and small drainage area control.In 1999,the All-China Women's Federation won the Global 500Award of the United Nations Environment Program.In addition,some environmental protection NGOs initiated and participated in by women have urged enterprises to assume more social responsibilities,promoted green production and lifestyle,and played an active role in training and mobilizing the public to participate in environmental protection.

保护和改善妇女赖以生存发展的自然和人居环境。十年来，城乡居民住房条件明显改善，人均住房面积和绿地占有率均有大幅度提高。众多文体和休闲设施的兴建及便民开放，增加了妇女可利用的公共空间，为提高妇女的生活质量创造了有利条件。近年来，政府大力推进改水改厕，提高农村自来水和卫生厕所普及率。2001—2004年，中央政府先后安排国债资金97亿元，解决农村人口饮水困难问题，平均每年为690多万农村妇女提供安全可靠的饮用水。2004年，农村卫生厕所普及率达到53.1％；农村厕所粪便无害化处理率，从1998年的28.5％迅速提高到2004年的57.5％。改水改厕缓解了农村妇女繁重的取水劳动，减少了她们和家人的健康风险，有效地改善了妇女的生存和发展条件。

Protecting and improving the natural and living conditions for women's subsistence and development.In the past decade,with marked improvement in living conditions for both urban and rural residents,the average housing space and greenbelt area per person have increased by a large margin.The building and opening of many cultural,sport and recreational facilities has resulted in more public space for women and created favorable conditions for them to improve their quality of life.In recent years,the government has made great efforts to upgrade public toilets and water sewage treatment,and raise the rate of use of tap water and sanitary toilets in rural areas.From 2001to 2004,the central government earmarked 9.7billion yuan to solve the problem of drinking water for rural residents,providing safe drinking water for an average of 6.9million rural women a year.In 2004,as many as 53.1percent of rural households in China had

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国内外公路研究现状与发展趋势

第1章绪论 1.1我国公路现状 交通运输业是国民经济中从事运送货物和旅客的社会生产部门，是国民经济和社会发展的动脉，是经济社会发展的基础行业、先行产业。交通运输主要包括铁路、公路、水运、航空、管道五种运输方式，其中，铁路、水运、航空、管道起着“线”的作用，公路则起着“面”的作用，各种运输方式之间通过公路路网联结起来，形成四通八达、遍布城乡的运输网络。改革开放以来，灵活、快捷的公路运输发展迅速，目前，在综合运输体系中，公路运输客运量、货运量所占比重分别达90％以上和近80％。高速公路是经济发展的必然产物，在交通运输业中有着举足轻重的地位。在设计和建设上，高速公路采取限制出入、分向分车道行驶、汽车专用、全封闭、全立交等较高的技术标准和完善的交通基础设施，为汽车快速、安全、经济、舒适运行创造了条件。与普通公路相比，高速公路具有行车速度快、通行能力大、运输成本低、行车安全、舒适等突出优势，其行车速度比普通公路高出50％以上，通行能力提高了2~6倍,并可降低30％以上的燃油消耗、减少1/3的汽车尾气排放、降低1/3的交通事故率。 新中国成立以来，经过60多年的建设，公路建设有了长足发展。2011年初正值“十一五”规划结束，“十二五”规划伊始。“十一五”时期是我国公路交通发展速度最快、发展质量最好、服务水平提升最为显著的时期。经过4年多的发展，公路交通运输紧张状况已实现总体缓解，基础设施规模迅速扩大，运输服务水平稳步提升，安全保障能力明显增强，为应对国际金融危机、保持经济平稳较快发展、加快经济发展方式转变、促进城乡区域协调发展、保障社会和谐稳定、进一步提高我国的综合国力和国际竞争力作出了重要贡献。 “十一五”前4年，全国累计完成公路建设投资2.93万亿元，年均增长近16％，约为“十一五”预计总投资的1.2倍，也超过了“九五”和“十五”的投资总和。公路建设投资的快速增长，极大地拉动和促进了国民经济的迅猛发展。从公路建设投资占同期全社会固定资产总投资的比重来看，“十一五”期间基本保持在4.5％左右。 在投资带动下，公路网规模不断扩大，截至2009年底，全国公路网总里程达到386万公里，其中高速公路6.51万公里，二级及以上公路42.52万公里，分别较"十五"末增加36.4万公里、2.5万公里和9.4万公里；全国公路网密度由“十五”末的每百平方公里34.8公里提升至40.2公里。预计到2010年底，全国公路网总里程将达到395万公里，高速公路超过7万公里，分别较“十五”末增加45.3万公里与3万公里。农村公路投资规模年均增长30%，总里程将达到345万公里，实现全国96%的乡镇通沥青（水泥）路。 “十一五”期间公路的快速发展，为扩大内需、拉动经济增长作出了突出贡献。特别是2008年以来，为应对国际金融危机，以高速公路为重点，建设步伐进一步加快，“十一五”末高速公路里程将达到"十五"末的1.78倍。“十一五”期间全社会高速公路建设累计投资达2万亿元，直接拉动GDP增长约3万亿元，拉动相关行业产出

中国高速公路发展历史(写综述之类可供参考)

中国高速公路发展历史 艰难的起步——高速公路最初的年代 高速公路的出现，是社会经济发展的必然产物。虽然我国高速公路建设，同发达的工业国家相比，晚了半个世纪。 进入20世纪70年代，随着车辆的增长，我国主要干线公路上交通拥挤堵塞日益严重，车辆行驶速度只有经济时速的一半，交通事故急剧增加。为此，交通部开始汇集和研究世界各国解决这一问题的资料，并对我国部分主要干线公路的交通状况进行分析研究。 纸上的70年代 交通部在调查研究的基础上，开始酝酿在交通流量大的长江三角洲、珠江三角洲和京津地区修建高速公路。1970年，交通部编制公路科技发展规划时，公路局几位领导和专家提出，根据交通流量，应在北京-天津-塘沽之间修建高速公路，并安排交通部第二公路勘察设计院组成调查组进行现场调研。 1975年，由王展意、李劲、沙庆林等六人组成的公路代表团应邀赴日本访问，重点考察了高速公路。1977年7月，在全国公路基本建设会上，交通部提出了新建高速、快速公路，以利于开展集装箱运输的初步规划；同年，交通部又提出要修建京津塘高速公路，时任交通部部长叶飞设想三年内建成通车，并要通过修建这条高速公路积累经验，促进我国公路交通现代化。1978年5月，在全国交通工作会议和全国交通战线学大庆会议上，交通部将建设京津塘高速公路的问题提交代表们讨论。6月，交通部党组在向党中央、国务院上报的《关于实现交通运输现代化的汇报提纲》中，提出了高速公路的建设目标：“五五”后三年开始修京津塘高速公路，“六五”建成；并着手修建南京-杭州-宁波的高速公路；将沈阳-大连的公路改造成高速公路。虽因种种原因，高速公路建设计划最终只是停留在纸上，未能如期实施，但修建高速公路的准备工作开始列入交通工作的议事日程。 口水中的“汽车专用” 与此同时，公路交通日益陷入被动局面。如到20世纪80年代初，北京至天津塘沽港口的103国道，虽经几次改扩建提升为二级公路，但由于交通量快速增长，经常出现严重交通堵塞现象，年交通事故超过1000起。166公里长的公路，汽车正常行驶需要6个多小时，严重影响了华北地区对外进出口贸易的开展。珠江三角洲地区、长江三角洲地区及其他一些地区的重要公路通道上，交通拥挤现象也日益加剧。国道307线石家庄至太原段、国道107线北京至石家庄段、国道104线北京至天津段等都曾经发生过交通瘫痪长达7天以上的严重堵车事故。 当时,《人民日报》、《经济日报》等先后发表了《高速公路与现代化》、《世界的高速公路》等文章，普及了高速公路的知识，也反映了社会对高速公路的呼唤。 于是，在广泛进行可行性研究的基础上，交通部确定了第一批高速公路项目。其中有北京-天津-塘沽、广州-深圳、上海-嘉定-南京、沈阳-大连、西安-临潼等。

中国公路现状分析

我国高速公路发展现状分析 2009-09-16 16:07:58 来源: 作者: 【大中小】浏览:1686次评论:0条交通运输业是我国社会经济发展的基础产业，是推动我国经济发展和社会进步的强大动力。反过来，迅猛发展的社会经济需要与之发展相适应的发达完善的交通运输系统，建国50多年来，我国的年客运量、货运量增长迅速，公路里程也得到了大大延伸，基本实现了县县通公路。尤其是上世纪80年代，高速公路在我国实现了零的突破以后，很快进入了高速建设阶段。然而高速公路在带来巨大经济效益和社会效益的同时，也带来了对诸如生态环境、社会环境等的不良影响，如果这些问题得不到及时解决，将会严重制约高速公路建设事业的健康发展。 1. 我国高速公路的发展历程 高速公路是社会经济发展的必然产物,它的产生、发展是与整个社会的政治、经济等发展息息相关的。改革开放以后,我国高速公路建设事业取得了突出成就。1988 年,我国第一条高速公路———全长18. 5 公里的沪嘉高速公路建成通车。此后,又相继建成全长375 公里的沈大高速公路和143 公里的京津塘高速公路。进入1990 年代,在国道主干线总体规划指导下,我国高速公路建设步伐不断加快,每年建成的高速公路由几十公里上升到1000公里,甚至高达5000 公里。在过去的11 年间,我国高速公路从1992 年的652 公里增加到2003 年的近3 万公里,高速公路通车总里程已仅次于美

国,名列世界第二位。 2. 现阶段我国高速公路发展中存在的问题 高速公路及其他高等级公路的建设,改善了我国公路的技术等级结构,改变了我国公路事业的落后面貌,同时也大大缩短了我国同发达国家之间的差距。在实现举世瞩目的历史性跨越的同时,我国高速公路建设仍然存在不可忽视的问题。 2.1 融资渠道窄、资金缺口大 我国现阶段还需要大力建设高速公路，但是要建设就必须投资，同其他基础设施建设一样，高速公路建设也需要大量投资。而在现阶段的管理体制下，高速公路建设资金的融资方式单一，我国高速公路主要由国家投资建设，而建设资金有限，又没有成熟的模式吸取社会上大量的闲散资金，导致公路建设资金供应量少,总体上存在着相当大的资金缺口。因此，资金是我国高速公路管理中存在的最主要的问题。我们必须采取办法来筹集资金，加大投资，大力建设高速公路。

中国环境现状

中国生态环境的基本状况是：总体在恶化，局部在改善，治理能力远远赶不上破坏速度，生态赤字逐渐扩大。 水土流失严重： 建国初期，全国水土流失面积为116万平方公里。据1992年卫星遥感测算，中国水土流失面积为179.4万平方公里，占全国国土面积的18.7%。中国水土流失特别严重的地区（从北到南）主要有：西辽河上游，黄土高原地区，嘉陵江中上游，金沙江下游，横断山脉地区，以及部分南方山地丘陵区。 沙漠化迅速发展： 中国是世界上沙漠化受害最深的国家之一。北方地区沙漠、戈壁、沙漠化土地已超过149万平方公里，约占国土面积的15.5%。80年代，沙漠化土地以年均增长2100平方公里的速度扩展。近25年共丧失土地3.9万平方公里。目前约有5900万亩农田，7400万亩草场，2000多公里铁路以及许多城镇、工矿、乡村受到沙漠化威胁。 草原退化加剧： 70年代，草场面积退化率为15%，80年代中期已达30%以上。全国草原退化面积达10亿亩，目前仍以每年2000多万亩退化速度在扩大。由于草原退化，牧畜过载，牧草产量持续下降。 森林资源锐减： 中国许多主要林区，森林面积大幅度减少，昔日郁郁葱葱的林海已一去不复返。全国森林采伐量和消耗量远远超过林木生长量。若按目前的消耗水平，绝大多数国营森工企业将面临无成熟林可采的局面。森林赤字是最典型的生态赤字，当代人已经过早过多地消耗了后代人应享用的森林资源。 生物物种加速灭绝： 据估计，中国的植物物种中约15-20%处于濒危状态，仅高等植物中濒危植物就高达4000-5000种。近30多年来的资料表明，高鼻羚羊、白鳍豚、野象、熊猫、东北虎等珍贵野生动物分布区显著缩小，种群数量锐减。属于中国特有的物种和国家规定重点保护的珍贵、濒危野生动物有312个种和种类，正式列入国家濒危植物名录的第一批植物有354种。 地下水位下降，湖泊面积缩小： 多年来，由于过分开采地下水，在北方地区形成8个总面积达1.5万平方公里的超产区，导致华北地区地下水位每年平均下降12厘米。1949年以来，中国湖泊减少了500多个，面积缩小约1.86万平方公里，占现有面积的26.3%，湖泊蓄水量减少513亿立方米，其中淡水量减少340亿立方米。

我国高速公路发展的历史和现状

我国的高速公路发展比西方发达国家晚近半个世纪的时间，从80年代末开始起步，经历了80年代末至1997年的起步建设阶段和1998年至今的快速发展阶段。 对建设高速公路认识的统一 在改革开放初期，随着我国国民经济的快速发展，公路客货运输量急剧增加，公路交通长期滞后所产生的的后果充分暴露出来，特别是主要干线公路交通拥挤、行车缓慢、事故频繁。为改善主要干线公路交通紧张状况，缓解公路交通的瓶颈制约，从“六五”开始，公路交通部门重点对干线公路进行加宽改造。尽管有些路段加宽到15米甚至20米以上，但收效甚微。为了寻求缓解我国公路交通瓶颈制约的有效途径，公路交通部门开始深入研究发达国家解决交通问题的经验，并对我国主要干线公路的交通情况进行调查研究。研究结果显示，我国公路交通存在着三个突出问题：一是由于运输工具种类繁多，汽车、拖拉机、自行车、畜力车、行人混行，车辆行驶纵向干扰大；二是由于人口稠密，公路沿线穿越城镇较多，横向干扰大；三是公路平交道口多，通过能力低，交通事故严重。以上三个问题严重影响了公路交通功能的发挥。根据发达国家的实践经验，建设高速公路是解决主要干线公路交通紧张状况的有效途径。 这一时期，社会各界对修建高速公路问题非常关注，对于“中国要不要修建高速公路”的问题认识并不统一。直至1989年7月，在沈阳召开的高等级公路建设现场会上，时任国务院副总理的邹家华同志指出：“高速公路不是要不要发展的问题，而是必须发展”。“这样的结论是明确的，这已经不是理论问题”。认识的统一，为我国高速公路的快速发展奠定了基础，拉开了中国高速公路发展的序幕。 起步建设阶段 1988年上海至嘉定高速公路建成通车，结束了我国大陆没有高速公路的历史；1990年，被誉为“神州第一路”的沈大高速公路全线建成通车，标志着我国高速公路发展进入了一个新的时代；1993年京津塘高速公路的建成，使我国拥有了第一条利用世界银行贷款建设的、跨省市的高速公路。为了集中力量、突出重点，加快我国高速公路的发展，1992年，交通部制定了“五纵七横”国道主干线规划并付诸实施，从而为我国高速公路持续、快速、健康发展奠定了基础。

我国环境保护的现状以及对策分析

我国环境保护的现状以及对策分析 崔存新贾西城焦红云(济南市平阴县环保局2504000) ［摘要］环境保护是一个国家乃至世界的大事,如何有效保护环境一直是政府和学术界关注的焦点问题之一。造成环境问题的原因是多样的，诸如经济因素、技术因素、政治因素等。本文从环境保护的现状情况以及对策等方面分析了我国目前环境保护的情况，因此，需要足够重视环境保护，应该建立相应的法律程序加以完善。 ［关键词］环境保护现状对策 前言： 随着改革开放的深入发展与经济的快速增长，中国环境资源问题达到触目惊心的程度。为适应全球可持续发展的趋势和中国的可持续发展目标，我国已建立专门负责环境保护的政府机构，尤其在近年来出台了一系列有关环境保护的政策、法规和措施，加大环保政策的实施力度，取得了一定的成效。环境保护，正逐渐从政府专职转变为全民的共同事业。 一、我国目前的环境状况分析 我国的环境状况可以概括为：局部有所改善，总体仍在恶化。环境污染和生态破坏日益成为我国经济和社会发展的重要制约因素，我国环境保护工作虽然取得多项进展，但形势仍然非常严峻。主要分为以下几个方面： （一）大气污染十分严重 我国大气污染属于煤烟型污染，以尘和酸雨（二氧化硫）污染危害最大，并呈发展趋势。酸雨污染。由于我国迄今尚未对燃煤产生的二氧化硫采取有效措施，而煤炭消耗量不断增加，造成区域性大面积酸雨污染严重。广东、广西、四川盆地和贵州大部分地区形成了我国西南、华南酸雨区，已成为与欧洲、北美并列的世界三大酸雨区之一。 （二）水环境污染日益突出 我国的水环境污染以有机物污染为主，重金属等有害物质的污染在“七五”期间曾得到较好控制，但近几年又有所恶化。我国湖泊普遍遭到污染，尤其是重金属污染和富营养化问题十分突出。例如：滇池是昆明最大的饮用水源，供水量占全市供水量的54％，由于昆明市及滇池周围地区大量工业污水和生活污水的排入，致使滇池重金属污染和富营养化十分严重，作为饮用水源已有多项指标不合格，藻类丛生，夏秋季84％的水面被藻类覆盖。 （三）植被破坏更加严峻 森林是生态系统的重要支柱。一个良性生态系统要求森林覆盖率不低于30％。尽管建国后我国开展了大规模植树造林活动，但森林破坏更为严重，特别是用材林中可供采伐的成熟林和过熟林蓄积量已大幅度减少。几十年来，由于过度放牧和管理不善，造成了13 亿亩草原严重退化、沙化、碱化，加剧了草地水土流失和风沙危害。 二、我国环境保护政策分析 目前我国现阶段的环境政策的成效不断地被新产生的环境压力抵消，仅仅维持了环境状况不致急剧恶化。 （一）建立适当的环境法律体系 同西方发达国家的环境保护法律体系相比，我国现有的环境保护法律体系还是不完整的，法律规定也过于原则，缺乏可操作性。因此，从今后立法方向来看，我们应当做好以下几点工作：1、在环境立法中确立各项基本法律原则，包括可持续发展原则，预防污染原则，

我国交通运输业的发展现状及趋势

我国交通运输业的发展现状及趋势 摘要 交通运输业指国民经济中专门从事运送货物和旅客的社会生产部门，包括铁路、公路、水运、航空等运输部门。它是国民经济的重要组成部分，是保证人们在政治、经济、文化、军事等方面联系交往的手段，也是衔接生产和消费的一个重要环节。因此，交通运输业在现代社会的各个方面起着十分重要的作用。必须综合协调发展，充分发挥各种运输方式的优势，扬长避短，使得交通运输业迅速发展，为我国国民经济和社会发展提供重要保障。 关键词：交通运输业；交通运输业发展现状；交通运输业存在的问题；交通运输业发展趋势 1交通运输业发展现状 铁路运输 铁路既是社会经济发展的重要载体之一，同时又为社会经济发展创造了前提条件。虽然我国铁路运营里程在总量上尚处于短缺状态，路网结构对国土的覆盖性尚有较大的差距，但在各种运输方式组成的交通运输体系中，铁路运输始终处于骨干地位，对国民经济发展起到了强有力的支持作用。2009年底，我国铁路营业里程达万公里，2009年全国铁路共完成新线铺轨5461公里、复线铺轨4063公里；投产新线5557公里，其中客运专线2319公里；投产复线4129公里、电气化铁路8448公里。 1.1.1铁路路网 干线铁路是铁路网络的关键部分，是铁路发挥骨干作用的坚实基础。目前，我国铁路主要干线共有22条，根据其发挥作用和地理位置分布的不同，可大致分为能源运输干线、南北铁路干线、华东地区干线、西北地区干线、西南地区干线和东北地区干线。 1.1.2铁路客货运输 2009年全国铁路旅客发送量完成亿人，同比增加6321万人，增长%。货物发送量完

成亿吨，均创历史新高。同比增加6113万吨，增长%；总换算周转量亿吨公里，同比增加亿吨公里，增长%。 公路运输 现代交通运输方式的公路运输，比起水运和铁路起步晚，直到19世纪末才有了第一批汽车。这种新型交通工具问世后，在实践中显示出其突出的优越性，即机动、灵活、方便、快速、直达，因此，它的发展速度远快于水运和铁路。截止2006年底，全国公路总里程达万公里。公路建设的快速发展，为公路运输发挥在综合运输体系中的基础作用奠定了良好的基础。 1.2.1公路网络 我国公路网络由国道、省道和县乡道路构成。国道为我国公路的主骨架，起着连接各省、自治区、直辖市的重要城市、港口、车站、工农业生产基地等作用。省道和县乡道路是国道的支线，起着省区范围内城乡之间联系和通过国道与省外联系的作用。全国公路总里程中，国道万公里，省道万公里，县道万公里，乡道万公里，专用公路万公里，村道万公里，分别占公路总里程的%、%、%、%、%和%。高速公路的出现，有效地改善了干线公路的交通状况，使干线公路在全国公路网络中的地位和作用更加突出。 1.2.2公路客货运输 近些年来，公路客货运输发展较快，特别是公路客运，现已在客运体系中占有重要地位。2007年，我国公路运输需求保持了快速的增长，其中公路货运周转量同比增长%，客运周转量同比增长13%，增速基本为近5年之最。 水路运输 我国水路运输发展很快，特别是近30多年来，水路客、货运量均增加16倍以上，目前中国的商船已航行于世界100多个国家和地区的400多个港口。中国当前已基本形成一个具有相当规模的水运体系。在相当长的历史时期内，中国水路运输对经济、文化发展和对外贸易交流起着十分重要的作用。 1.3.1基础设施建设

中国生态环境状况)

中国生态环境状况 中国生态环境的基本状况是：总体在恶化，局部在改善，治理能力远远赶不上破坏速度，生态赤字逐渐扩大。 1 主要表现 水土流失严重： 建国初期，全国水土流失面积为116万平方公里。据1992年卫星遥感测算，中国水土流失面积为179.4万平方公里，占全国国土面积的18.7%。中国水土流失特别严重的地区（从北到南）主要有：西辽河上游，黄土高原地区，嘉陵江中上游，金沙江下游，横断山脉地区，以及部分南方山地丘陵区。 沙漠化迅速发展： 中国是世界上沙漠化受害最深的国家之一。北方地区沙漠、戈壁、沙漠化土地已超过149万平方公里，约占国土面积的15.5%。80年代，沙漠化土地以年均增长2100平方公里的速度扩展。近25年共丧失土地3.9万平方公里。目前约有5900万亩农田，7400万亩草场，2000多公里铁路以及许多城镇、工矿、乡村受到沙漠化威胁。 草原退化加剧： 70年代，草场面积退化率为15%，80年代中期已达30%以上。全国草原退化面积达10亿亩，目前仍以每年2000多万亩退化速度在扩大。由于草原退化，牧畜过载，牧草产量持续下降。 森林资源锐减： 中国许多主要林区，森林面积大幅度减少，昔日郁郁葱葱的林海已一去不复返。全国森林采伐量和消耗量远远超过林木生长量。若按目前的消耗水平，绝大多数国营森工企业将面临无成熟林可采的局面。森林赤字是最典型的生态赤字，当代人已经过早过多地消耗了后代人应享用的森林资源。 生物物种加速灭绝： 据估计，中国的植物物种中约15-20%处于濒危状态，仅高等植物中濒危植物就高达4000-5000种。近30多年来的资料表明，高鼻羚羊、白鳍豚、野象、熊猫、东北虎等珍贵野生动物分布区显著缩小，种群数量锐减。属于中国特有的物种和国家规定重点保护的珍贵、濒危野生动物有312个种和种类，正式列入国家濒危植物名录的第一批植物有354种。

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