Introduction
一、Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
二、The scope of linguistics
1、phonetics: How speech sounds are produced and classified.
2、phonology: How speech sounds form systems and function to convey the meaning
3、morphology: How morphemes are combined to form words
4、syntax: How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
5、semantics: The study of meaning (in abstraction.)
6、pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use
7、sociolinguistics :The study of language with reference to society
8、psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to working of the mind
9.applied linguistics: the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
三、Some important distinction in linguistics
1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for ―correct‖ behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.
1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.
2、diachronic (历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.
1、speech
2、writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.
2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language
2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.
四、What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.
Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.
Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.
Language is symbols.
The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
五、design features(识别特征)
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. There are twelve design features, but this book only tell us five of them.
Arbitrariness: there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.
Productivity: language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.
Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words. Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.
Phonology
一、phonetics
The speech and writing are two media or substance used by natural language as vehicles for communication.
Linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs.
Pho netics is defined as the study of phonic medium of language. It‘s concerned with all sounds that occur in the world‘s language.
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3distinct but related point of view. They are:
Articulation phonetics(发音语音学):How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds.
Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）:How a hearer perceives the sounds. Acoustic(声学语音学）:How the sounds are transmitter.
Organs: pharyngeal cavity–the throat oral cavity—the mouth nasal cavity—the nose
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration.
Voicing: sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating
Broad transcription: the transcription with the letter-symbols only
Narrow transcription: the transcription with the letter-symbols and the diacritics. English sounds can be classified two categories: vowels and consonants Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of
the air steam at some point of the vocal tract.
Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction. Phonology: the study of sound system—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Phonetics and phonology: are studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is interested in all speech sound in the world‘s language: how they are produced and classified. Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone(音素): Is defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don‘t.
Phoneme（音位）: It is basic unit in phonology; it is collection of distinctive phonetic features.
Allophone（音位变体）:Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast(音位对立);Complementary（音位互补）;Minimal pair（最小对立）:Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
Some rules in phonology: 1Sequential rules,
2Assimilation rules (one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar) 3Deletion rule (it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.) Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation. Morphology
It is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules that form the words.
Morphology is two sub-branch: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language. (A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.)
Type of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes (include root and affixes)
Free morphemes: are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy.
Bound morphemes: can not be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots are numerous in English for example: "geo-―bears the meaning of ―the earth‖. When it combines with another root
―-ology‖meaning ―a branch of learning‖, we got the word ―geology‖ which means ―the study of the earth‘s structure.
Affixes are two types: inflectional affixes (inflectional morpheme) and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes: manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns.
-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense.
-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons.
-ing, indicating progressive aspect.
-er, indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs.
-est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs.
-?s, indicating the possessive case of nouns.
Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative.
The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem Affixes can be divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and Suffixes
Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
Features of compounds
1.orthographically(拼写特征): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.
2.syntactically(句法特征): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).
3.sematically（语意特征）: the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater
4.phonetically（语音特征）: the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
Syntax
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.
Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists
of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences
Sentence structure
Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.
Type of sentence
1. The simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example: John reads extensively. Mary decided to take a linguistics class the next semester.
2. The coordinate sentence: a coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―and‖, ―but‖, ―or‖. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. In another words, each clause is separable from the other and can stand on its own as a structurally independent sentence.
3. The complex sentence: a complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated into another. That is, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinated, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called matrix clause.
Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1. an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a s ubordinator, such as ―that‖,‖ if ‖.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes. Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)
Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
Syntactic categories: 1. lexical categories (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories) 2. Phrasal categories (lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)
Grammatical relations(语法关系) the structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
S-structure(表层结构): A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
X-bar: a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrase structure rules into a single format: x‖—(spec) X (comp.)
General grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural language.
Move α:A general movement rule accounting for th e syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
Some views concerning the study of meaning:
1. The naming theory. One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also
a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. The words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.
2. The conceptualist view(意念论): was holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation（解释）of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This view is suggested by Ogden and Richards.
3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualism is based on the presumption(假定)that one can derive(推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable(可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized, the situational context and the linguistic context.
4. Behaviorism(行为主义论): behaviorism refers to the attempt(企图) to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utter it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖(Bloomfied,1933). This theory somewhat close to contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response. Sense and reference
Reference（所指意义）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Sense(意义):Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Major sense relations:
1.synonymy(同义): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Synonymy can be divided into the following groups:
①Dialectal synonyms(地域性同义词)---synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Such as: American English and British English.
②Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)--- synonyms differing in style. Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality(礼节). Such as: old man ,daddy, father.
③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning.
④collocational synonyms(搭配上的区别)
⑤semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别)。Surprise and amaze
2.polysemy(多义)：refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning. For example: table 1 a piece of furniture 2 all the people seated at a table 3 the food that is put on a table ….
3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymy refers to the phenomenon(现象) that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both.
Homophones(同音异意):refer to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/ reign
Homographs(同形异意):refer to two word are identical in spelling, e.g. tear n./tear v.
4.hyponymy(上下关系):refers to the sense relating between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.
Componential analysis(成分分析法): is a way propose by the structural semanticists(语义学者) to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
Predication analysis(述谓分析法): is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions,questions,commands ect. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate(relation element). The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument.
What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless(无意义的)?
Grammaticality—the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all.
Presupposition(先设前提): is a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. e.g. A: John‘ watch needs repairing. B: John has a watch. If A is true, B must be true.
Entailment(蕴涵):can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. e.g. A : Mark married a blonde (金发碧眼的)heiress（女性继承人）. B: Mark married a blonde. A isT then B is T, B is false, A is false; A is false, B is not false.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a comparatively(比较的)new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. A general definition of pragmatic is the study of how speakers of a
language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Context(语境): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of
language. It is generally considered as constituted(构成)by the speaker and the
hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of language they
use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about
the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic
communication is taking place.
Sentence meaning(句子意义): refers to a sentence and is a grammatical
concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studies as the abstract,
intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
Utterance meaning(话语意义):refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be
considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). Constative(表述句):are statements that either state or describe, and are thus
verifiable and connotative (内涵的)bearing the truth-value.
Performatives(行为句): are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a
state and are not verifiable(可证实的), in other words, performatives are utterance that ―do things‖.
Locutionary act(言内行为): is the act of uttering words, phrase, clauses. It is the act conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lection and phonology. Illocutionary act(言外行为): is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
Perlocutionary act(言后行为): is the act perform(执行) by or resulting from
saying something; it is the act performed by saying something.
The classification of illocutionary acts: is suggested and formulated by John.R.
Searle, the student of John Austin. According to Searle, speech acts fall into
true general categories and each type has a common, general purpose:
1. Representative(表述句): stating or describing, saying what the speaker
believes to be true.
2. Directives(指令句): trying to get the hearer to do something.
3. Commissives(受约句): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
4. Expressives(表情句): expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.
5. Declarations(宣布句): bring about immediate changes by saying something.
Speech act theory(言语行为理论): it is proposed by J.Austin and his student J.Searle, is a theory about language used to ―do things‖. Typical utterances are ― I do ‖,‖I name the ship Elizabeth‖, ―I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow‖. In these cases the uttering of the relevant(有关联) words is the leading event, without the action specified can not be done.
The concept of constatives(确认事实的) performatives, the Locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the Perlocutionary act and the five categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Seale constitutes the speech act theory. Co-operative principle/cp(合作原则): proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to
cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The principle has the following for maxims:
1. the maxim of quantity: (a). make your contribution as informative as required.(b).do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
2. the maxim of quality: a. do not say what you believe to false. B.do not say for which you lack adequate evidence.
3.the maxim of relation: be relevant (有关联的)
4.the maxim of manner: a. avoid obscurity(含糊)of expression. B. avoid ambiguity（多意的）.(c.) be briefed. be orderly (顺序).
Conversational implicatures(会话含义): according to P.Grice, refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxim of the CP.
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Historical linguists are concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change. Historical linguists look into the nature of language change and the cause that lead to language change. Major periods in the history of English:
English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods of Old English (449-1100), Middle English (roughly from 1100-1500),and modern English(1500 to the present).
Linguistic change: is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change.
The Great Vowel shift a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies(差异) between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
Apocope(尾音消失) the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.. such as ―name‖
Epenthesis (插音字) the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound or the middle of a word.
Compounding: is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit. Such as sailboat, two-year-old
Derivation: refers to the process by which new words are formed by addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. Such as finalize
An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. Such as WTO
Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. Such as smog (smoke +fog)
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. Such as TV (television)
Clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. Such as e-mail (electronic mail)
Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. Such as edit (editor)
Coinage refers to the invention of a new word, often formed the brand-name or trade-mark of a product. Such as kodak
Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. As language changes over time, the naming of a word may deviate(脱离) from its original denotation(指示) through the process of semantic broadening or narrowing., another is semantic shift.
Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlied denotation. Such as ―dog‖ in Old English it refers to ―hunting‖. ―aunt‖ only refer father‘s sister in Old English.
Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. Such as hund now refer only a special dog.
Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word losses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning. Such as ―silly‖, a ―silly‖ person was a happy person in Old English, an d a naive person in Middle English, but has become a foolish person in Modern English.
Language family: a group of historically (or genetically) related language that have developed from a common ancestral language.
Protolanguage :the original form of a language family which has ceased (停止)to exist.
Historical and comparative linguistics: the study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone
There are four language families are: Indo-European Family, Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
The causes of language change:
1.sound assimilation: refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.
2.Rule simplification and regularization: are type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.
3.internal borrow: The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.
4.Elaboration
5.sociological triggers
6.cultural transmission
7.childrean‘s approxi mation toward the adult grammar:
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language in social context.
Social groups refers to the speakers in sociolinguistic studies.
Speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community,and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker
or group of speakers.
Socialect refers to a variety of language by people belonging to a particular social class.
Register refers to a functional speech or language variety that involves degree of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
Standard language refers to a variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
Lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native language or dialects.
Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. It has limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures.
Diglossia (双言现象)refers to a sociolinguistic situation in which in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.
Code-switching refers to a bilingual speaker often uses two language alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker. Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation.
An ethnic dialect(or ethnic language variety) is a social dialect of a language,ofthen cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation,such as racial discriminarion or segregation.
Domain(使用域)refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that is, a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations, for example the Home Domain,Employment Doman…
Linguistic tattoo(禁忌语) refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the ―polite‖ society from general use, such as obscene, profane and swear words…. Euphemism(委婉语) is a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect,or less offensive and sued as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.such as go away – die
Speech variety also known as language variety, refers to ang distinguisdable form of speech used by a speeker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical phonological, morphological,syntanctic, or a combination of linguistic features.
Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness. Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind,with focus on
the processes of language production, comprehension and acquisition. Cerebral cortex is the outside surface of the brain which receives message from all the sensory organs and where huaman cognitive abilities reside.
Brain lateralization refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in particular hemisphere of the brain.
Linguistic lateralization is the hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.
Di chotic listening(两耳分听)refers to a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and langugage,with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are than asked to repeat what they hear and find that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.
The critical period is an early period of one‘s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.
The Sqpir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguistis Sapir and Whorf. This hypothesis states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.
Subvocal speech is a term used to thought when thought and language are identical or closed parallel to each other .
Language centers
Broca‘s area , Wernicke‘s area and the angular gyrus.
Language acquisition
Language acquisition is concerned with langugage development in humans. Refers to the development of the children‘s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language. I.e. how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.
Input refers to the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
Behaviorist learning theory, a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner‘s Verbal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between Stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition. Telegraphic speech refers to the early speech of children. It is so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegram. such as nonsubstantive words and inflectional morphemes.
Language transfer refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.
Interference refers to the use of one‘s first Language rule which lends to an error or in appropriate form in the target language. It is also called Negative transfer.
Contrastive analysis refers to a comparative procedure use to establish linguistic differents between two language so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner‘s first lang uage and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.
Error analysis approach shows that these are striking similarities in the way in which different L2 Learners acquire a new language and a large proportion of dev elopmental type of errors in learner‘s L2 utterances provide support for the claim that these similarities point to a natural route of L 2 development which resembles that reported for L1 development.
Interlanguage refers to the approximate language system a second language learner constracts which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.
Fossilization refers to the cause of the learner‘s interlanguage. That is in second language learning the incorrect linguistic features such as the accent or a grammatical pattern because a permanent of the way a person speaks or writs in the target language.
Acculturation refers to the process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
Over-extension refers to the fact that Children over-extend early words, such as ―Daddy‖‖Munny‖,as a result they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy.
Integrative motivation(介入性学习动机) refers to the aim of a second language learners to integrate himself or herself of which the second language community .
Instrumental motivation(工具性学习动机)refers to the learner‘s desire to learn a second language because it is a useful functional instrument,such as getting a job ,passing an examination or reading for information.
读书笔记是开始进行学术研究的第一步，好的读书笔记会为今后的研究不仅积累了资料，更重要的是理性地归纳、认识了所读之书的主要内容和主要观点。 读书笔记的内容之一：作者、典籍的自然情况。 读书笔记的内容应该包括关于所读之书的作者、成书背景等自然资料。鉴于我国古代典籍，特别是秦汉典籍的特殊情况，对于那个时代的典籍的作者、成书经过等都成为学术研究的重要课题。对这方面的了解有助于更好地理解原著。 读书笔记的内容之二：主要内容 对所读之书的主要内容进行归纳和总结是读书笔记的核心内容。这部分不应该是原著的简单摘录，而是按照一定的理性逻辑对原著的内容进行分类、归纳、总结。这显示了读者对原著理解的程度。 读书笔记的内容之三：心得体会 这是在对主要内容归纳整理之后，在自己平时知识积累的基础之上，对原著的升华性认识，往往带有读者的主观认识、评价等。如果平时知识积累单薄，则这部分很难有创见。 下面贴了一篇我自己针对这课作业而写的读书笔记，写作时间匆忙，难免有错误，希望给我指正，不胜感激。 很高兴同学们能够对一门选修课这样认真，按照老师的要求去准备作业。但是，随着同学们作业的进展，我又发现了一个问题——怎样读书？ 选择什么样的书？ 对于这个读书笔记，同学们首先面临的就是读什么书的问题。这个作业要求读中国古代的原典著作，主要是关于思想、历史的著作，不包括文学著作。如秦汉诸子、二十四史、文人笔记等。有的同学读了有关中国文化史的现代人的专著，如中国园林文化史、中国服饰文化史、中国建筑文化史等。这一类的书的读书笔记作为我们这门课的结课作业不被接受。其原因请参看有关中国文化史作业说明（二）。
选择什么样的版本？ 有的同学看书很快，尽然在几天之内把《论语》《孟子》看完了！我很诧异，原来他们看的是现代人的译注。其实我们读古书的目的就是要知道古人的想法、古人的生活方式，现代人的译注一方面离古人生活的时代过于遥远，另一方面这些都经过了现代人对原著的解码和编码的过程，已经不是原典了。所以好的版本很重要。这里向同学们推荐中华书局、上海古籍出版社出版的书。另外对于秦汉诸子推荐《十三经注疏》、《新诸子集成》，历史著作推荐中华书局出的绿皮的那套二十四史。 如何阅读？ 选定了书之后，应该完整地阅读。由于时间的关系，有些书不可能在短时间内读完，那么可以选择其中完整的篇目或完整的一部分，不能根据自己的主观臆断有选择地、挑着读。如，有个同学读《论语》，想写关于《论语》中“仁”的思想，就将《论语》用电脑检索的方法，把带“仁”字的句子挑出来读。这是不行的，尽管《论语》难成篇章，但其篇目还是有一定的完整性，不能割裂来读。 认真读书的最终受益者是同学们自己，希望同学们能过认真读书。为了作业而读书，这不是我的初衷。 第一个问题：这次作业要求同学们阅读中国古代的原典，就你所阅读的文章写篇读书笔记。 阅读原典是开始学术研究的第一步。也许，同学们都已经习惯于阅读一些现代人的著作，并从中得到学习和启发，这固然不错，但是于研究而言，是要有一定的方法的，从阅读原典开始是我们进行专业训练的第一步。就如同打乒乓球，也许你自己打得可以了，但在行家看来，你没有专业训练，你的打法是野路子，业余时间玩玩可以，但是要想参加正式比赛，这种打法是没有前途的。同样的，看别人的著作，固然可以写出不错的文章，但于真正的学术研究是没有前途的。现在，要求同学们阅读原典，写读书笔记，就是在学习专业打法，从头来，把你的野路子扔掉，从基本功练起。把从别人那里得来的条条框框扔掉，就你所读的文章本身而言，你到底看到什么，就写什么，没有读过的就别写，尤其是那些道听途说的、转引自他人著作中的东西。 别再谈什么，从某某中看中国古代的什么什么文化之类的东西。
Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespear e’s time is a synchronic study. Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study. Language competence: T he ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence. Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently. Parole:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level. Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
中国语言学必读必备书目400种 北京大学语言学院推荐 （英）The Categories(范畴)：亚里士多德 （英）THE DEVIL’S DICTIONARY(魔鬼词典)-- AMBROSE BIERCE(阿姆布诺斯·比尔斯) （英）The Foolish Dictionary(愚蠢的词典)-- Gideon Wurdz(吉顿·伍兹) （英）表述和意义：言语行为研究[美]塞尔[Searle,J.R.] （英）词汇、语义学和语言教育[英]哈切（Hatch,E （英）从语言学的角度看语言习得 （英）当代句法理论通览 （英）当代语义理论指南--[美]拉宾（Lappin,S.）著 （英）德里达--诺利斯 （英）汉语方言的连续变化变调模式--陈渊泉 （英）话语分析入门：理论与方法[美]吉（Gee,J.P.）著 （英）会说话的哺乳动物：心理语言学入门 （英）剑桥语言百科词典 （英）交际语言教学论 （英）句法：结构、意义与功能 （英）跨文化交际：语篇分析法[美]斯科隆（Scbllon,R.）等著 （英）历史语言学 （英）普通语言学教程--索绪尔 （英）乔姆司基的普通语言学教程 （英）人类语言学入门 （英）认知语言学入门 （英）社会语言学教程 （英）言语的萌发：语言的起源和进化 （英）言语行为：语言哲学论[美]塞尔（Searle,J.R.）著 （英）应用语言学研究方法与论文写作 （英）英诗学习指南：语言学的分析方法[英]利奇（Leech,G.N.）著 （英）语法化学说 （英）语料库语言学 （英）语料库语言学入门[新]肯尼迪（Kennedy,G.）著 （英）语言和人 （英）语言类型学与普通语法特征--Croft （英）语言论：言语研究导论--Sapir （英）语言迁移：语言学习的语际影响[美]奥德林（Odlin，T.）著 （英）语言心理学[美]卡罗尔（Carroll,D.W.）著 （英）语言学和第二语言习得 （英）语言学教程--Radford （英）语言学课题：语言研究实用指南 （英）语言学理论：对基要原著的语篇研究 （英）语言学入门[英]普尔（Poole,S.C.）著 （英）语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨
内外向型汉语学习词典配例的相似度考察 词典中的配例是培养语感的重要素材，词语的语义、语法和语用信息都可以通过配例来传达。由于没有一个专门的汉语语料库是用来提供汉语学习词典的配例的，所以汉语词典的配例大都是编者的自撰例。这就使得很多词典的编者在编纂外向型词典的过程中都不同程度的参考内向型词典。 本文将甲级动词当中表示心理的动词进行研究，在《商务馆学汉语词典》（以下简称《学汉语》）当中的配例与《现代汉语词典（第六版）》（以下简称《现汉》）和《现代汉语学习词典》（以下简稱《现汉学习》）进行对照，发现它存在与两部内向型词典完全相同的配例。其中，《学汉语》与两本内向型词典同时存在的例证有【怕】老鼠怕猫、【记】记不清、【注意】注意安全，《学汉语》与《现汉学习》的相同例证有：【关心】关心国家大事。这些相同的配例在一定程度上说明了对外汉语词典对于内向型学习词典的继承。 《学汉语》与两本内向型词典的配例完全相同的数量有限，但相似的配例存在很多。这种相似的配例大致可分为两种情况：一是，不改变句义，替换个别词语；二是，基本搭配不变，改变语境信息。 一、配例中个别词语不同 这些相似的配例只是在个别词语上有所不同，其他内容完全相同。而这些词语的更换并没有对词汇信息的展示造成不同。第一种是对配例当中的某个词语进行了同义词的替换。 【打算】你～几时走？《现汉》 【打算】你打算什么时候回国？《学汉语》 将几时更换成什么时候，将书面语变成口语，降低了配例的难度，但两者内容并无二致。而走和回国相比，回国更贴近留学生生活。这个例子当中是将内向型词典当中较难的词汇更换成了较容易理解的词汇，但也有将内向型学习词典当中较为简单的词汇更换成不常用的词汇的情况。 【计划】学校计划建一幢新教学楼。《学汉语》 【计划】学校计划建一座新的教学大楼。《现汉学习》 两个配例仅有两字之差，并且两个句例当中幢的难度明显大于座，相比较《现汉学习》的配例更合适母语为非汉语的学习者。 第二种是将词语替换成同一语义场的词语。 【懂】懂英语《现汉》 【懂】懂法语《学汉语》
教师读书计划 教师读书计划 第一篇： 教师读书计划 教师个人读书计划 丁保中 霍姆林斯基说过： “无限相信书籍的力量，是我的教育信仰的真谛之一。”巴丹说： “阅读不能改变人生的长度，但可以改变人生的宽度。阅读不能改变人生的起点，但可以改变人的终点。”营造书香校园，教师这种特殊的职业就决定了每一位教师都要成为“读书人”，成为学生读书的楷模。为了加强“书香校园”的建设，增强教师的读书意识，促进教师的快速成长，特制定教师读书计划： 一、读书活动主题： 成就自己影响他人 二、读书活动目标： 1、通过读书活动，在教师中形成积极进取、努力学习的氛围。 2、通过读书活动，使教师提高理论和实践水平，推进课程改革进程，全面提高教育教学质量，构建一支师德高尚、素质优良、结构合理的学习型教师队伍。 3、以读书构建教师专业成长的平台，成为教师成长的主要途径。 三、读书口号：
让阅读成为一种习惯。 四、读书活动安排及要求： （一）读书集中读书时间为双周周三下午 （二）读书内容： 1、文章： 由学校教导处每天一篇文章，发布在校园网，教师利用5- 10分钟的时间阅读。 2、必读书籍： 每学年从学校规定的必读书目中选择一本阅读。 3、书籍： 学校不定期向教师优秀书籍，开展网上阅读，或由学校购买。 4、自选书籍： 每人选择一本自己感兴趣的书，由个人借阅或购买。 （三）读书要求： 1、结合自己的工作实际，撰写教育随笔，及时发布在博客上，每月不少于一篇。 2、及时做好读书笔记。学校统一发放读书笔记本，包括摘记和感悟两部分，每周不少于一次。要求字迹工整，提倡用楷书或行楷，杜绝草书。学期摘 记不少于5000字，感悟不少于201X字。学期末读书笔记展评，评出优秀的读书笔记供大家学习参考。 3、读书心得交流。每人撰写一篇读书心得，要求字数不少于1000字。学期末由学校组织教师召开读书汇报会，交流读书心得。 【附】读书篇目：
名词解释 1、词汇 是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇 2、音位的自由变体 有些音位在同一语言环境中，可以自由替换，而又不能区别词义，不受前面其他音位的影响，没有任何条件的限制 3，语言 语言是社会现象，是社会交际工具。同时是心里现象，是人类思维的工具 4，自源文字 是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字 5，同化和异化 同化现象是指，一个音位受相邻音位的影响儿而又在某个区别特征或音位整体上的趋同现象；异化现象，是指两个本来相同或相近的音位，如果连着发音有困难，则其中一个发生变化，变得跟邻近的音不同或不相近 6，黏着语 没有词的内部屈折，每一个语法范畴义都有一个粘附语素来表示，而一个粘附语素也只表示一种语法范畴义的语言类型 7，语音 即语言的声音，是语言符号系统的载体，人的发音器官发出，负载着一定的语言定义。语言依靠语音实现他的社会功能 8音质音位 以因素为材料，从音质的角度分析音位 9形态 同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些不同的变化形成一个聚合，叫做词形变化，或者叫做形态 10仿意词 是分别将外语中的构词材料按外语中的次序译成本民族语，使构词成分的选择和构词结构的选择与外语一一对应 12区别特征 具有区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征，也叫区别性特征 13符号 社会全体成员共同约定，用来表示某种意义的记号、标记、它包括形式和内容两个方面。它的作用是指称社会现实现象 14，小学 中国传统文学又称小学，包括分析字形的文字学，研究字音的音韵学，解释字义的训诂学，它们是围绕解释和解读先秦典籍展开研究的，因此又被称为经学的附庸 15，言内意外 用语言表达思想时留下的一些意义空白或将真实意义隐含在另一种说法中，或用一种意义采用不同说法以获取不同的效果 16文字 有两个意思，一个是指一个一个的字，一是指语言的视觉符号体系 17国际音标 是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，不带民族特色。它的制定原则是：
论语别裁读后感800字三篇 近日偶读书，南华瑾先生一字一句一行一书尽入眼目，咀嚼回味，口齿留香…… 人生在世几百年间，能看尽沧海桑田，月缺月圆，参悟其中道理玄机者又有几分？ 谈学问，简言“学”，一字好写，秉承几难？孔夫子曾经说过“学而不厌，诲人不倦”以及“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至”诸如此类的名言，并且还说过“吾十有五而志于学”。五十七年的经历使他仁德兼备，学问渊博，成为冠绝一时的大学问家，大思想家，可谓是震古烁今。以如此身份，当他的高足问他时，他的回答竟然是“朝闻道夕死可矣”，多么令人不可思议！ 孔子的特点不是探求天地万物的具体性理，而是探求社会与人生的具体性情。因为世间万物的客观规律也许是有限的，但是人的具体感情是无限的。作为有限的“人”，探究的是无限的“人”，这也正是让孔子感到学无止境的原因。人的性情举止，是处于不断的变化过程中的，每探究出新的内容，就打破了原来的旧的规律。“不患人之不己知，患不知人也。”孔子把话已经说得很明白，去了解人性，才是最困难的。而孔子最精辟的论述，也自然而然体现他对人性的入木三分的见解。 陶行知说过，千教万教教人求真，千学万学学做真人。在这一点上，和孔夫子几千年前提出的主张“仁与德”的观点不谋而合，两人都是伟大的教育家，两人都是把“仁与德”当作自己去不断努力实
现的目标，不断的学习，从而提高自身的修养与品德，这是有必然性的。 为了学习，可以三月不知肉味，这足以见孔子的勤奋，可如果仅仅是勤奋，恐怕孔子就不会如此得到世人的尊敬了。他的好学表现在方方面面：三人行必有我师焉，这是谦虚；我不如老农，我不如老圃，这是实事求是；学而时习之，不亦乐乎，这是一种乐观。他的学习精神，不仅仅限我们常人的思维。孔子会以最博大的胸怀，去接容包纳世间万物，这就是我们所不及的。 两千年前的孔子，就是一位具备着各种谋生技能、又具备着对于生命意义有深隧洞见的哲学家及教育家，又对教育的目标有着明确的方向指引，因着他的众多的知能，成为了中国文明史中最重要的教育家，他的许多谋生技能的知能细节固然没有保存下来，但是他的人生智能的谈话却成了绵延两千年的中国知识分子立身处世的智能宝典，当我们阅读吟咏他的话语之时，每一句话都可以从他的智能中找到自己生命的目标。 这就是孔子的学习！这就是圣人的学习！ 也许我们这些凡人是永远无法领会万世师表的学习的内涵，但每一个人也许都可以从中找到一个新的自我。 《论语别裁》是南怀谨先生对《论语》的解释。整本书都在教我们做人做事的道理。 我不是一个善于总结反思的人，对于《论与别裁》可能理解的不深，只能记下自己一些零星的感受。对于《论语》里经常提到的“君
第九章语言与文学 复习笔记 I.文体学 1．定义 文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征 (即语言的多样性)，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。2．文学文体学 文学文体学是研究语言与文学关系的学科，其研究焦点是与文学文体相关联的语言特征。 (1)前景化 前景化的概念来源于视觉艺术，与“背景”一词相对应，已经成为文体学的常用术语。俄国形式主义语言学家、布拉格学派学者和现代文体学家都曾在文体研究中使用这一术语。它被定义为“以艺术手法为动机的偏离”。这种偏离，或非常规用法，覆盖了语言的所有层面；词汇、语音、句法、语义，笔迹等。(2)字面语言和比喻语言 词典定义中所提供的一个词的第一个意义通常是它的字面意义。比喻语言是为了达到对比、强调、明确或标新的目的而使用的不同于日常常规语言的词句。 语言中表示比喻用法的另一个词是Trope (修辞、比喻)。它是指为了修辞目的而通过比喻途径来使用的语言。比喻在语言运用中频繁出现，并且采用许多不同形式。 明喻：明喻是把一种事物和另一种事物作比较，并通过展现一种事物如何与另一事物相似来解释这种事物是什么样子的方法。它用as或like等词在文本中作为明确标志。
暗喻：像明喻一样，暗喻也是对两个并不相像的要素作出对比，这种对比是隐含的而不是直接表达的。 转喻：一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法。 提喻：提喻是用事物的一部分名称来指代整个事物，反之亦然。 II．诗歌语言 1．语音模式 押韵 尾韵：每行结尾的押韵。 2．不同形式的语音模式 头韵：在头韵里，句首的辅音是一致的。 准押韵：准押韵通过一个共同的元音来描述音节。 辅音韵：以相同辅音结尾的音节 反韵：指音节拥有共同的元音和首辅音，而不是元音和末辅音押韵。 押副韵：当两个音节具有相同的首辅音和尾辅音。 反复：音节的重复。 3．韵律模式 当重读被组织成有规律的节奏时，就形成了韵律。抑扬格是韵律单位的一种。韵律单位叫做音步。pentameter (五音步诗行)是指诗句里有五个音步。 4．传统的韵律模式与语音模式 (1)对句：对句为两行诗句，一般由押韵联系在一起。 (2)四行诗：即四行为一节的诗，是英语诗歌中很常见的形式。
牛津词典系列 牛津辞典是英国牛津大学出版社出版的多种英语词典的统称，是英国语言词典的代表。牛津词典详细追溯了每个英语词的历史演变（对其最早的出现年代有明确的标注），释义和引证繁富，因而是英语词汇的最高权威。 牛津老大 The Oxford English Dictionary，20 Volume Set《牛津英语大辞典》【查早到1150年（的古旧词）】类似《汉语大词典》 牛津老大：最高级的牛津词典，就是The Oxford English Dictionary（20 Volume Set）简称OED，这是牛津兄弟的老大，也是英语词典界的圣经。它一共有20卷，目前国内书商动辄索价￥20000RMB。这么贵的词典谁会买呢？问得好。其实，没有任何人能够读完这本词典，它的存在更具有象征意义，象征着人类对知识无限的追求。 然而人类的这点成就这一切，在电子时代失去了骇人的体量和质感。OED的光盘版，只需要两张CD-ROM。但凡买过这套电子版的人，无不怨声载道，因为它的接口设计实在太差了。查完一个词之后，居然没有一个后退键。只能用鼠标浏览，但又不支持鼠标右键的COPY和粘贴。总之，如果花钱买来的话，大概会非常痛苦。 顺便说一句，The Oxford English Dictionary（20 Volume Set）有个缩印版，The Compact Oxford English Dictionary，内容跟OED一样，价格只要￥3200，但字体非常恐怖，是把OED四页的内容印到一页上，如果你不想写一部失乐园续集的话，最好还是打消买它的念头。 牛津老二 The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary，2 Vol.Set《牛津简编英语词典》【查早到17世纪（的古旧词）】类似《辞源》 牛津老二：The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary （2 Vol. Set），可能是牛津也觉得自己浪费森林太不象话，于是出了一个简编版。不要以为看到Shorter，就真Shorter，其实，这是牛津家族中第二大的词典。两大本3888页的厚度，也够意思了。这本词典在国内由上海外语教育出版社引进第五版。网上可以找到供Mdict词典软件使用的牛津简编词典包。 牛津老三 The New Oxford Dictionary of English《新牛津英语大词典》【查现代的（百科新词）】类似《辞海》 该词典国内已经出版了，双解版名为《新牛津英汉双解大词典》（上海外语教育出版社），在网上也要卖￥315左右。如果OED和SOED侧重词源学，引经据典太多，太学术的话，那么ODE就是给人类预备的。不过这本词典的中文翻译挺讨厌，因为把每个例句都翻译了，包括：“Yes，I will.” 这样的。如果你想拥有一本英英的原版，先不要急着去亚马逊下单，下面有一个终极解决办法，金山词霸2009[牛津版]收录其双解版。 牛津老四 Concise Oxford Dictionary《牛津简明英语词典》【查现代的（英文新词）】类似《现代汉语词典》 该词典是大学级别词典（College Dictionary），中高级用用也足够了，简称COD。由外语教学与研究出版社引进。
陕西师范大学大学生必读书目成绩考核办法 一、总则 第一条为积极贯彻落实学校“2+2”本科人才培养模式改革，加强大学生文化素质教育，将通识教育与专业教育、学科专业教育与教师教育、科学教育与人文教育有机结合，促进学生德、智、体、美等全面发展，培养厚基础、宽口径、高素质、强能力的、适应现代化建设需要的富有创新精神的复合型人才，我校决定颁布《陕西师范大学大学生必读书目考核办法》(以下简称《办法》)。 第二条《办法》提供了143种学生应该阅读的经典名著目录，分为文学、哲学、历史学、艺术类和教师教育类五部分，其中文学部分38种，哲学部分34种，历史学部分31种，艺术类部分10种，教师教育类部分30种。 第三条我校本科生应在学好所修课程的同时，有选择地认真阅读《办法》所规定的书籍，努力提高科学文化素质，完善知识结构，提高能力和素质。 二、成绩考核 第四条学生必读书目成绩考核采用平时考查和毕业前考查 两种方式，具体由本科生导师负责。平时考查由学生所在院(部)组织实施，一般应安排在每学期期末进行；毕业前考查由院(部)统一组织实施，一般安排在第八学期期中进行。同时，学校将组织校督导委员会和教学委员会于平时和毕业前进行随机考查。
第五条学生应在《办法》中认真选择所学专业以外的书籍进行阅读。每读完一种书，要认真撰写不少于5000字的读书笔记或小论文。 第六条学生在校期间必须至少从《办法》所规定的书籍中选读10种书籍，其中从文学、哲学、历史学和艺术类、教师教育类各部分中选读的书籍均不得少于2种。汉语言文学、历史学、音乐学和美术学专业的学生须在所学专业以外的书目中选读，完成读书任务，经考查合格，可取得2学分。 第七条学生每学期选读的书籍不得少于2本，其中一本为精读书目。学生在学期初应向本科生导师提交个人学期读书计划，并定期向本科生导师汇报读书进度。 第八条本科生导师应做好学生读书的指导工作，根据学生的不同特点，有针对性的提出阅读建议，定期检查学生读书进展情况，督促学生按时完成读书计划，在学期末审阅学生读书笔记或小论文并组织学生开展一次读书讨论会。 第九条各院(部)应组织本科生导师做好学生阅读必读书目的年度考核工作。考核内容为学生撰写的读书笔记或小论文，考核成绩分为优秀、合格和不合格三等。 第十条学生在校学习期间，如果能读完20种《办法》所规定的书籍并通过有关学院指定教师的检查，学校发给“文化名著阅读证明书”；如果能读完50种《办法》所规定的书籍，参加文学院、
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
英语专业与非英语专业学生选用词典的差异 厦门大学外文学院08级英专四班，翁凡茸 学号：12020082203202 摘要：有效使用英语工具书是当今英语学习的趋势。本文通过比较分析市面上主流词典的收词、释义风格、例证与编排，来区分英语专业与非英语专业选用词典的差异，以期为各类人群选择合适自己的英语工具书提出建设性意见。 关键词：词典，英语专业，非英语专业 一、引言 由于英语专业学生与非英语专业学生在英语基础、学习进程与就业方向等方面有着较大的差异，故在挑选适合自己的英语工具书时，标准也有明显的不同。目前，市场上的各大词典有的专为英语专业学习者量身定做，有的则为非专业的英语爱好者打造。如何选择适合自己的英语工具书，则是一门重要的学问。以下我们将对各种工具书的功能与特点进行介绍与分析，以明确区分英语专业与非英语专业学生选用词典的差异。 二、正文
1.浅谈英语专业学生应当如何选用词典 根据调查研究，每两种语言互译之后，在整体含义上至少存在70%的差异。所以对于英语专业的学生来说，英汉词典甚至有可能成为学习途中的绊脚石。比如：breakfast在英语词典中是这样解释的：the first meal of the day，它的准确意思是“一天的第一顿饭”而不是“早餐”的意思。因此，学习英语过程中，对于每个单词的认识，应当在其语言本身中认识，而不是运用汉语来解释，这样读者才能体会到词与词之间细微的差异。由此可见，要想真正学好英语，英语专业学生应当开始跳出汉英词典的窠臼，开始接触英英词典 英英词典最大的好处就是提供了一个纯英语的环境。通过查词典可以增加英语的阅读量，而看懂英语释义的过程就是学习用英语思考、用英语理解的过程，这可以帮助你跳过中文的中间环节，直接理解单词的含义。从而提高你的英语反应速度。如果要真正学好英语，至少一定要有一本英英词典。另外，使用英英词典能够增加语感，准确理解英语单词的词义及用法，有助于培养英语学习者书面语和口语的准确表达及语言技能的恰当运用。（陈玉珍，2003：2） 以下介绍几部适合英语专业学生使用的英英词典： （1）《柯林斯高级英语学习词典》（Collins Cobuild Advanced learner's Dictionary）
《论语》读书笔记1500字 《论语》中华文化传承隗宝。下面是小编整理分享给大家的《论语》读书笔记1500字，感兴趣的朋友欢迎阅读。希望大家喜欢！ 从前，我之所以读一本书是因为它来到了我的手边，而书的主人又有耐心等待我一口气或分几天读完它。后来，知道了有公共图书馆这等读书的好地方，我也懒得去翻书目卡片，只是在开放阅览室书架上随手抓一本我能读得进去的书。再后来，通过网络，也约略知道近来新出的哪几本书是值得一读的，可我也往往只关注自己感兴趣的，偶尔在浏览的网页上碰到一两本好书也都是大概的翻翻,很少有时间和心情静下心来看，相逢或相违全凭运气。所以，我读也只是因为选了《中西经典选读》这门课,于是从图书馆借了这本书。 由于《论语》主要记载的是孔子的思想，我倒对孔子的朋友产生了兴趣。我想孔子应该有很多朋友。单就《论语》来看，我却只找到两处。一处是“原壤夷俟。子曰：‘幼而不孙弟，长而无述焉，老而不死，是为贼。’以杖叩其胫。阙党童子将命。或问之曰：‘益者与?’子曰：‘吾见其居于位也，见其与先生并行也，非求益者也，欲速成者也。’”另一处就是上面提到过的“朋友死，无所归，曰：‘于我殡’。”后者不知从何考证，前者看来只是孔子所“和”之人，并非所“同”之人。孔子有没有纯乎价值认同的“知己”呢?仅
看《论语》，似乎没有。子曰：“莫我知也夫!”子贡曰：“何为其莫如知子也?”子曰：“不怨天，不尤人，下学而上达。知我者其天乎!”(宪问)退而求其次，孔子的学生中有没有人能充当这一角色呢?有时，师生关系也可到达一种朋友关系。我不由自主地注意到了颜回和曾参。 人们常挂在嘴边的话，我竟然不知出于《论语》。像“父母在，不远游。君子坦荡荡，小人常戚戚，不在其位，不谋其政。道不同，不相为谋，任重而道远，死而后已，朽木不可雕也。三十而立……” 我读《论语》这部书，当然不是想从中觅得修身、齐家的孔门秘传。我只是在这部书中认识了一个迂阔率性、明知其不可而为之的孔子，一个多才多艺、诲人不倦的孔子，一个食不厌精、懂得生活乐趣的孔子。学贯中西的学者们常把孔子和古希腊哲人苏格拉底相提并论。苏格拉底是被雅典民-主政权处死的，据说是自由精神阻止他逃亡。但我更喜欢孔子的直言不讳：“道不行，乖桴浮于海”，这同样是一种自由精神。打开《论语》去读，像是穿越几千年的时光隧道，看到群雄逐鹿，争霸天下的春秋时期，产生了孔子一个伟大的思想家、教育家。他的言行论述了孝道、治学、治国、为政，为历代君王所推崇，汉武帝罢黜百家，独尊儒术。儒家思想
《论语》是儒家学派的著作之一，它是儒家思想所依据的经典。两千五百多年前，孔子教学和生活中的点点滴滴，被学生记录下来。这些语录由他的学生汇集编纂成了《论语》。 论，理论，理论人生，理论人生沧桑百态，理论孔子儒家思想。有人会觉得，《论语》好像没有很严密的逻辑性，很多是就事论事，里面也很少有长篇大论的文字，几乎每一则语录都很简短。但就是这样一本言行录，篇幅也不大，不过二十篇，一万一千余字，却在中国历史上产生了极为深远的影响。 学而篇主要讲“务农”的道理，遇到初学者入“道德之门”；为政篇主要讲治理国家的道理和方法；八佾篇主要记孔子论礼乐之事；里仁篇主要讲仁德的道理；公冶长篇主要讲古今人物的贤否得失；雍也篇主要讲孔子与弟子们的言行；述而篇主要讲孔子谦己诲人之辞及容貌行事之实；泰伯篇只要讲孔子、曾子的言论，以及对古人的评赞；子罕篇主要讲孔子提倡礼制，鼓励人们好学不倦，以及记述孔子不肯说什么，不肯做什么；乡党篇主要讲孔子平素的言谈举止，衣食住行，生活习惯；先进篇主要讲孔子对弟子贤否的评论；颜渊篇主要讲孔子教育弟子如何为仁、为政、处世；子路篇主要讲孔子教育弟子怎样做人，怎样为政；宪问篇主要记孔子及其弟子论修身做人之道，兼有对历史人物的评述；卫灵公篇主要记孔子及其弟子在周游列国时所论的以德治国的道理；季氏篇主要记孔子论君子怎样修身、如何以礼法治国；阳货篇主要记孔子教育弟子讲究仁德，阐发以礼乐治国的道理；微子篇主要记历史上圣贤的事迹，孔子及其弟子周游列国时的行为，以及世人对于处乱世的不同态度；子张篇主要记孔子的弟子们探讨求学求道的言论，以及对孔子的敬仰与赞颂；尧曰篇主要记古代贤王尧、舜、禹、汤的言论以及孔子对为政的论述。 《论语》很全面的阐明了孔子的思想，不管是为人还是处世，不管是修身齐家还是治国平天下。孔子的核心思想就是“仁”，在政治上，他主张“节用而爱人”，反对苛政、苛捐杂税，“苛政猛于虎也！”，也主张“克己复礼”；在自身修养上，他主张“己所不欲，勿施于人”，主张“吾日三省吾身”；在教育上，他主张“有教无类”，第一个在中国创办私学，打破学在官府的格局，他也主张“因材施教”、“言传身教”，所以针对不同性格的两个弟子的同一个问题，他给出不同的建议，所以在周游列国时，即使如何困窘，他为弟子们始终树立榜样，并时刻不忘对他们的教诲。 我觉得，《论语》传递的是一种态度，一种朴素的、温和的生活态度。这样一种从容不迫的态度，这样一种谦抑的态度，其实正是中国人的人格理想。与西方不同，中国哲学崇尚的是一种庄严、理性和温柔敦厚之美。《论语》的思想精髓就在于它把天之大、地之厚的精华融入人的内心，使天、地、人成为一个完美的整体，人的力量也因而无比强大，人对自然万物,有一种敬畏，有一种顺应，有一种默契。 孔子是生活在春秋战国时代的人，那是一个尚未进入封建时代的奴隶社会，他的思想，不可避免地带有时代的局限性。他的最终理想，是要恢复周礼，维护奴隶阶级的统治的，无疑，甚至对于那个时代而言，他都不是一个进步者。虽然，封建统治者在孔子死后，突然将孔子的儒家思想捧至独尊地位，出现了“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的做法，但那时的孔子的思想，早已被一个叫董仲舒的人狠狠加以改造，后来又被朱熹越解释越离谱。所以，在孔子自身那个时代，孔子的思想，其实并不是很进步的。而且，他其中的一些思想，也确实不是完全能让人认同的。比如他说如果父亲坐了错事甚至犯了罪，儿子不仅不应该揭发，而且还要帮助努力隐瞒。这在今天，不就成了同谋、共犯了吗？他还轻视妇女，说什么“唯女子与小人难养也”，把我们女子与小人相提并论，摆明了是侮辱嘛！他也轻视劳动和农事，樊迟问稼桑之事，就被他称作是没什么大出息的人。 孔子因材施教的教学思想，在中国教育史上有较大的影响。他认为一个教师，必须掌握学生在学习上常犯的四种心理表现，即广泛而不精、知识面过窄、把学习看得太容易和有畏难情绪。只有了解学生的心理特点，才能给予帮助、补救。就是说，学生心理的差异性，决
自学考试《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案2017 2017 年自学备考正在开展中，考生们要扎扎实实地复习，一步一步地前进，以下是搜索整理的一份《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案，供参考练习，希望对大家有所帮助!想 了解更多相关信息请持续关注我们! I .Multiple Choice Directions:Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets.(2% x 10=20%) 1. The pair of words “lend”and “borrow”are ___.( ) A. gradable opposites B.relational opposites C.co-hyponyms D.synonyms 2. The discovery of Indo-European language family began with the work of the British scholar .( ) A. Jacob Grimm B.Rasmus Rask C.Franz Bopp D.Sir William Jones 3. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __.( ) A.unusual B.something to be feared C.abnormal D.natural 4. __produce fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation but the content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense,often as unintelligible.( ) A.Broca's aphasic B.The linguistic deprivation C.The damage on the angular gyrus D.Wernicke's aphasic 5.Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night ” as “light ”.This shows: .( ) A. They cannot pronounce/n/ B. Interlangue interference because there is notthe sound /n/in their mother tongue C. The teachers do not have a good teaching method D. They do not like to pronounce nasal sounds 6. A word with several meanings is called __word.( ) A.a polysemous B.a synonymous C.an abnormal D.a multiple 7. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it? ” is __.( ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/1b311157.html,rmative B.phatic C.directive D.performative