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Analyzing the atomic structure ofelementsElements are the basic building blocks of matter. Everything around us - from the air we breathe to the food we eat - is made up of elements. The atomic structure of elements is the key to understanding their properties and behavior. In this article, we will explore the atomic structure of elements and how it affects their physical and chemical properties.The AtomThe atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the chemical properties of an element. Atoms are made up of three basic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, the central region of the atom. Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels.Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a negative charge. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of the element. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, while all oxygen atoms have eight protons.The number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary, but the number of neutrons plus the number of protons determines the atomic mass of the atom. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. For example, carbon-12 has six protons and six neutrons, while carbon-14 has six protons and eight neutrons.Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels. The first shell can hold two electrons, while the second and third shells can hold up to eight electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, and they are involved in chemical reactions.Electronic ConfigurationThe electronic configuration of an element refers to the arrangement of its electrons in the various shells or energy levels. Understanding the electronic configuration is important because it determines how an element will react with other elements and how it will behave in different conditions.The electronic configuration of an element can be determined using the periodic table. Each element is assigned a unique atomic number, which corresponds to the number of protons in the nucleus. The periodic table is arranged so that elements with similar electronic configurations are in the same column or group.For example, the elements in Group 1 of the periodic table have one valence electron, while the elements in Group 2 have two valence electrons. The elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons, while those in Group 18 have eight valence electrons.Periodic TrendsThe atomic structure of elements affects their physical and chemical properties. Understanding the periodic trends can help us predict how elements will behave in different conditions.Atomic radius refers to the size of an atom. The atomic radius decreases across a period (from left to right) because there are more protons in the nucleus, which attract the electrons more strongly. The atomic radius increases down a group (from top to bottom) because there are more energy levels, which shield the outermost electrons from the nucleus.Electronegativity refers to the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond. The electronegativity increases across a period because the atoms are smaller and more electronegative. The electronegativity decreases down a group because the atoms are larger and less electronegative.Ionization energy refers to the energy required to remove an electron from an atom. The ionization energy increases across a period because the atoms are smaller and the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus. The ionization energy decreases down a group because the atoms are larger and the valence electrons are farther from the nucleus.ConclusionThe atomic structure of elements is the key to understanding their properties and behavior. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, and the number and arrangement of these particles determines the identity of the element. The electronic configuration of an element is important because it determines how it will react with other elements and how it will behave in different conditions. Understanding the periodic trends can help us predict how elements will behave in different situations.。
森林郑州中心The ForestZhengzhou Headquarters中原地区是华夏文明的摇篮。
6世纪末，位于此地的郑州古城逐渐成为重要城市之一。
如今的郑州快速崛起，成为河南省的政治与经济中心，不懈地试图在未来图景中重塑昔日形象。
由如恩设计的郑州中心大楼位于城市一处待开发区域。
在这座城市中，文化遗产与现代化发展之间充斥着各样的矛盾。
郑州的历史古迹，如城墙和要塞塔楼，其建造形式和材料与这片土地密切相关。
而如今的郑州规划了新的城市中心，并用大片的玻璃塔楼群向天空示意，轻盈透亮并自带反射的外观仿佛在骄傲地宣告它们作为现代性标志的存在。
随着郑州开始对全新身份的追寻，如恩在城市中心设计了这栋具有前瞻性的占地近乎一个街区的多功能大楼。
它不仅与郑州丰富的历史和谐共存，也是当下充满活力的存在，将创造新的集体记忆。
如恩将项目设想为一片森林，使不同部分联系起来形成整体感。
整个项目由三栋独立的建筑组成，并在室内外设有多种公共便利设施，广阔通达的空间为使用者提供了充满活力的社交环境。
微微弯曲的屋顶轮廓是一种对古城要塞中瞭望塔屋顶形式的当代演绎，柔化了新区规划的严肃感。
结构构件的聚合带来了建筑的永恒感。
1600多个承重拱墙形成了开放的空间系统，可以满足室内外不同的功能需求。
而每个9平方米的独立隔间都可以根据不同需求灵活配置，比如，开放式的楼层提供了很大的空间来容纳多个工作区，而私人办公室、会议室和储藏间则只占据隔间1/4到1/2的空间。
在公共区域，如接待大厅和采光中庭，这些结构隔间又在垂直方向叠放，供集体聚会使用。
Arriving at the tabula rasa project site in the rapidly expanding city of Zhengzhou, the confrontation betweenheritage and modernity is striking. Historically, the Central Plain area, in which the dynastic city first gainedprominence by the end of the sixth century CE, was the cradle of ancient Chinese civilization. Zhengzhou today,as a fast-rising political and economic powerhouse, is in relentless pursuit of reinventing itself in the image of thefuture. Ancient monuments in the region, such as the city walls and fortress towers, often reveal a close relationshipto the land in their built forms and construction materials. The current city plan charts new urban centers and alsogestures towards the sky with clusters of glass towers, whose lightness, transparency and self-reflection proudlydeclare their existence as signs of modernity. For the commission to design a city block-sized, multi-use projectin the midst of Zhengzhou in search of a new identity, we envision a forward-looking edifice that could coexist inharmony with layers of history, as well as being a vibrant present where new collective memories can be created.The project is conceived as a forest, which allows for a sense of wholeness among heterogeneous parts of thisproject. Consisting of three separate buildings, the project creates outdoor and indoor public amenities to providea lively social environment throughout the expansive grounds for the occupants. The gently curved roof profilesoftens the severity of the new district’s zoning code, and hints at a contemporary interpretation of the eave formsderiving from the watchtowers of the historic city fortress.The building’s sense of permanence is imparted by the aggregation of structural elements. Comprising over 1,600load-bearing arch walls, the project is an open system receptive to a range of indoor and outdoor functions. Theindividual bays, measuring 9 × 9 m (30 × 30 ft), can be flexibly configured according to a range of requirements.In the office component of the project, for example, the open floor plans provide large expanses to accommodate workstations, whereas private offices, meeting rooms and storage spaces occupy half or quarter of a bay. In public areas, such as the arrival lobby and sky-lit atriums, these structural bays are vertically stacked to celebrate collective gatherings.Extending the rhythmic and adaptable logic outward, the façade is similarly considered as a space where the realms of the interior and exterior overlap, rather than a mere skin. The southern face of the building is punctured by either 4.5 m (15 ft)-or 9 m (30 ft)-deep verdant terraces, specifically designed for the use of office workers, as private residences, or for public functions. Intermittent glazing setbacks allow the hanging gardens to break up the scale of an otherwise brutal street wall, while also providing a sense of openness on the façade.Working in tandem with the massing articulation, the ground is sculpted to provide a varied landscape of seating, planters, reflecting pools and gardens. The sectional qualities and localized detailing suggest a sense of the past revealing itself. Bushhammered stone blocks, terrazzo, vegetation and water elements hint at a weathered environment where nature and artifice become one. The history referenced here is not one of the dead and gone, nor a literal invocation of memories. Rather, we posit a particularly durable form of architecture, with the co-existence of the past and present as an active, open-ended, archaeological process, within which a new kind of contemporary life is possible.Throughout the day, the play of light and shadow highlights the three-dimensional qualities of the concrete arches and the spaces within. Rigorous repetition of the structural members extends from the exterior hanging gardens, ground-level arcades and sunken courtyards to all interior grand lobbies, atriums and event spaces, creating a seamless integration of structure and space throughout. At times, the ambiguity is intentionally compounded, where nature is born out of artifice, and the manmade is embedded in the unrefined. The potentiality of the past resides in a utopic present, and the fleeting, visceral “now” finds home in the ruin-like ground.如恩将这样的建筑节奏与多功能逻辑延伸至建筑立面，其整体被视为室内外空间功能重叠的多层次场域，而不仅仅是一层外壳。
Cultural integration is a fascinating phenomenon that occurs when different cultures come into contact and influence each other.This process can lead to the creation of new cultural elements and a richer understanding of the world.One of the most evident examples of cultural integration is seen in the field of cuisine.As people from different countries interact,they exchange culinary traditions,leading to the fusion of flavors and cooking techniques.For instance,the popularity of sushi in Western countries is a result of Japanese culture blending with local tastes.Similarly,the incorporation of Mexican ingredients into American dishes,such as the creation of TexMex cuisine,is another example of cultural integration.Language is another area where cultural integration is quite prominent.The English language,for example,has borrowed words from various languages such as French, Spanish,and Hindi,enriching its vocabulary and reflecting the influence of different cultures.This linguistic borrowing not only facilitates communication between people of diverse backgrounds but also showcases the beauty of cultural diversity.In the realm of arts and music,cultural integration is evident in the fusion of different styles and genres.Jazz,for example,is a music genre that originated from AfricanAmerican communities in the United States but has since incorporated elements from various cultures around the world.This has led to the creation of subgenres like AfroCuban jazz and jazz fusion,which blend traditional jazz with other musical styles. Moreover,the exchange of ideas and philosophies is another significant aspect of cultural integration.The spread of Buddhism from India to East Asia,for instance,led to the development of unique forms of Buddhism in countries like China,Japan,and Vietnam. These forms have been adapted to fit the cultural context of each country,demonstrating how cultural integration can lead to the evolution of religious practices.In the modern world,the process of cultural integration is accelerated by globalization and advancements in technology.The internet,in particular,has made it easier for people to access and share cultural content from around the world.This has led to a greater appreciation for different cultures and an increased willingness to embrace cultural diversity.However,it is important to approach cultural integration with respect and sensitivity. While it is exciting to explore and adopt elements from other cultures,it is also crucial to preserve the unique characteristics of each culture.This balance ensures that cultural integration enriches our lives without diluting the distinct identities of different cultural groups.In conclusion,cultural integration is a dynamic and enriching process that allows us to learn from and appreciate the diversity of human experiences.By embracing this process, we can foster greater understanding,creativity,and harmony among people from different cultural backgrounds.。
题型I．简答题5×1’=5’例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。
III．单项选择题20’例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？IV．写音标10×1’=10’P35～36V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’VI．翻译10×1’=10’分英翻汉和汉翻英例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀VII．选择答题2×5’=10’VIII．树形图给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。
样卷AI．1. displacement2. pragnatics3. stem4. syntax5. hyponymyII. T/F9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T14.15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?16. The word ―flower‖ is the super ordinate of the typonyms ―rose‖―tulip‖ and ―rose‖. T 17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F24. The phrase ―green house‖ with the first element stressed means ―a house which is green in colour‖ F25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F26. The compound word ―book store‖ is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T28. The word ―photo graphically‖ is made up of 4 morphemes. TIII.29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic……36. The word ―trasist~‖ is formed through: lending37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic com.40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P3541. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.42. The relationship between ―married/ single‖ is complementary.43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.44. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are synomy~s.45. The function of the sentence ―A nice day, isn’t it?‖ is 寒暄46.47. We can do things with words ―this‖ is main idea of the speech act theory.48. The utterance―we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week‖ obviously violates the maxim of quantity.IV.49. voiceless dental fricative50. high front tense unrounded vowel51. voiced alveolar stop52. high back tense rounded vowel53. voiceless bilabial stop54. voiced labiodental fricativeV.55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix? VIII.Leave the book on the shelf.①leave the book on the shelfPut the book on the shelf.②leave book on the shelfKeep away from the book on the shelfnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design Features of LanguageArbitrariness (Saussure)This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. DualityThe elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves. CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. DisplacementThis means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.Functions of Language(1) Informative FunctionLanguage serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.(2) Interpersonal functionThis is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.(3) Performative FunctionThis function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. (5) Phatic communionIt refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.(6) Recreational functionThis function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.(7) Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about language itself.4.What is linguistics?Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.5.Main Branches of Linguistics*PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.* MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.*PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.*SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.*SemanticsIt examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.*PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.6.Important Distinctions in Linguistics*Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct‖ behavior.* Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.* Langue & paroleLANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.*Competence & performanceCompetence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.7.CONSONANTS and VOWELSConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.8.Manners of Articulation*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators so that the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced.* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.* Affricates (破擦音)：When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.* Nasals (鼻音):When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.* Glides (滑音):They are som etimes called ―semivowels‖. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]9.The place of Articulation* Bilabial(双唇音):In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]* Labiodental(唇齿音):In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v* dental(齿音):The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.* alveolar(齿龈音):The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]* palatal(颚音):The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.* velar(软腭音):The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.* glottal(喉音):The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].10.Classification of English vowels* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.11.12.The Phoneme theoryThe phoneme simply refers to a ―unit of explicit sound contrast‖13.Allophones(音位变体)Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.14.Assimilation(同化)*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.*There are two possibilities of assimilation:If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:pancakesunglassesYou can keep them.He can go now.Define the following termsconsonant phoneme allophoneWhat is assimilation?15.SuprasegmentalsThe syllable structureStressIntonationTone16.Identification of words*StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.* Relative uninterruptibility:This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.* A minimum free form:This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form‖, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitutea complete utterance.17.Classification of wordsVariable & invariable words*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing* Grammatical words & lexical words:Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.* Closed-class words and open-class words:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.* Word class:Traditionally, we had such word classes as ―n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.‖ But here are some of the categories newly introduced:a. ParticlesThey include the infinitive m arker ―to‖, the negative marker ―not‖ and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as ―get by‖, ―do up‖, ―look back‖.Chapter Three: Morphologyb. AuxiliariesAuxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:Negation: I can’t come. *I wantn’t come.Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.*I intend to come and so intend Bill.Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.c. Pro-formIn order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners:This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.18.The formation of word* Morpheme & morphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.boys---boy+-schecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consists of two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.* Types of morphemesa. Free morpheme and bound morphemeMorphemes can be classifies into two types.Those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. E.g. close, dog, nation are free morphemes. All monomorphemic words are freemorphemes. And polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds.Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone and must appear with another morpheme, e.g.nations---nation+-s; dogs---dog+-sworked---work+-ed; reading---read+-ingThe word distempered has three morphemes: dis-, temper, -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme while dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes* Root, affix and stemPolymorphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.a. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e.it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved, e.g.bound morphemes: inter-, -al, -isminternationalismroot: nationAll words contain a root morpheme.b. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three types: prefix, suffix and infix, depending on the position with reference to the root or stem of the word.prefix: dis-, mono-, poly-, un-, pre-, in-, re-suffix: -er, -ism, -ify, -tion, -ly, -ologyinfix: tooth/teeth, foot/feetA root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words such as black in blackboard, blackbird,blacksmith. And there are few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive, in receive, perceive and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit; -cur in incur, recur and occur.c.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.* Inflectional affix and derivational affixThis is also a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. Inflectional affixes in English are used to show various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case, e.g. –(e)s, -ing, -er, -est, -’s, -ed. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class while derivational affixes very often change the lexical meaning.19.Inflection and word formationInflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached, e.g.a. number: table/tables, car/carsb. person, finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc. case: boy/boy’s, John/John’sWord formation: It refers to the process of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type(derivation).pound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as icecream, sunrise.b.Derivation: It shows the relation between roots and affixes.20.Morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A single may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. The phoneme /z/ in goes represents the third-person singular present tense morpheme –es, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme.Let’s look at the following examples:a. boysb. boy’sc. raiseIn a, the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in b, it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. But in c, it means nothing at all.21.Lexical change*Invention(新创词语)Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola* Blending(混成法)It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word. E.g.(See P97)*Abbreviation(缩写词)It is also called clipping, i.e. a new word is created by the following processes:i. Cutting the final part: ii. Cutting the initial partadvertisement ----- ad aeroplane ---- planebicycle ---- bike telephone ---- phonetelevision ---- telly omnibus ----- busiii. Cutting both the initial and final partsinfluenza ---- flu refrigerator ---- fridge* Acronym (缩略语)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E.g.WTO--World Trade Organization （世贸组织）UNESCO--United Nations Education Science &Cultural Organization (联合国教科文组织)scuba—self-contained underwater breathingapparatus (配套的水下呼吸器)*Back-formation (逆构词法)It refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E.g.television/televise editor/editlaser / lase calmative/calm*Analogical creation (类推造字法)In the conjugation of some English verbs, there is a co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular. E.g.old newwork wrought workedbeseech besought beseechslay slew slayedChapter Three: Morphology* Borrowing (借用词)English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. E.g.Chinese: taji, chowmien, wok, kung-fu, etc.There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing. Let’s take a look at the following:ii. Loanblend (混合借词)：It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E.g.coconut (Spanish+English)China-town (Chinese+English)iii. Loanshift（转移借词）:It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E.g.bridge from Italian ―ponte‖;artificial satel lite from Russian ―sputnik‖iv. Loan translation (翻译借词)：This is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.E.g. ―almighty‖ translated from Latin ―omnipotens‖―free verse‖ translated from Latin’s ―verse libre‖―black humor‖ translated from French ―humour noir‖22.Semantic changeThere are five types of semantic changes:Broadening(词义扩展)：It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. E.g.―holiday‖ used to mean ―holy day‖;it means ―a day for rest‖.(more examples on P108)Narrowing (词义缩小)：The original meaning can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. E.g.―meat‖ used to mean ―food‖ in the 7th century;but the meaning is restricted to ―the edibleflesh of mammals‖.(More examples on P108)Meaning shift(词义转换)：This means that the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above. What makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. E.g. ―bead‖ originally means ―prayer‖, but later it refers to ―the prayer bead‖, finally ―small, ball-shaped p iece of glass, metal or wood.‖Class shift(词类转换)：By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notionto a process or attribution. It is also known as zero-derivation or conversion. E.g.―engineer‖ as n. means ―a person trained in a branch of engineering‖, but it means ―to act as an engineer‖ when used as a verb.Folk etymology (俗词源学、民间词源)：It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.23.SyntaxThis word is derived from Greek and is composed of two morphemes: /syn/(together) + /tax/(to arrange). In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.24.Syntagmatic relation (组合关系)It is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. There are syntactic and semantic conditions that the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet. For example,a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.25.Horizontal Relations. (替代词关系)26.Paradigmatic relation (聚合关系)It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, what should be filled in the blank?The _______ is smiling.Only singular human nouns like boy, girl, man, woman, student, baby, doctor, nurse, etc.27.Endocentric and exocentric constructions*Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It also known as a headed construction.*Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases.Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:Exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center, or head, in it. Prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, e.g.prepositional phrases: in the school, on the desksubordinate clauses: if he is going28. CategoryNumber: 数字 Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural …Gender: 性别Gender displays such contrasts as ―masculine: feminine: neuter ‖.Case: 场合Agreement: 认同29. <Leech> Semantics7 types of meanings (G. Leech, 1974):7. ThemanticAssociative meaning (meaning （主题意义）—what is communicated by the way inwhich the message is organized in terms of order & emphasis.联想意义)：2. Connotative meaning —what is communicated by virtue of what language（内涵意义）refers to.3. Social meaning —what is communicated of the social circumstances of（社会意义）language use.4. Affective meaning —what is communicated of the feelings & attitudes of the（情感意义）speaker/writer.5. Reflected meaning —what is communicated through association with another（反映意义）sense of the same expression.6. Collocative meaning —what is communicated through association with words（搭配意义）which tend to occur in the environment of another word.1. Conceptual meaning Logical, cognitive, denotative content30. The referential theory. <Ogden, Richards> The meaning of Meaning。
学术英语理工教师手册Unit 1 Choosing a TopicI Teaching ObjectivesIn this unit , you will learn how to:1.choose a particular topic for your research2.formulate a research question3.write a working title for your research essay4.enhance your language skills related with reading and listening materials presented in this unit II. Teaching Procedures1.Deciding on a topicTask 1Answers may vary.Task 21 No, because they all seem like a subject rather than a topic, a subject which cannot be addressed even by a whole book, let alone by a1500-wordessay.2Each of them can be broken down into various and more specific aspects. For example, cancer can be classified into breast cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer and so on. Breast cancer can have such specific topics for research as causes for breast cancer, effects of breast cancer and prevention or diagnosis of breast cancer.3 Actually the topics of each field are endless. Take breast cancer for example, we can have the topics like:Why Women Suffer from Breast Cancer More Than Men?A New Way to Find Breast TumorsSome Risks of Getting Breast Cancer in Daily LifeBreast Cancer and Its Direct Biological ImpactBreast Cancer—the Symptoms & DiagnosisBreastfeeding and Breast CancerTask 31 Text 1 illustrates how hackers or unauthorized users use one way or another to get inside a computer, while Text2 describes the various electronic threats a computer may face.2 Both focus on the vulnerability of a computer.3 Text 1 analyzes the ways of computer hackers, while Text 2 describes security problems of a computer.4 Text 1: The way hackers “get inside” a computerText 2: Electronic threats a computer facesYes, I think they are interesting, important, manageable and adequate.Task 41Lecture1:Ten Commandments of Computer EthicsLecture 2:How to Deal with Computer HackersLecture 3:How I Begin to Develop Computer Applications2Answersmay vary.Task 5Answers may vary.2 Formulating a research questionTask 1Text 3Research question 1: How many types of cloud services are there and what are they? Research question 2: What is green computing?Research question 3: What are advantages of the cloud computing?Text 4Research question 1: What is the Web 3.0?Research question 2: What are advantages and disadvantages of the cloud computing? Research question 3: What security benefits can the cloud computing provide?Task 22 Topic2: Threats of Artificial IntelligenceResearch questions:1) What are the threats of artificial intelligence?2) How can human beings control those threats?3) What are the difficulties to control those threats?3 Topic3: The Potentials of NanotechnologyResearch questions:1) What are its potentials in medicine?2) What are its potentials in space exploration?3) What are its potentials in communications?4 Topic4: Global Warming and Its EffectsResearch questions:1) How does it affect the pattern of climates?2) How does it affect economic activities?3) How does it affect human behavior?Task 3Answers may vary.3 Writing a working titleTask 1Answers may vary.Task 21 Lecture 4 is about the security problems of cloud computing, while Lecture 5 is about the definition and nature of cloud computing, hence it is more elementary than Lecture 4.2 The four all focus on cloud computing. Although Lecture 4 and Text 4 address the same topic, the former is less optimistic while the latter has more confidence in the security of cloud computing. Text3 illustrates the various advantages of cloud computing.3 Lecture 4: Cloud Computing SecurityLecture 5: What Is Cloud Computing?Task 3Answers may vary.4 Enhancing your academic languageReading: Text 11.Match the words with their definitions.1g 2a 3e 4b 5c 6d 7j 8f 9h 10i2. Complete the following expressions or sentences by using the target words listed below with the help of the Chinese in brackets. Change the form if necessary.1 symbolic 2distributed 3site 4complex 5identify6fairly 7straightforward 8capability 9target 10attempt11process 12parameter 13interpretation 14technical15range 16exploit 17networking 18involve19 instance 20specification 21accompany 22predictable 23profile3. Read the sentences in the box. Pay attention to the parts in bold.Now complete the paragraph by translating the Chinese in brackets. You may refer to the expressions and the sentence patterns listed above.ranging from（从……到）arise from some misunderstandings（来自于对……误解）leaves a lot of problems unsolved（留下很多问题没有得到解决）opens a path for（打开了通道）requires a different frame of mind（需要有新的思想）4.Translate the following sentences from Text 1 into Chinese.1) 有些人声称黑客是那些超越知识疆界而不造成危害的好人（或即使造成危害，但并非故意而为），而“骇客”才是真正的坏人。
Unit 1 What are polymers?What are polymers? For one thing, they are complex and giant molecules and are different from low molecular weight compounds like, say, common salt.什么是高聚物？首先，他们是合成物和大分子，而且不同于低分子化合物，譬如说普通的盐。
To contrast the difference, the molecular weight of common salt is only 58.5, while that of a polymer can be as high as several hundred thousand, even more than thousand thousands.与低分子化合物不同的是，普通盐的分子量仅仅是58.5，而高聚物的分子量高于105，甚至大于106。
These big molecules or ‘macro-molecules’ are made up of much sma ller molecules, can be of one or more chemical compounds.这些大分子或“高分子〞由许多小分子组成。
小分子相互结合形成大分子，大分子能够是一种或多种化合物。
To illustrate, imagine that a set of rings has the same size and is made of the same material. When these things are interlinked, the chain formed can be considered as representing a polymer from molecules of the same compound.举例说明，想象一组大小相同并由相同的材料制成的环。
语⾔学chapter4习题Chapter 4 SyntaxMultiple Choice1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome5. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate6. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex7. In the sentence “Mary gave a book to him”, “him” is with a(n) _________ case.A. accusativeD. nominative8. The relation between any two words in “What a nice day!” is known as ___________.A. choice relationB. paradigmatic relationC. vertical relationD. syntagmatic relation9. __________is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.A. GenderB. TenseC. AspectD. Number10. Paradigmatic relation is known as _______________.A. horizontal relationB. chain relationC. choice relationD. semantic relation11. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?A. a clever girlB. an ugly manC. in timeD. fork and knife12. refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Exocentric relation13. ______ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as masculine: feminine: neuter, animate: inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category14. Syntactically, English is an example of ________ language.C. SOVD. OSV15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate16. the relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. e.g between s, p and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such Bill hunts is called .A. syntagmatic relationB. paradigmatic relationC. positional relationD. relation of substitutabilityFill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.3. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.4. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.6. construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be complement) construction.7. IC is the short form of immediate used in the study of syntax.8. A sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as "and", "but", "or".Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.2. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.4. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.5. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.6. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.7. In the phrase “in the near future”, the word “future” is head.8. Words like “actor”and “actress” manifest that grammatical gender strictly corresponds to biological gender.9. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.10.“The student” in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture.”, and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.” belong to the same syntactic category.Define the following terms1. Syntax2. IC analysisAnswer the following questions.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉⼤学，2004）2.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第⼆外国语⼤学，2004）3. Suggest a tree diagram of the sentence The little girl ran into the garden. The student wrote a letter yesterday. Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simple, coordinate, complex or compound complex sentences:（1）Jane did it because she was asked to.（2）The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves.（3）David was never there, but his brother was. （4）She leads a tranquil life in the country. （5）Unless I hear from her, I won’t leave this town..Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show how syntactic rules account for the ambiguity of sentences:（1）After a two-day debate, they finally decided on the helicopter.（2）The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.(3) The shooting of the hunters might be terrible.(4) He saw young men and women present.。
Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations，language may be the most remarkable。
Through language we share experience, formulate values，exchange ideas, transmit knowledge，and sustain culture。
Indeed，language is vital to think itself. Contrary to popular belief］, language | does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality ［by giving meaning to events］.在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言来分享经验，传递价值观,交流思想,传播知识，传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实,语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker's craft。
They have special uses，just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately，clearly,vividly,and appropriately。
© 2008 Steve CampsallNon-Fiction and Media Texts∙Non-fiction texts are a part of everyday life. They are a genre of writing that is worth studying because such texts can be very influential, for instance by using highlypersuasive techniques that are carefully designed to appear like unbiased information.Being able to recognise this rhetoric for what it is and to understand how such a textworks on its audience is a genuinely useful life skill.∙Nonfiction includes biographical and autobiographical writing, travel writing, journalistic writing and reportage such as found in newspapers and magazines, letters, signs,menus, even cereal packets and much, much more. For school exams, you won't bestudying cereal packets however! Unlike the imaginary worlds and characters of fiction, non-fiction texts are based on real people, real things and real events. A keyunderstanding is that this doesn't necessarily make them factual or true.∙While nonfiction is based on the real world and fiction is based on an imagined world, there are important overlaps with each genre borrowing elements and techniquesfrom the other.∙Fiction often borrows from nonfiction to help create a sense of realism and believability, for example by using real place names in which to set its stories; non-fiction borrows,most especially, the story form called narrative to create absorbing and interestingwriting. For example a newspaper story might well separate people, just like a fictionalstory, into 'heroes' and 'villains' and create suspense and tension to make it moreinteresting to read.Media texts include writing such as newspaper and magazine articles. Such texts are mostly a subcategory of nonfiction but are treated separately in some exam syllabuses. An important aspect of media texts concerns the audience for which they are written which, because it is always a mass audience, will be composed of individuals completely unknown to the writer.∙Media texts often include images. Remember that the exam is testing your abilities to analyse and discuss the use and effects of language so avoid prolonged discussion ofimages.In your exams you will be tested on your ability to analyse and discuss non-fiction or media texts.Usually you will also be asked to compare two different texts that share a similar theme butwhich have either a different genre or form or which approach their theme from differentangles.WHAT DOES THE EXAMINER LOOK FOR?While exam questions vary, the skills you need do not. You will be asked to analyse, consider and discuss a non fiction or media text at four levels:What is the text about-its subject matter∙You need to show you have understood the text's subject matter and content.∙You will also need to be able to locate details and discuss aspects of these(this requires an understanding of the text's big picture).Who has the text been written for-its audience∙This is v-e-r-y important -you need to consider audience with care as it will help you recognise features of style that you can discuss in your answers.∙Writing about audience means recognising and showing how a text has been created to suit a particular kind of reader.o When a writer is asked to write a text, one of the key questions asked is who the text is aimed at. With knowledge of the text's audience, only then will the writer be able to consider themost suitable style of writing to choose -its content, its vocabulary choices and its tone.How has the text been made to 'work'-the writer's methods and their effects∙You need to be able to identify the methods a writer has used to create the text. This includes considering aspects of the text's genre, style, language and structure.∙You will also need to be able to discuss the effects of these methods on the audience-and, of course, the purpose behind these effects.∙It most especially means looking closely at the language and layout used in the text.o How is language being used -what effects are being created and for what purpose?o How is the layout helping the text achieve its purpose for its audience?Why was the text written-its writer's purpose∙This means recognising the messages contained within the text, both on the surface and -although this is not so important compared to literary texts -if there are different layers of meaning.WHAT KIND OF EXAM QUESTIONS MIGHT YOU MEET?There are four typical types of exam question you could come across (note that the examples below are not based on any particular nonfiction texts):Questions that ask you to identify or locate details:'What types of exercise are discussed in the newspaper article?''Identify five advantages and five disadvantages to exercising regularly mentioned in the newspaper article.' 'List five facts and five opinions the writer includes in the newspaper article.'∙In this type of question, you are being asked to locate specific named details directly from the text and list them.∙Normally one mark will be awarded for each correct point you make.∙Unless made obvious within the question, the answer does not need extra explanation or to be written in your own words -a numbered list would make a good answer.Questions that ask you to explain and summarise:'What impressions does the article create concerning the need for exercise?''How does the writer defend the need for exercise?''What are the writer's attitudes towards exercise?'∙In this type of question, you need to write a considered personal response and use evidence from the text to support what you say.∙This type of question requires a mixture of your own words and quotations from the text.∙Marks are awarded more for depth of answers than breadth -you need to show an understanding of how language choices work.Questions that ask you to discuss the writer's techniques:'How does the writer try to persuade the reader that exercise is a good thing?''What impression of fitness does the writer create?''How is the article made convincing?'∙In this kind of question, you would need to discuss, for example, the persuasive techniques used by the writer or the way something has been presented in the text.∙This means considering aspects of language, style and structure to show how these work for a specific audience and purpose.∙This type of question tests your awareness of how language can be used for a specific audience and purpose.∙It requires a considered, reflective and insightful response using a mixture of your own words and quotations from the text.Questions that ask you to compare texts'Which of the two articles do you consider the most persuasive? ''Which of the two texts do you find the more interesting and why? '∙This type of question needs a close discussion on the two articles.∙You will need to comment on aspects of audience, purpose, language and style.∙As before, you are being tested on your awareness of how language can be used effectively for a specific audience and purpose.∙Again, this type of question expects a considered, reflective and insightful response using your own words with support provided by quotations from the text.WHAT YOU NEED TO DO TO GAIN A HIGH GRADEAs with all texts, non-fiction and media text need the skills of analysis and commentary. In any text, its writer's aim is to create a style that will suit a particular kind of reader or audience to achieve a certain purpose.The style created will utilise the two aspects language has: its form and its content. These two aspects will be working together to create certain effects on the reader, and, in turn (and accumulating through the structure of the text), these effects, the writer hopes, will achieve the text's purpose.The purposes of non-fiction texts are various:∙to entertain ∙to inform ∙to persuade ∙to explain ∙to advise ∙to instruct... and very often, are a combination, particularly of information, persuasion and entertainment.HOW TO TACKLE NON-FICTION AND MEDIA TEXTS∙It's important that you work out and mentally summarise the big picture of the text.∙Ask yourself how the text's layout and presentation help it in various ways.o The layout and presentation of a text is a part of its form. Form refers to the way a text looks (or sounds).o In many non-fiction texts, layout and presentation are always carefully chosen to aid the audience in following and understanding the text.∙Work out how the text's structure allows its detail and information to unfold -and often persuasive -in useful ways.∙How are facts being used? Are they presented in a way that is biased? Or is the information balanced? Are facts being chosen selectively?∙How are opinions presented? In persuasion, opinions are never balanced and are given a sense of authority and influence.Work out how this is being done.∙Look closely to see if the text sets out to create an emotional response, though the use of emotive language.∙For the highest grades, see if you can work out if the text's genre conventions create some kind of important response in the audience. Some genres can be quite powerful in this way. They act tocreate a mind-set or guide a response from their audience. The formal headlining and columns ofinfluential newspapers such as The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and The Times, for example, are instantly recognisable and suggest truthfulness and trust. Some formal business letters use layouts and letter headings that instantly seem authoritative and important. Leaflet genres vary -aninformation leaflet is easily recognised and instils trust whereas many sales or promotional leaflets ('flyers') have the opposite effect and end up quickly in the bin!REVISINGFrom today, look out for and read a selection of non-fiction and media texts to practise your close-reading skills by...1. Thinking about how their genre conventions and form act to 'condition' the way you are responding to them.2. Summarising their subject matter, content, circumstance and their 'story'to gain a sense of the 'big picture'.3. Considering who the texts are intended for and all that this implies -their target audience.∙Audience is a far more important consideration than most people appreciate.∙Your aim should be to work out how a writer chooses effective language and 'non-language devices' -often used subtly -to create a style that is suited to a certain type of reader so that purpose of the the text is achieved.For example, a broadsheet newspaper article might seem rather boring to a fifteen-year-old student (especially if in the exam you comparing it with a leaflet aimed at a younger audience), but it certainly will not have been'boring' to its intended audience: they expect it to be that way -it is a part of their genre expectations.Imagine a jazzy-looking broadsheet article that broke all its existing genre conventions; would its reader still trust its content and feel it to be authentic? Would they even bother to read it? You can see how genre, form and audience are always important considerations for you to consider and comment upon.∙Try not to fall into the trap of judging an article aimed at a different kind of reader from yourself through teenage eyes; instead, try to 'become the text's reader'when you judge its style andappropriateness.4. Finally, work out how the text has been styled to create certain effects on its reader and especially how these individual effects accumulate and work as a structure.∙Remember that effects have been created by the writer for a purpose-to persuade the reader towards a certain way of thinking (i.e. the writer's way!).∙Always try to identify and discuss a text's significant effects, comment on the methods used to create these effects and then identify the purpose intended.∙Job done -high grade achieved!WHAT METHODS ARE USED...Non-fiction writers can choose from a wide range of methods to create effects that will help them achieve their purpose.Non-fiction writers use language effectively∙They use language that sounds convincing-this is called rhetorical language.∙They use language that affects your emotions-this is called emotive language.∙The use of the personal pronoun'you' is called the direct address pronoun: it can be used to add a personal touch and engages the reader; it sounds friendly, inviting and even confiding (e.g. 'Have faith in us; you just know it makes sense').∙When used as an inclusive pronoun, 'we' can make the reader seem to be a part of a special group of people (e.g. 'We're all in this together, aren't we?') ; as an exclusive pronoun it can separate groupsof people (e.g. 'We're working for a better world. Will you help?').∙The use of interesting, short anecdotes adds interest and engages the reader's attention (e.g. 'Let me tell you about John, a poor beggar in Ethiopia...')..∙The use of hyperbole can create a persuasive impact (e.g. 'This earth-shattering event will blow your mind away!').∙Description creates imagery that can be very engaging and involving, even persuasive. It can be made very vivid and used to create mood and emotion (e.g. 'Like a sliver of shiny steel, the white crescent moon cut a gash in the heavens'). Look for the use of effective metaphors, similes and emotivelanguage.∙Facts and opinions are used to support a writer's point of view or argument but you must be able to separate worthwhile from biased facts and facts from factually stated opinions, always recognisinghow reasonable and effective the evidence really is.∙Rhetorical questions imply their own answer engage and help to persuade the reader. They help make a point in a more powerful and emotional way.∙Repetition and lists of three can be effective persuasive devices.∙Personal viewpoint or 'direct address'(when I... / We...speaks to you... ) can create a friendly tone and involve the reader.∙Structure allows an effective build up of a persuasive series of points.∙Tone-a formal tone can add authority and sound authentic or sincere; an informal, or even conversational tone can add warmth and fun -it can be very persuasive, too.∙Quotations and evidence from expert sources are used to provide support and create added authority.∙Sentence style can be varied to add interest -and a very short sentence can add real impact. Can't it?∙Captions add meaning and guide the reader to respond in a certain way to an illustration or a photograph.Non-fiction writers use effective'presentational devices'∙Catchy titles capture the reader's attention.∙Short paragraphs and sentences are easier to follow and grasp.∙Headlines, captions and subheadings add impact and clarity.∙White space creates clarity and attractiveness.∙Bulleted or numbered lists aid clarity.∙Layout can be used to aid understanding and to make the piece more eye-catching.∙Formatting: bold, italic and underline can create impact and emphasis.∙Type faces-including handwriting style -add impact, trust and interest.∙Colour adds eye-appeal, impact and emphasis.∙Spot colour catches the eye.Non-fiction writers use effective'non-language devices'∙ A logo can create a high level of trust in a product or service, e.g. McDonald's or'Coke'.∙Illustrations and photographs add interest, clarity and emotional impact.∙Graphs and charts ease understanding (but can be very selective in what they show).∙Maps may be helpful.∙Cartoons add humour and attract attention.EXTRA! EXTRA! READ ALL ABOUT IT!Analysing a Magazine or Newspaper AdvertisementMagazine and newspaper advertisements are one kind of media text that deserve a few extra words, even though all that is said on the rest of this web page is valid.These days, only a very few ads exist purely to give information; those that do are perhaps ads for a product recall owing to a fault or such like. Most advertisements are produced to try to sell a product or to create an emotional response to a brand name("Are you a Nike person...?"). Yet only a few do this in an obvious way.∙Advertising agencies and their copywriters know that modern audiences are very sophisticated and aware of modern media methods.SO JUST HOW DO ADS WORK?There was a time when advertisements were more informative -they informed the public about a product being available, at what price and where. Those days have long gone. Now ads work at a more subtle level of association. The ad works by trying to create an emotional link between a consumer product and an attractive lifestyle. It does this in such a way that members of the target audience are made to feel that if they purchase the product, they will 'buy a way into'an attractive lifestyle.‘CUEING’Ads are short and have a lot of work to do if they are to succeed to be persuasive. If they achieve success, it is because they rely on a process called cueing. The cue is usually an image or some language that triggers a pleasant memory, most often of a desired lifestyle.MESSAGE AND CODEAds can be broken down into two parts: a message and a code. The message is simply the offer of a product (or service). The point about the message is that it can be rejected-you don't have to buy the product! So how does an advertiser make it more difficult to reject the message? By associating the message of the product with a code.The code within an ad is far more subtle and persuasive. The code is the highly persuasive 'cued' idea that triggers thoughts of a desirable lifestyle -one that buying the product or service will provide.∙Codes operate through the creation of fear.∙It might be fear of being old, fear of not being'cool' , fear of being odd or different, or of being an outsider.∙It is this emotional lifestyle code that is so difficult to reject.∙The success of the ad depends on how well its creator manages to associate the product's message with the emotionally encoded lifestyle.You might be able to see that codes operate because they are culturally and ideologically determined. What does this mean? Well, we all share particular ideas called dominant ideologies in our culture or society about what we would most like to be -or, more accurately fear not being;and we have come to believe in our consumer society that a product might help us achieve this more easily. Advertising codes operate insidiouslyby reminding us of what we absolutely don't want to be: odd, different,'uncool'.This is the power of the code.Always remember that ads are rarely intended to work alone; an ad is usually a part of a larger ‘advertising campaign’ using a mixture of different media forms such as TV, radio, posters and magazine ads.Each part of the campaign will be coherent and unified: all working together towards a single aim of convincing the potential customer that the product (or service) offered can help achieve a certainattractive lifestyle.。
