Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology
(语音学) ? Key points：
1. Phonetic theory 1) Phonetic Transcription 2) Speech Organs & Their Movement 3) Classification of Consonants. 4) Classification of Monophthongs 5) Classification of Diphthongs 2. The Phoneme Theory 1) Phonetic contrast and complement 2) Phonetic similarity 3) Complementary distribution 4) Free variation, minimal pair and minimal set. 5) Supra-segmental Features and Distinctive Feature
（音系学）
Definition of Phonetics
?Prof. Hu Zhuanglin: Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription
Phonetics (语音学) and Phonemics (音位学)
Linguistics:Basic Course Chapter 3: Phonetics
P h o n e tic s
(
语音学
)
a n d P h o n e m ic s
(
音位学）
Three Branches of Phonetics （语音学分类） 语音学分类） Articulatory Phonetics:
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--studies speech production by the speech organs Auditory Phonetics: --studies perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system Acoustic Phonetics: --studies physical properties of speech sounds Phonetic Transcription
2. The Organs of Speech（言语器官）
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1. 4. 7.
Lips
2. Teeth
3.
Teeth Bridge(Alveolus) 6. Uvula
Hard Palate
5. Soft Palate(Velum) 11.Vocal Cord
Tip of the Tongue
8. Blade of the Tongue 9. Front of the Tongue 12.Pharyngeal Cavity
10.Back of the Tongue
13.Oral Cavity 14.Nasal Cavity
Classification of
Consonants （辅音分类）
Consonants may be classified according to: 1． The State of Vocal Cords （声带的状态） 2. The Place of Articulation （发音的部位） 3. The Manner of Articulation （发音的方式）
Classification of Consonants
According to the State of Vocal Cords: English consonants are divided into two groups: Voiceless Consonants: Produced without the vibration （颤动） 颤动）of the vocal cords, as [p],[k],[h] etc. Voiced Consonants: Produced with the vibration of vocal cords, as [b],[g],[m] etc.
Classification of Consonants
1. According to the Place of Articulation
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Classification of Consonants 2. According to the Manner of Articulation
Classification of
Consonants
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Classification of Vowels: Monophthongs
Monophthongs can be classified according to ?The Highest Part of the Tongue （舌高） 舌高） ?The Opening of the Mouth （口腔张开度） 腔张开度） ?The Length of the Vowel （元音音长） 元音音长） ?The Shape of the Lips （唇形） 唇形）
Classification of Vowels: Monophthongs
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The Phoneme Theory
1. Phoneme and Allophone
According to which morphemes are pronounced, the linguist must :
? ?
First of all find out what these sounds are, and transcribe the native speaker's utterances in phonetic symbols. After this, what has been transcribed must be examined in order to find a set of utterances that are different in meaning and differ from each other in only one aspect phonetically.
In determining the meaningful phonological elements of language two criteria are generally taken into consideration:
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The similarity of articulation; The relationships between the significant elements.
As a result of the work of some linguists, principles were developed to identify such significant element, known as phonemes. Phoneme is the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.
Further examples of phonemes and allophones:
The [ l ] of lip differ from the [ l ] of pill. In pill, the [ l ] is accompanied by a rising of the back of the tounge, this sound, known as "dark l ", and written , differs from the "clear l " of lip, usually writte simply
as[ l ] . These two sounds are allophones of the phoneme /l /. There is a corresponding dfference of distribution: clear l occurs before a vowel, dark l after one.
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The [s] of seep and the [s] of soup are not identical. The phoneme /s/ has a plain, unrounded allophone--- [s] in seep, and a rounded, or labialized allophone in soup. As we might expect, the rounded
allophone is used when a rounded vowel follows, and the unrounded allophone elsewhere.
The [n] of tenth differs from the [n] of ten; in tenth the sound is dentel "ordinary" English alveolar [n]. [n] and whenever another dentel (
, while in ten it is the
are allophones of phoneme /n/. The dentel allophone is found
) immediately follows.
Allophone: It is a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.
2. Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs refer to the pairs of words that differ in meaning because of minimal difference in sound. It is a useful technique for discovering what is a phonemic (音位)rather than a phonetic （语音） 语音） difference. Minimal pairs are two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. So the minimal pair test in the first rule to determine the phonemes of any language.
3. Some Rules of Phonology
2.
Sequential Rules
If a word begins with a [ l ] or a [ r ],then the next must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] is an impossible combination. It violates the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following rules: The first phoneme must be / s /. phoneme must be / p / or / t / or / k /. The third phoneme must be / l / or / r / or / w /
The second
Assimilation Rule
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The assimilation rule assimilates one segment to another by "copying" a feature of sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the varying pronunciation of the nasal /n/ that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word, the nasal consonant [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant.
Deletion Rule The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, while the letter g is mute in sign, design and paradigm, it is pronounced in the corresponding derevatives of these words signature, designation and paradigmatic. The rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. It accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.
4. Supra-segmental Features
So far we have been talking about phonemes ---- sound segments that distinguish meaning. But many significant differences in meaning are not the result of differences between phonemes. These distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called super-segmental features. Supra-segmental features include pitch/tone, stress, syllable and intonation, etc, of which stress and intonation are the principal ones. 4.1 Stress Stress means the degree of emphasis or accent given to some syllables in relation to others. The smallest unit of its application is also the syllable. When we say a certain syllable is stressed, we mean it is pronounced with a relatively greater amount of energy, thus it sounds louder than unstressed. In English stress is phonemic, it distinguishes meaning. There are two main kinds of stresses: word stress and sentence stress. Word stress: Three principal degrees according to the degree of stress in articulation. Primary stress: the strongest one in the word and indicated by a high vertical stroke “'”placed immediate one before the syllable bearing that stress. Secondary stress: the intermediate one shown by a low stroke “'”just before the syllable. Weak stress: the syllable or syllables not stressed at all are left unmarked. Stress---Sentence stress: Sentence stress refers to the stress that rests on the word or words semantically important in a sentence. Like word stress, sentence stress is not wholly random either; there are also rules to follow. 4.2 Intonation Intonation is the musical element and the characteristic feature of an utterance. Any kind or length of sentence has to follow a certain pattern of intonation. It is the combination of sentence stress
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and pitch. Intonation is a very important super-segmental feature. It is phonemic in English, that is, the same sentence with different intonation can show different meanings. Intonation has the following main grammatical functions: It can indicate the type of sentence as to whether it is a statement, a question, or a command. It has attitudinal function. It conveys the emotion state of the speaker's attitude such as surprise, annoyance and enthusiasm, etc. It also has the stylistic function. It can characterize a particular style or variety of the language. The falling intonation is usually interpreted as a statement, expressing certainty or completeness; the rising intonation usually indicates a question, expressing uncertainty, or incompleteness or politeness. The falling-rising intonation combines the meanings of the two. It often conveys a feeling of reservation, that is, it asserts something, and at the same time suggests that there is something else to be said.
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《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/0c439467.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/0c439467.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/0c439467.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/0c439467.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
Is language a system? Yes. Is there intrinsic connection between form and meaning? No. It’s arbitrary . Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916) [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. A system ----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. bkli Arbitrary ----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Vocal --------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Symbols ----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device” (LAD) 语言习得机制 Origin of language 1.The divine theory 神论说--- God created language for human beings. 2.The bow-wow theory 拟声说--- Language developed from the imitation of the calls of animals. 3.The pooh-pooh theory 感叹说--- Language developed from instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy of human beings. 4.The “yo-he-ho” theory 韵律说--- Language developed from rhythmic grunts of people when they worked together. Properties of Language -Design features Arbitrariness [‘a:bi,tr?rinis] 任意性 ?The arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between sounds and meanings (form and meaning). Arbitrariness ◆Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning ◆Arbitrariness at the syntactic level The sentence is less arbitrary than words.
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
Course Name: Introduction to Linguistics Sept. 2012, for Grade 2010 Classes 1-6 English Undergraduate Program Department of English School of Foreign Language Studies Nanchang University (NCU) Course Instructor: Prof./Dr. JIANG Syllabus Course Description: This course aims at providing undergraduate juniors of English major with a fundamental and systematic account of the basic knowledge of the studies of linguistics at the modern time with explanations, illustrations, and necessary examples from the course book and also from present English and Chinese language uses, to help develop the students’ interest in this study, to facilitate their understanding of the linguistic terms and theories, and to build a systematic knowledge of the said study. Major Books Used for this Course: 1)Hu, Zhuanglin 2006.Linguistics. A Course Book (Third Edition). Beijing University Press, used as students’ course book. 2) Robins, R. H. 1967/1997. A Short History of Linguistics (4th edn). London, New York: Longman. 4) Yule, George. 2000. The Study of Language. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 5) Keith Brown et al. (eds.) 2006. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd edn), Oxford: Elsevier. 6) Collinge, N. E. (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopaedia of Language. London, New York: Routledge. 7) Strazny, Philipp (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopedia of Linguistics.New York, Oxon: Fitzroy Dearborn. 8) Wikipedia. 9) Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. the electronic edition can be accessible on the internet. Course Requirements: 1)Attentive listening, active participation, quick note-taking and understanding,
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.