语言学
* 现代语言学理论和学派
1. Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913 瑞士)：Father of modern linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人
Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》：由其学生- C. Bally & A. Sechehaye整理，现代语言学开端，1916
3 lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology 符号任意性理论；语言单位间的关系；语言和言语区分；共时和历时区分。语言是符号系统。符号是形式和意义的联合，即能指signifier和所指signified。
2. The Prague School布拉格学派：synchronic linguistics; Function
1) 对语言的共时研究由于可得到全面可控的语言材料以供参考而被充分强调，同时，也没有严格理论；
界限被竖立起来将之与历时语言研究相分离。
2) 强调语言的系统性这一本质属性。
3) 在某种意义上，把语言看作是一种功能，是一种有某一语言社团使用的，用来完成一系列基本职责和任务的工具。
~ Phonology and Phonological Oppositions(音位对位):
Trubetzkoy–Phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. – phoneme
~ Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP 句子功能前景)：语言学分析理论
用信息论原理来分析话语或篇章。其基本原则就是一句话中各部分的作用取决于它对全局意义的贡献。
捷克语言学家- The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer, which is their rallying point, the Theme.
The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer and is called the Rheme.
3.The London School伦敦学派–systemic linguistics and functional linguistics Sociological approach
1) J.R. Firth(1890-1960 英国)：伦敦学派创始人; 学生-Malinowski & Halliday
语言学的研究对象是实际使用中的语言。prosodic phonology(韵律音位学)
different levels of meaning：phonological; lexical and semantic; grammatical; context of situation
2) M.A.K. Halliday(英国): 新弗斯派领袖；Systemic-functional Grammar系统功能语法
4.American Structuralism美国结构语言学派：synchronic linguistics 20世纪初 F. Boas
1) Early Period: Boas and Sapir - descriptive linguistics
a. Boas(1858-1942德裔美国)：人类学家，强调文化和语言结构的系统分析Handbook of American Indian Languages
three parts of descriptions: The sound of language, the semantic categories of linguistic expression,
the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression
b. Sapir(1884-1939 美国)：语言学家，人类学家Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech
2) Bloomfield(1887-1949)：Bloomfieldian Era(1833-1949) – American descriptive linguistic s正式形成
Language《语言论》- Behaviorism Syntactic Structures
3) Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics: Z. Harris(Methods in Structural Lintuistics); H.l. Smith
C. Hockett(A Course in Modern Linguistics);
5. Transformational-Generative Grammar(Chomsky)
1) The Innateness Hypothesis(天赋假说)：Language is somewhat innate and children are born with LAD.
a. LAD(Language Acquisition Device语言习得机制):
hypothesis-maker(假设标记), linguistic universal(语言普遍现象), evaluation procedure(评估程序)
2) Generative Grammar(生成语法)：
Observational Adequacy Level(观察充分性); Descriptive Adequacy Level(描写充分性); Explanatory Adequacy Level(解释充分性)
3) The Classic Theory(古典理论)
a. Features: emphasis on generative ability of language; introduction of transformation rules;
grammatical description regardless of meaning
b. 3 states of grammar: finite state grammar; transformational grammar
phrase structure grammar: S→NP+VP; VP→Verb + NP; NP →NP(single/plural); NP(s) →D+N
4) The Standard Theory: A generative grammar should include 3 components –syntactic, phonological and semantic.
5) The Extended Standard Theory: It completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure
6) Later Theories: 1980s, TG Grammar entered the 4th period
1992, “A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory”– a new stage of generative grammar
Late 1990s, further developed the minimalist theory in Minimalist Inquires: The Framework(1998)
7) Main Features of TG Grammar: emphasis on linguistic universals(语言的共性)
rationalism(理性主义); innateness(天生论); emphasis on linguistic competence(语言能力); formalization(形式化);
emphasis on interpretation(解释力); deductive methodology(演绎方法); strong generative powers(生成力);
6. Other Famous Linguistics
●Daniel Johns：the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统
●Geoffrey Leech：提出语义学Semantics的七种意义; predication analysis
● C. Morris & R. Carnap: 美国哲学家, 将符号学S emiotics划分为三个分支
●J. Austin &J. Searle: 英国哲学家,Speech Act Theory
●P. Grice: 美国哲学家, The Cooperative Principles合作原则; The Theory of Conversational Implicature
●J.R. Firth：英国语言学家, Contextualism (语境主义) – We shall know a word by the company it keeps.
●Ogden and Richards: The Conceptualist View(概念主义观点) - Semantic triangle
●Dan Sperber & Deirdre Wilson: Relevance Theory
●Laurence Horn: The Q- and R-principles(数量原则和关系原则)
* 导论
1. Language(语言)
a. Definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Language is a means of verbal communication.
Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated.
b. Design Features(特点):Arbitrariness(任意性-Saussure): shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念
Duality(二重性)：语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
Creativity(多产性)：语言使用者可以理解并创造新意义。
Displacement(移位性)：语言可以表达许多不在场(时间/空间/抽象)的东西。
Cultural Transmission(文化传播性)：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握
c. Functions(功能): Informative(信息)：or Ideational(达意) –语言主要功能；社会发展先决条件prerequisite
Interpersonal(人际)：首要社交功能establish and maintain their identity
Performative(施为)：现实应用---judge，naming，and curses
Emotive (情感): 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions
Phatic Communion(交感性): 应酬话phatic language
Recreational(娱乐性): 婴儿学语babbling；歌唱chanting
Metalingual(元语音): book可指现实中的书，也表达作为语言单位的“书”。
2.Linguistics(语言学)：Linguistics is a branch of science, which takes language as it subject of investigation
1) 分支
a. Phonetics(语音学): It studies how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, especially isolated sounds.
b. Phonology(音位学): 从功能角度对特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律研究。
It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
c. Morphology(形态学): It studies the internal structure, like morphemes and word-formation processes of words.
d. Syntax(句法学): I t is about the rules of forming and understanding correct English sentences.
e. Semantics(语义学): It studies how meaning is encoded in a language. 字词意义+前后其他成分意义
f. Pragmatics(语用学): It is the study of meaning in context, in terms of the relationship between language and its users.
2) 宏观语言学
a. Psycholinguistics(心理语言学): It investigates the interrelation of language and mind.
b. Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): It studies characteristics of language varieties, their functions and their speakers.
c. Anthropological Linguistics(人类语言学): It deals with the emergence and divergence of languages over years.
d. Computational Linguistics(计算机语言学): It centers around how computers can process or produce human languag
e.
e. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学): It is the study of the relationship between brain and language
~ The brain stem(脑干)：Being the lower section of the brain, it keeps the body alive by maintaining the essential functions like espiration, heart rate, and muscle coordination.
* Bottom-up processing(自下而上处理方式):
When a person hears a sentence, he performs phonetic analysis to isolate phonemes and word boundaries, and to relate these to representations in the mental lexicon.
Top-down processing(自上而下处理方式):
Learners do not wait until they have analyzed all the phonemes in a sentence before they begin to try to understand it.
Rather, they begin interpretation spontaneously and automatically based on whatever information is available to them. 3. 著名差异
1) Prescriptive(规定性研究)：着重观察、总结语言中的“标准standards”，以规定人们应如何说、写。
Descriptive(描述性研究)：着重观察、分析语言中的“事实facts”，以描述人们一般如何说写。
~ The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.
2) Synchronic(共时研究)：研究某特定时期的语言，如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时代语言研究等。
Diachronic(历时研究-Saussure)：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律。
3) Langue(语言-Saussure): 指语言系统的整体，相对较稳定。
Parole(言语-Saussure): 指代某个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语。
4) Competence(语言能力-Chomsky)：A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
Performance(语言运用-Chomsky)：The actual use of language in concrete situations.
*Saussure着重从social perspective研究语言，Chomsky则从the knowledge base of the language users看待语言。
一、Phonetics语音学- It studies all the sounds that occur in the world.
1. Scope(分支): A speech sound goes through a three-step process. Each studies dealing with one part of the process.
1) Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)：It is the study of the production of speech sounds.
2) Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)：It is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.
3) Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)：It is concerned with the perception of the sounds produced in speech.
2.Speech/Vocal organs(发音器官)：vocal cords(声带) - 位于the larynx(咽喉)中，咽喉突出部分为t he Adam’s Apple(喉结)
3 cavities(回声腔) - the pharynx(咽腔); the oral cavity(口腔); the nasal cavity(鼻腔) Speech sounds(言语语音)：语音学研究对象，亦叫segment(音段)/phone(音素)；分consonants(辅音)和vowels(元音)
3.Consonants(辅音)
1) Definition：There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract. (发音过程中产生气流阻塞的音)
In the production of consonants, at least two articulators(发音器官) are involved.
2) Categories: Manners of articulation(发音方式) - stop; fricative; affricates; lateral(边音); (median) approximant(中通音)
Places of articulation(发音部位) - bilabial; labiodentals; dental; alveolar; palatal; velar; glottal;
postalveolar(后齿龈音); retroflex(卷舌音); velar(小舌音); pharyngeal(咽音)
3)特征: Voicing(清浊特征):声带是否震动; voiced consonants(浊辅音) & voiceless consonants(清辅音)
Aspiration(送气特征): articulated with a strong air stream pushing out
4. Vowels元音
1) 概念：A sound pronounced with no obstruction of the air stream(发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音)
2) 分类：the position of the tongue(舌翘)：front—/i/ /e/ /a/；back—/o/ /u/ ; central
the extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate(舌高)：high—/i/ /u/；mid—/e/ /o/；low—/a/
the shape of the lips(唇形)：unrounded—/i/ /e/ /a/；rounded—/o/ /u/
the position of the soft palate(软腭): raised for oral vowels; lowered for vowels which have been nasalized(鼻音)
the openness of the mouth: close vowels; semi-close vowels; semi-open vowels; open vowels
the length of the vowels E.g: /a/- front, low, unrounded /e/-front, mid, unrounded
3) Cardinal vowels(标准元音): 1844, 首先由A. J. Ellis提出，再由Daniel Jones完善。
The system defines 8 primary cardinal vowels to which a further set of secondary cardinal vowels can be defined.
由一组任意确定的元音组成，这些元音都作为抽象单位存在，为描述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架。
~ Coarticulation/Assimilation(协同发音): 在一个语音群中，一个语音总会带上其附近语音的某种性质，即语音同化，如鼻化–can。
a. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is anticipatory coarticulation().
b. If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation().
5. IPA chart(国际音标图)：1886，IPA在法国成立- Otto Jespersen首次提出建立音标图。
1888，首版IPA chart(International Phonetic Alphabet)出版。
1920s，Daniel Jones在伦敦大学与同事推出了现在通用的国际音标图。
二、Phonology音位学–从功能角度，对某种语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行研究。
1. 定义：It studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. It is the study of the sound system of languages.
1) Phonetics：着重语言的physical properties(自然属性)，关注所有语言中人能发出的所有声音，是音位学研究的基础；
2) Phonology：着重语音的social functions(社会功能)，对象是某种语言中可以组合成词句的那些语音
2. Phone, Phonemes and Allophones音素、音位与音位变体
1) Minimal Pairs(最小语音对)：两个不同意义的词之间的差别仅为一个phoneme(音位)。pen & pin
2)Phone: It is a phonetic unit or segment(音段).
3) Phoneme(音位)：The smallest phonological unit of sound in a language that is capable of distinguishing words.
If a phoneme is substituted for another in a word and the substitution results in a change of the word meaning, the two phonemes are said to be distinctive phonemes(区分性音位).
4) Allophones(音位变体)：An allophone refers to any different forms of a phoneme. 没有区分表义单位作用的音段
* Phoneme vs. Allophone：音位具有区别性，是抽象、理想化的单位，具有系统性；
音位变体都属于同个音位，共同代表或源于音位，是音位在实际环境中的体现。
5) Complementary Distribution(互补分布): Allophones of the same phoneme that never occur in the same context.
音位变体处在互补分布中，从不出现在相同环境中。如，不送气的/p/总出现在/s/后，而送气的/p/总出现在其他位置。
Contrastive Distribution(对比性分布): 两个音段处于同一语音环境中，而产生两个不同词。如，最小语音对中的不同音段。
6) Free Variation(自由变体): 一个音位可有自由变体，因此，同一词可发两个音。这多源自方言、习惯或个人爱好，与分布规律无关。
3. Phonological Processes and Phonological Rules音系过程和音系规则
1) Phonological Process: 目标或受影响音段在特定环境中发生结构上的变化。任何音系过程都包括三方面：
a. a set of sounds to undergo the process
b. a set of sounds produced by the process
c. a set of situation in which the process applies
2) Phonological Rule: It is a general rule to indicate a phonological process.
4. Distinctive Features: Some properties can distinguish one phoneme from another, those are distinctive features. Besides voicing, there are many other features, and many of them are binary features(二元特征) because we can divide them into two categories: one with the feature & one without
* Stops, fricative and affricatives are obstruents(阻音). All other consonants and vowels are called sonorants(响音).
5.Suprasegmental Features(超音段特征): syllable, stress, tone and intonation
Suprasegmental phonology: stress, tone and intonation Stress(重音)+ Length(音长)+ Pitch(音高) = intonation(语调)
1) Syllable(音节)：大于音段但小于单词的单位；单词可以分为monosyllabic word(单音节词)和polysyllabic word(多音节词)
All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda
a. Syllabic Structure(音节结构)：We can divide a syllable into two parts, the rhyme(韵基) and the onset(节首-一般为辅音).
As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus(节核-元音), the consonant(s) after it is the coda(韵尾-一般为辅音).
* Previous discussion has been concentrated on linear phonology(线性音位学), as initiated by Chomsky and Halle.
The syllabic structure, however, is often represented by a tree diagram. Such theories are called non-linear phonology.
2) Consonant cluster(辅音群)：几个辅音组合成为单词一部分。一般作onset的辅音群不超过3辅音，作coda的不超过4辅音
3) Sonority Scale(响音阶): The sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peat at the nucleus and then falls at the coda.
4) Pitch：指某个语音单位(音段或者超音段)，因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。
5) Stress: Notional words are always stressed while structural words are not.
a. 单词重音：位置固定，可分三级——zero零重音，secondary次重音，和primary主要重音
b. 句子重音：structural(结构重音)：句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读，
contrastive(强调重音)：指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调，句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节
grammatical(语法重音)：约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音，如重读实词，轻读虚词等
三、Morphology形态学- It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
* Word：a physically definable unit, a common facter underlying a set of forms, a grammatical unit，介于词组和语素之间
1) Lexical words(实词)：传递实际语义内容的词，包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv.
2) Functional words(虚词)：承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词，包括prep. Articles冠词，pronoun. Conj.连词等
3) open class words(开放词)：可无限容纳新成员，如名形、部分动词/副词等，大部分为实义词；
closed class words: 无法或很难容纳新成员，如介代连指冠情态等
1. The Formation of Word
free morpheme ---- free root(自由词根)
morpheme bound root(粘着词根) inflectional affixes(屈折词缀): toys, walks
bound morpheme affixes derivational affixes(派生词缀)：generate - generation
1) Morpheme(词素)：The smallest unit of language that cannot be divided into smaller units without destroying its meaning.
a. free morpheme(自由词素)：可以独立出现、独立成词的词素。如girl，rely等
b. bound morpheme(黏着词素)：必须与其它语素一起出现的词素，词缀居多。如pre-，-al，-ment，dis-等
c. root(词根)：单词的基础，无法再分割成更小的单位。All words contain a root morpheme.
d. stem(词干)：可以附加词缀的词素或词素群; 词干>词根，如education是词干，词根是educate
e. affix(词缀)：An affix can be used only when added to another morpheme. prefix; suffix; infix
2. Inflection and Word Formation
1) Inflection(曲折变化): The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of affixes. table - tables
2) Word Formation: The process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.
a. Compound(合成): birdseed, bodyguard, simple-minded, traffic light
b. Derivation(派生): It changes the word class of the original word. un conscious, nation al
3. Lexical Change:New words are created through the following processes.
1) Invention/coinage: nylon 2) Back-formation: editor-edit 3) Blending: breakfast + lunch = brunch 4) Abbreviation: advertisement-ad; omnibus-bus; influenza-flu 5) Acronym: WTO
6) Analogical creation(类推构词): work – wrought/worked 7) Borrowing: kimchi; tofu
4. Semantic Change(changes in meaning): 1) Broadening/widening2) Narrowing3) Meaning shift(词义转移)
5. Vocabulary Change: 1) loss of words 2) c hanges in the meaning of words (widening; narrowing; meaning shift)
3) addition of new words: coinage; clipped words; blending; acronyms; back-formation; functional-shift; borrowing
四、Syntax句法学–It studies the formation of sentences.
~ Category: It refers to a group f linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
~ Syntactic category(句法范畴): 能在句子中起相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。
句法范畴不同于词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句法范畴。
1. Traditional Approach(传统学派): A sentence is a sequence of words. Hence, it involves lots of study of words.
1) Number: a category of the noun and pronoun, some verbs. I, we; do, does
2) Gender: Masculine, Feminine and Neuter
3) Case(格): nominative(主格), accusative(宾格), genitive(属格), dative(与格), ablative(离格), vocative(呼格); 英语只有前三种
4) Tense(时): past and present
5) Aspect(体): perfective(完成体); imperfective(未完成体)
6) Concord(一致关系): 两个或更多单词在特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致。如，主谓关系，修饰语和被修饰语。
Government(支配关系): 单词因受到相邻词语支配而必须与其保持某个范畴的一致。She gave him a book
2. The Structural Approach(结构主义学派-Saussure)
1) Structuralism: Saussure argues that linguistic units are interrelated with each other in structure, not isolated.
Language is a system of signs, each consists of two parts: signified (concept 所指), signifie r (sound image 能指).
Consequently, one needs to find the value of a sign from its relations to others in order to explain individual signs.
2) Syntagmatic relations(横组合关系)/Linear relations：即word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系。He kicked the ball.
Paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)：即联想关系，在某个位置上，成分可以互相替换。___ is smiling.
~ 这两种关系一起决定了语言符号的身份。
3) Structure: the sequence, which a sign forms with those other signs in a syntagmatic relation.
System: the class of signs, which are in paradigmatic relation.
4) Construction & Constituents(结构与成分):
Sentences do not only have a linear structure, but also a hierarchical structure(层级结构).
a. Usually, sentences and phrases are referred to as constructions.
The component elements of construction are called as constituents.
b. A constituent which is not at the same time a constructions is a morpheme.
A construction, which is not at the same time a constituent, is a sentence.
5) Immediate Constituents(直接成分): It refers to the constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction.
IC Analysis (直接成分分析法): 简作通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段
The IC analysis of a sentence is easily shown with a tree diagram
6) Endocentric construction(向心结构)：有核心的结构体。Subordinate(从属-poor John)和Coordinate(平行-boys and girls)
Exocentric construction(离心结构)：无核心的结构体，任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。on the shelf
3. The Generative Approach(生成学派)
1) Transformational Generative Gramma r(转换生成语法-Chomsky 1957)：Any language has two levels of structures
所有语言形式都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来。其主要内容是短语结构规则和转换规则。
a.Deep Structure：抽象的句法结构，位于语法生成模式最深层，句子各部分间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来
Surface Structure：通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果，是说话人实际说出的句子。
b.Phrase: Phrase = head (中心语) + specifier (标志语) + complement (补足语)
Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category aournd which the phrase is built. NP(名词短语); VP(动词短语); AP(形容词短语); PP(介词短语) ~ Phrase structure rule: A special grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.
4.The Functional Approach(功能学派)
1) Systematic-functional Grammar(系统功能语法-Halliday)
主要关注语言和社会之间的关系，认为语言是种做事的方式，研究语言与环境的关系，重视对个别语言及个别变体的描写。
a. The systemic part: Language elements can form into system. The items are in choice relation with each other
b. The functional part: Language is a social phenomenon. Halliday relates functions of languages to its structures.
2) Theme(主位): It is known in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds.
Rheme(述位): It is what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance.
3) Communicative Dymanmism(交际动力- J. Firbas 1964)：用CD表示句子成分对交际发展所起作用
Firbas认为，主位是由句子中交际动力最小的成分构成的，不一定是传达已知信息或能从上下文、情境中获得的信息。
4) Ideational Function(概念功能)：Language serves for the expression of content, and the speaker’s real experience.
Interpersonal Function: Language serves to establish and maintain social relations. It constructs social relations.
Textual Function(文本功能)：Language has to provide for making links with itself. It creates the relevance to context.
五、Semantics语义学– It studies the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
1. 各派观点
1) Contextualism(语境主义)：J.R. Firth(英国语言学家) – We shall know a word by the company it keeps.
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, and context-elements closely linked with language behavior.
It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
Two contexts: the situational context & the linguistic context.
2) Behaviorism(Bloomfield)：It attempts to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker
utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” It links with psychological interest.
3) The Conceptualist View(概念主义观点)：Semantic triangle- Ogden and Richards
Following Saussure’s “Sign Theory”, they have succeeded in revealing that there is no direct relation between the word and its object. In the triangle, the “symbol” or the form refers to the linguistic elements (words), the “referent” refers to th e object in the world of experience, and “thought” or “reference” refers to the concept or notion. Thus, the symbol signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word, in the mind of the speaker of a language.
2. 语义学的七种意义(Geoffrey Leech):
1) Conceptual Meaning(概念意义)：中心概念，表示单词和其所指代的事物之间的关系，类似于“Reference”
2) Associative Meaning(联想意义)：●Connotative(内涵意义)：指在交际中语言所传达出来的意思
●Social(社会意义)：使用语言时传达出的有关社会场合的信息
●Affective(情感意义)：指说话人或作者表达出来的情感或态度
●Reflected(反映意义)：通过联想某个表达法的别种意义而产生出来的意义
●Collocative(搭配意义)：通过联想经常同现于一个语境中的单词而产生的意义
3) Thematic Meanings(主题意义)：通过信息的组织方式而传达的意义
3. Lexical Meaning
1) Sense: 涵义是关于语言形式的内部意义，是语言形式所有特点的集合，是抽象和非语境化的。
Reference:所指，指一种语言形式在现实世界中所指代的事物，主要研究语言元素和非语言经验世界间的关系。
2) Sense Relations(语义关系)
~ Polysemy(一词多义): present; tear
~ Antonymy(反义)：Gradable- good/bad; Complementary-alive/dead; Converse-buy/sell
~ Synonymy(同义)：native words & borrowed/loan words
a. Dialectal synonyms: autumn-fall
b. Stylistic synonyms: kid-child
c. Emotive/evaluative meaning(感情/评估意义): collaborator – accomplice
d. Collocational synonyms(固定搭配): accus
e...of – charge...with
e. Semantically different synonyms: amaze – astound - surprise
~ Homonymy(同音同形异义):
Homophones(同音异义)– rain/reign; Homographs(同形异义)– tear(v. n.); Complete homonyms: fast(adj. v.)
~ Hyponymy(上下义): Superordinate(上义词) & Hyponym(下义词) animals - dog, cat
4. Analysis of meaning(语义分析)
1) componential analysis(成分分析- structural semanticists):
It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of meaning components, called semantic features.
2) predication analysis(述谓分析- G. Leech):
The meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it.
~ 根据述谓结构中中项ARGUMENT的多少，我们可分为Two-place predicate(二向谓词): 包含两个中项;
One-place predicate(一向谓词): 包含一个中项; No-place predicate(零向谓词): 不含中项
5. Sense Relations Between Sentences(语句之间的涵义关系)
1) X is synonymous with Y. (同义)：The boy killed the dog./ The dog was killed by the boy.
2) X is inconsistent with Y. (矛盾): John is married. / John is a bachelor.
3) X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X. 衍推): John married a blond heiress. / John married a blond.
4) X presuppose s Y. (预设，Y是X的前提条件prerequisite)：His bike needs repairing. / He has a bike.
5) X is a contradiction. (自相矛盾句): My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6) X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常句): The table has bad intentions.
六、Pragmatics语用学–如何通过语境来理解和使用语言; the study of language in actual use
1. 定义：It studies natural language understanding, and specifically how context influences the interpretation of meanings.
Meaning in pragmatics is different from the meaning we studied in semantics mostly in the sense that pragmatic
meaning depends more on context.
2. Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论- John Langshaw Austin): things can be done with words
1) Performative and Constative(行事话语与叙事话语)：two types of sentences
a. If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action, the sentences are called performatives.
And verbs like name are called performative verbs.
b. Constatives are descriptions of what the speaker is doing at the moment of speaking.
2) A Theory of the Illocutionary Act(行事行为理论)
●Locutionary Act(言内行为)：指“说话”行为本身，表示的字面意思。
●Illocutionary Act(言外行为)：指说话时，因为言语本身的一些习惯力量而随之产生了其他的一些行为，如允诺、警告等。
●Indirect Speech Act(言后行为)：指话语在听者身上产生的效果。
3.The Theory of Conversational Implicature(会话含义理论-Herbert Paul Grice)：
1) The Cooperative Principles:说话人和听话人之间为了达到某个共同交际目标形成的一种默契和原则
●Quantity Maxim(数量准则):Make it as informative as is required, but not too much.
●Quality Maxim(质量准则)：Make it true; Do not say what you believe to be false or lack adequate evidence.
●Relation Maxim(关联准则)：Be relevant
●Manner Maxim(方式准则)：Be perspicuous –避免晦涩、歧义；要简练、有序
2) Characteristics of Implicature(含义的特征):
a. Calculability(可推导性): The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicature and hearers are able to
understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable.
b. Cancellability(可取消性): A conversational implicature may be cancelled.
c. Non-Conventionality(非规约性): Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional words meaning .
d. Non-Detachability(不可分离性): It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what
is said, not to the linguistic form.
*Conversational Implicature(会话含义)：当言者公然不执行某原则，且让听者知道他在违反，以让对方体会到言外之意，即会话含义。
4. Post-Gricean Developments后格莱斯时期
1) Relevance Theory (Dan Sperber & Deirdre Wilson):
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. Communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something, and this act is called as ostensive act.
2) The Q- and R-principles(数量原则和关系原则-Laurence Horn):
a. the Q-principle(hearer-based)：make your contribution sufficient; say as much as you can
b. the R-principle(speaker-based): make your contribution necessary; say no more than you must
七、Language and Society- Sociolinguistics
1. Speech community(言语社团): The social group that is singled out for any special study.
For general linguistics, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
Sociolinguists would define speech community as a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms. 2. Speech variety(言语变体): It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
3. Varieties of language: Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.
a. Dialects
1) Regional dialect(地域方言): It is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
2) Sociolect(社会方言): It has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.
Sociolect, or social-class dialect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
3) Idiolect(个人语言): It is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social
gender, and age variations.
4) Ethnic dialect(种族方言): It is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences.
It is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social
isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation
b. Register(语域): 由于交际场合情境不同而产生的不同程度的语言变体。
1) 3 social variables that determine the register:
A) field of discourse(话语范围): 指谈话的题材，可technica l(专业性)或non-technical(非专业性)。
B) tenor of discourse(话语体式): 依赖于交际参与者之间的关系，决定了谈话以正式、随便、亲密等文体进行。
C) mode of discourse(话语方式): 指进行交际的手段——主要通过口语或书面体。
5. Degree of formality: intimate(亲密体); casual(随便体); consultative(询议体); formal(正式体); frozen(刻板体)
6. Standard dialect(标准语): It is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language
users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless
of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.
Pidgin(洋泾浜语): 指一种特殊的语言混合体，通常因特定原因，如经商，原本讲不同语言的人们为进行直接的交际目的而创造的变体。Creole(混合语/克里奥耳语): 一种已固定的洋泾浜语，以满足全部或大部分日常交际需要，并被该社团儿童作母语习得。
7. Bilingualism(双语现象): 两种语言并存，每种都有其不同地位和作用。
8. Diglossia(双言制): 两种截然不同的实体存在于社会中，每种都有其不同地位和作用。一般说来，其中一种变体仅用于正式和公共场合，
而另一种变体则是每个人在正常的日常生活中使用。二者在使用场合上各有分工，极少交叉。
八、Language and Culture
1. Culture: In a broad sense, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of beliefs, customs, objects,
institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.
In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs which can be mostly found in
folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.
2. Intercultural/cross-cultural communication: The communication between people whose cultural perceptions and
symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
3.Linguistic imperialism(帝国主义): A kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies
through the world-wide expansion of one language.
Linguistic nationalism(民族主义): Some countries adopt special language policy to protect the purity of their languages
4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences.
5. The Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH 关键期假说): There is a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.
1) The strong one: Children must acquire their first language by puberty or they can never learn from subsequent exposure.
2) Language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty(青春期).
3) Different development
a. Phonological development: The sequence to acquire the sounds is like a system of prerequisites, that is, the child must
pass each stage before he can proceed to the next one.
b. Vocabulary development: Under-extension(扩展不足– to deny birds are animals)
Over-extension(过度扩展- A child may take a property of an object and generalize it)
c. Grammatical development: Children acquire their grammatical structures in a predictable order – from easy to complex.
2 years old – produce two-word utterances which contain content words and lack the function elements
6 months later – two-word utterances will develop into sentences which contain three main elements.
d. Pragmatic development: 3 years old – vary speech styles, pay attention to the appropriate use of language, respond to
indirect requests and produce polite direct request.
Elementary school – produce both direct and indirect requests.
Seven or eight years old – able to write
e. Atypical development (非典型发展): It may occur due to trauma or injury
2003年英语专八人文知识真题 31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America. [A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day 32. The university of Dublin was not founded until . [A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century 33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898. [A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party 34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to . [A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century [C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the ?fth century, the seventh century 35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens? [A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times [C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers 36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period. [A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams 37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age. [A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound 38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories. [A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent [C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government 39. studies the sound systems in a certain language. [A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics 40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called . [A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism 2004年英语专八人文知识真题 31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT . [A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics 32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year. [A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter 33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992. [A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating 34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream". [A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr [C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson 35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. [A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson [C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding 36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .
2020年英语专八人文知识练习题2020年英语专八人文知识练习题 Part 1. Colonial America 殖民地时期的美国文学 Thomas Paine 托马斯·潘恩(1737-1809)： The Case of the Officers of Excise税务员问题; Common Sense常识; American Crisis美国危机; Rights of Man：Downfall of Despotism人的权利：****体制的崩溃; The Age of Reason理性时代 Philip Freneau 菲利普·弗伦诺(1752-1832)： The Rising Glory of America蒸蒸日上的美洲; The British Prison Ship英国囚船; To the Memory of the Brave Americans纪念美国勇士; The Wild Honeysuckle野生的金银花; The Indian Burying Ground印第安人殡葬地 Jonathan Edwards 乔纳森·爱德华(1702—1758)： The Freedom of the Will自由意志论; The Great Doctrine of Original Sin defended伟哉原罪论辩; The Nature of True Virtue 真美德的性质 Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林(1706-1790)：
A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Money; Po or Richard’s Almanack穷查理历书; The Way to Wealth致富之道; The Autobiography自传 Part 2. American Romanticism 美国浪漫主义文学 Washington Irving 华盛顿·欧文(1783-1859)： A History of New York纽约的历史——美国人写的第一部诙谐文学杰作; The SketchBook见闻札记; The Legend of Sleepy Hollow睡谷的传说——使之成为美国第一个获得国际声誉的作家; Bracebridge Hall布雷斯布里奇田庄; Talks of Travellers旅客谈; The Alhambra阿尔罕伯拉 James Fenimore Cooper 詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀(1789-1851)： The Spy间谍; The Pilot领航者; The Littlepage Manuscripts利特佩奇的手稿; Leatherstocking Tales皮裹腿故事集：The Pioneer拓荒者;The Last of Mohicans最后的莫希干人;The Prairie大草原;The Pathfinder探路者;The Deerslayer杀鹿者
英语专八英美文学常识汇总
3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france and connects the atlantic ocean and north sea. 英吉利海峡：英吉利海峡是一道狭长的海峡，分割英法两国，连接大西洋和北海。 the dee estuary: a small sea ( in irish sea) where the dee river enters. 迪河河口：是迪河流入的一个小海。 "the act of union of 1801": in 1801 the english parliament passed an act by which scotland, wales and the kingdom of england were constitutionally joined as the kingdom of great britain. 1801合并法：1801年英国议会通过法令，规定英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士根据宪法合并成为大不列颠王国。 gaelic: it is one of the celtic language, and is spoken in parts of the highlands. 盖尔语：是盖尔特语言的一种，在高地地区仍有人说这种语言。 the "backbone of england": it refers to the pennies, the board ridge of hills.
专八人文知识(练习题) 篇一：★英语专八人文知识题与答案 英语专业八级人文知识 试题(1) 美国概况练习题： 1. The traditional dividing line in America between “east” and “west” is_____. 2. The earliest part in America to be found and taken over by early settlers is ____. 3. The largest racial group in the whole population of U.S.A is____. 4. Before 2000, the largest minority group in the United States is____. has the world’s oldest written constitution and political party. 6. The economic problem caused by the depression in 1929 was eventually solved by____. years. institutions. 9. The three main levels of courts of the federal judicial system in America are____________. 10. _____ (which state ) is not governed by the common law. 练习题答案及题解:
英国文学 一、古英语时期的英国文学（499-1066） 1、贝奥武夫 2、阿尔弗雷德大帝：英国散文之父 二、中古英语时期的英国文学 1、allegory体非常盛行 2、Romance开始上升到一定的高度 3、高文爵士和绿衣骑士 4、Willian Langlaud 《农夫皮尔斯的幻象》 5、乔叟坎特伯雷故事集（英雄双韵体） 6、托马斯.马洛礼《亚瑟王之死》 三、文艺复兴时期的英国文学（伊丽莎白时代）（14-16世纪） 1、托马斯.莫尔《乌托邦》 2、Thomas Wyatt 和Henry Howard引入sonnet 3、Philips Sidney 《The defense of Poesie》 《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活；现代长篇小说的先驱 4、斯宾塞《仙后》诗人中的诗人；斯宾塞体诗节； 5、莎士比亚： 长篇叙事诗：《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》、《露克丝受辱记》 四大悲剧：哈姆雷特、李尔王、奥赛罗、麦克白 7、本.琼森风俗喜剧（comedy of manners）《人性互异》 8、约翰.多恩“玄学派”诗歌创始人 9、George Herbert 玄学派诗圣
10、弗朗西斯.培根现代科学和唯物主义哲学创始人之一 《Essays》英国发展史上的里程碑 《学术的推进》和《新工具》 四、启蒙时期（18世纪） 1、约翰、弥尔顿：《失乐园》、《为英国人民争辩》 2、约翰、班扬：《天路历程》religious allegory 3、约翰、德莱顿：英国新古典主义的杰出代表、桂冠诗人； 《论戏剧诗》 4、亚历山大.蒲柏：英国新古典主义诗歌的重要代表；英雄双韵体的使用达到登峰造极的使用；《田园组诗》是其最早田园诗歌代表作 5、托马斯、格雷：感伤主义中墓园诗派的代表人物《墓园挽歌》 6、威廉、布莱克：天真之歌、经验之歌； 7、罗伯特、彭斯：苏格兰最杰出的农民诗人； 8、Richard Steel和Joseph Addison合作创办《The tatler》和《the spectator》 9、Samuel defoe 英国现实主义小说的奠基人之一；《鲁滨逊漂流记》；《铲除非国教徒的捷径》，仪表达自己的不满； 10、Jonathan Swift 《一个小小的建议》；《格列佛游记》；《桶的故事》； 11、Samuel Richardson 英国现代小说的创始人；帕米拉；克拉丽莎；查尔斯.格蓝迪森爵士的历史； 12、Henry Fielding 英国现实主义小说理论的奠基人；《约瑟夫。安德鲁》；《汤姆.琼斯》，英国现实主义小说的最高成就； 13、劳伦斯、斯特恩：感伤主义小说的杰出代表，《项狄传》，第一部开创了意识流小说的先驱之作品；《感伤的旅行》 14、Oliver Goldsmith：《好心人》；《屈伸求爱》；《威客菲尔德牧师传》，感伤主义文学； 诗歌《荒村》从新古典主义向浪漫主义过渡的标志； 散文作品《世界公民》； 15、谢里丹：《造谣学校》，莎士比亚之后最杰出的英国喜剧，是整个英国史上最优秀的作品之一；达到英国“风俗喜剧”之巅； 五、维多利亚时期的英国文学（19世纪）
2003年英语专八人文知识真题 31.is not a n atio nally observed holiday of America. [A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Tha nksgivi ng Day [D] Independence Day 32.The uni versity of Dubli n was not foun ded un til . [A] the 19th cen tury [B] the 18th cen tury [C] the 17th cen tury [D] the 16th cen tury 33.The in troduced old-age pensions in New Zeala nd in 1898. [A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Con servative Party 34.Irish culture exp erie need a golde n age from to . [A] the eighth cen tury, the eleve nth cen tury [B] the seve nth cen tury, the ninth cen tury [C] the sixth cen tury, the eighth cen tury [D] the ?fth cen tury, the seve nth cen tury 35.Which of the follow ing writ ings is not the work by Charles Dicke ns? [A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times [C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers 36.is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the moder ni stic p eriod. [A] Si nclair Lewis [B] Euge ne O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tenn essee Williams 37.is often acclaimed literary sp okesma n of the Jazz Age. [A] Ernest Hemi ngway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulk ner [D] Ezra Pou nd 38.is a relati onship in which a word of a certa in class determ ines the form of others in terms of certa in categories. [A] Con cord [B] Immediate con stitue nt [C] Syn tagmatic relatio ns [D] Gover nment 39.studies the sound systems in a certa in Ian guage. [A] Pho netics [B] Phon ology [C] Sema ntics [D] P ragmatics 40.A lin guistic situati on in which two sta ndard Ian guages are used either by an in dividual or by a group of sp eakers is called . [A] situati onal dialect [B] sla ng [C] li nguistic taboo [D] bil in gualism 2004年英语专八人文知识真题 31.The followi ng are p roducts imp orted by Australia from Ch ina EXCE PT . [A] food [B] textiles [C] steel p roducts [D] electro nics 32.Scots regard as the most imp orta nt festival in a year. [A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter 33.The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became P rime Mi nister in 1992. [A] Joh n Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keat ing 34.was known for his famous sp eech "I have a dream". [A] Joh n F. Kennedy [B] Marti n Luther Kin g, Jr [C] Abraham Li ncoln [D] Thomas Jeffers on 35.Of all the 18th century novelists, ___________ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the moder n novel its structure and style. [A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Joh nson [C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] He nry Feildi ng 36.Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th cen tury America n writers, is well known for his . [A] international theme [B] waste-land imagery [C] local color [D] symbolism
英语专八人文知识考试总结 1 专八考试人文知识考试内容总结 其中英美文学包括英国文学和美国文学。英国文学主要分为六个时期： 1. Old and Medieval English Literature（中古英国文学）。 2. The Renaissance Period（文艺复兴时期）。 3. The Neoclassical Period（新古典主义时期）。 4. The Romantic Period（维多利亚时期）。 5. The Victorian Period（维多利亚时期）。 6. The Modern Period（现代时期）。 美国文学主要分为四个时期： 1. The Literature Around the Revolution of Independence（独立革命前后的文学）。 2. American Romanticism（美国浪漫主义文学）。 3. American Realism（美国现实主义文学）。 4. American Modernism（美国现代主义文学）。 语言学，考生不光要知道语言的本质还要掌握语音学，音位学，形态学，句法学，语义学和语言学的知识。 关于英语国家概况，英语专业的学生都会开设英美概况这门课程，但是专八考试的中需要考生了解的是英语国家概况，不光包括英国和美国，还有其他一些说英语的地区，包括爱尔兰概况，加拿大概况，澳大利亚概况和新西兰概况。 3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france
专八人文知识总结(终) 英语专业八级考试人文知识 -- 文学 Ⅰ英国文学 一、 The Anglo-Saxon period古英语时期的英国文学（499-1066） The Song of Beowulf（贝奥武甫）：英国的民族史诗（epic），口头文学遗产 二、 The Anglo-Norman period中古英语时期的英国文学（1066-1350） 1、 allegory非常盛行 2、 Romance（传奇文学）：Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 高文爵士和绿衣骑 士 3、Geoffrey Chaucer乔叟: “Father of English poetry”被誉为英国诗歌之父,代表作The Canterbury Tales，首引入“英雄偶句体”(the Heroic Couplet)，。 4、Ballads 民谣：Robin Hood and Allin-a-Dale《罗宾汉和阿林代尔》。 三、 The Renaissance文艺复兴时期的英国文学（伊丽莎白时代）（14-16世纪） 1、 Thomas More托马斯·莫尔： Utopia《乌托邦》 2、 Thomas Wyatt 最先将sonnet引入英国文学。 3、 Philips Sidney锡德尼：An Apology for Poetry((also known as The Defense of Poetry)《为诗辩护》，这是伊丽莎白时代文学批评的最佳之作。Arcadia《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活；现代长篇小说的先驱。 4、Edmund Spenser斯宾塞: The Fairy Queen《仙后》, the greatest epic poem of the time. 5、William Shakespeare莎士比亚：plays and sonnets 四大悲剧:《哈姆雷特》Hamlet《奥赛罗》Othello《李尔王》king Lear《麦克白》Macbeth 四大喜剧:《威尼斯商人》The Merchant of Venice 《仲夏夜之梦》A Midsummer Night's Dream《皆大欢喜》As You Like It《第十二夜》Twelfth night 7、Ben Johnson 本·琼森风俗喜剧（comedy of manners）《人性互异》 8、 John Donne约翰·多恩metaphysical poet“玄学派”诗歌创始人
TEM-8翻译必备，英语专业的顶起来哦~作者：邱妍 （1）把握大局：grasp the overall situation (2) 摆谱儿：put on airs;keep up appearances(3)白手起家:start from scratc h (4)拜年：pay New Year call (5)班门弄斧：teach one's grand ma to suck eggs (5)保质期：guarantee period(6)报销：apply for reimbursement(7)爆冷门：produce an unexpected answer(8)曝光：make public(9)奔小康：strive for a relatively comforta ble life(10)闭门羹：given cold-shoulder（11）比上不足，比下有余：fall short of the best,but be better than the best(12)逼上梁山：be driven to drastic alternatives(13)变相涨价：dis guised inflation(14)边远贫困地区：outlying poverty-stricken areas(15)边缘知识人：Marginal intellectuals(16)表面文章：Lip service;surface formality(17) 博导：Ph.D supervisor(18)补 发拖欠的养脑筋：Clear up pension payments in arrears(19)不眠之夜：white night(20)菜鸟：green hand(21)产品科技含量techn oligical element of a product(22)长江三角洲：Yangtze River de lta(23)长江中下游：the middle and lower reaches of Changjian g River(24)超前消费:pre-mature consumption(25)城镇居民最低 生活保障：a minimum standard of living for residents(26)城镇职工医疗保险制度：the system of medical insurance for urban w orkers(27)重复建设：buiding redundant project;duplication of similar projects(28)充值卡：rechargeable card(29)春运：pas senger transport around the Chinese lunar new year(30)打破僵局：break the deadlock/stalemate(31)电脑盲：computer illiter ate(32)点球：penalty kick(33)电视会议：video conference(34)电视直销：TV home shopping(35)定向培训：training for specifi c posts(36)动感电影：multidimensional movie(37)豆腐渣工程：jerry-built projects(38)对...毫无顾忌：make no bones abou t(39)夺冠：take the crown(40)政治多元化：political pluralis m(41)服务行业：catering industry(42)复合型人才：inter-disci plinary talent(43)岗位培训：on-the-job training（44）高等教育自学考试：self-study higher education examination(45)高新技术产业开发区：high and new technological industrial develop ment zone(46)各大菜系：major styles of cooking(47)各行各 业：every walk of life(48)功夫不负有心人：Everything comes t o him who waits(49)各尽其能：let each person do his best(50)公益活动：public welfare activities(51)工薪阶层：state emplo yee;salaried person(52)过犹不及：going too far ia as bad as
精品文档 今日话题：辅音如何分类 1. 发音部位（places of articulation）：双唇音(bilabial)、唇齿音(labiodental)、齿间音(dental)等； 2.发音方法(manners of articulation)：、爆破音(stop)、摩擦音(fricatives)、破擦音(affricates)、鼻音(nasal)、边音(lateral)等； 3.声带状态：清辅音、浊辅音。 因此更正第七期第十道 10. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc, in terms of ____ A manner of articulation B openness of mouth C place of articulation D voicing 选择A而不是C 1. St. Lawrence and River Columbia are shared by both _b___ A America and Mexico B America and Canada C America and Cuba D America and Brazil 2. European settlement of Australia began in the late part of _c___ when a British penal colony was established on the east coast of the continent. A the 16th century B the 17th century C the 18th century D the 19th century 3. Which sport is supposed to be America's national sport and used to be call “American's favorable pastime”? a A baseball B basketball C rugby D cricket 4. The largest city in New Zealand is b____ A Auckland B Wellington C Christchurch D Dunedin 5. After Adam Bede,____wrote The Mill on the Floss and Silas Marner in which moral problems arediscussed and psychological analysis of characters are emphasized. A George Eliot B Jane Austin C George Dickens D Charlotte Bronte 6.All of the following odes are written by John Keats EXCEPT____ A Ode to Autumn B Ode to a Nightingale C Ode to a Skylark D Ode on Melancholy 7. Of____'s four famous comedies, the best known is Lady Windermere's Fan. A Oscar Wilde B Richard Sheridan C Bernard Shaw D Somerset Maugham 8. If the air stream meets with no obstruction when a sound is pronounced, it is a(n) __c__ A voiced consonant B voiceless consonant C vowel D explosive 9. The internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is ____ A I.P.A B I.A.P.S C I.S.S D S.S.I.P 10. With the __d__, Latin words were added into the vocabulary of the language spoken in Britain. A invasion of the Romans B Christianization of Britain C Scandinavian invasion D Norman Conquest 答案 BCAAA CACAB 9. 国际音标（international phonetic alphabet）是目前世界上比较通行的音标，简称IPA，最初制定于1889年
2021年英语专业八级考试人文知识精选练习题 及答案2 1 _____is the largest city and the chief port of the United States. A Washington D.C. B Los Angeles C San Francisco D New York City 2 The flag of the United Kingdom, known as the union Jack, is made up of _____ crosses. A one B two C three D four 3 Washington D.C. is named after___________. A the U.S. President George Washington B Christopher Columbus C both George Washington and Christopher Columbus D none of them
4 _____ was the home of the Lake Poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor, Coleridge and Robert Southey of 19th century Britain. A Lough Neagh B Windermere C Lake District D Coniston Water 5 The first American president to be elected from the Republican Party was______. A Thomas Jefferson B James Monroe C James Madison D Abraham Lincoln 6 Of the fifty states, the smallest state in area is_____. A Rhode Island B Virginia C Texas D Montana 7 The national flag of the United States is known as_____.
专八语言学练习 1. Which of the following feature is NOT one of the design features of language? a. Language is a system, b. Language is symboli c. c. Animal also have language, d. Language is arbitrary. 2. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is . a. arbitrary b. non-arbitrary c. logical d. non-productive 3. Which of the following terms best describes the "-ate" in the word "affectionate"? a. Derivational morpheme, b. Inflectional morpheme. c. Free morpheme, d. Prefix. 4. Which of the following teerms best describes the pair of words kill and dill? a. Minimal pair. b. A phonemic contrast. c. Closed class words, d. Bound morphemes. 5. What is the basic lexical relation between piece and peace? a. Synonymy. b. Antonymy. c. Homonymy. d. Polysemy. 6. /p/ is different from /b/ in . a. the manner of articulation b. the shape of the lips. c. the vibration of the vocal cords. d. the place of articulation. 7. Of all the speech organs, the is/are the most flexible. a. mouth b. lips c. tongue d. vocal cords 8. The phonological features, the consonant /t/ are . a. voiced stop b. voiceless stop c. voiced fricative d. voiceless fricative 9. The branch of linguistics that studies show context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called . a. semantics b. pragmatics c. sociolinguistics d. psycholinguistics 10. The utterance "We' ve abeady eaten ten tons. " Obviously violates the maxim of . a. quality b. quantity c. relation d. manner 11. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i. e. rounded,
2014年英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案 1. The study of __ is Syntax. A textual organization B sentence structures C word formation D language functions 2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language? A arbitrariness B productivity C cultural transmission D finiteness 3. The speech act theory was first put forward by__. A John Scarl B Johan Austin C Noarn Chomsky D M.A.K Halliday 4. The capital city of Canada is __. A Montreal B Ottawa C Vancouver D York 5. U.S. presidents normally serve a (an) __ term. A eight-year B four-year C six-year D two year 6. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S. A Huston B Baltimore C Philadelphia D Boston 7. The state church in England is __. A The Baptist B The Roman Catholic C The Protestant Church D The Church of England 8. The novel Emma is written by__. A Jane Austen B Elizabeth C Gaskell Charlotte Bronte D Mary Shelley 9. Which of the following is not a Romantic Poet? A William Wordsworth