词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
滑板动作大全 公司内部档案编码：[OPPTR-OPPT28-OPPTL98-OPPNN08]
regular习惯为左脚在前的滑板姿势 goofy习惯为右脚在前的滑板姿势 fakie倒滑的姿势 swtich使用不习惯的站立姿势做动作 ollie豚跃，滑板中最基本的动作，就是普通人俗称的跳了；正常的滑行姿势，后脚发力起跳 nollie正常滑板姿势，起跳使用钱叫发力的豚跃姿势 manul只用两个后轮滑行的动作 nosemanul只用两个前轮滑行的动作 frontside 180可以简单用fs表示带板跳外转180度 backside 180可以简单用bs表示带板跳内转180度 popshoveit板向身体内侧方向平转180度，人不转 front popshoveit板向身体外侧方向平转180度，人不转 kickflip可以简单用kf表示前脚向身体外侧踢板，使板自转 heelflip可以简单用hf表示前脚向身体内侧踢板，使板自转
5050面对障碍物，做滑双桥的动作 backside 5050背对障碍物，做滑双桥的动作 5-0面对障碍物，做滑后桥，板与障碍物平行或面向前板向外45度左右backside 5-0背对障碍物，做滑后桥，板与障碍物平行或背向前板向内45度左右 noseslide背对障碍物，外跳转90度做滑板头的动作 frontslide noseslide面对障碍物，内跳转90度做滑板头的动作tailslide面对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板尾 backslide tailslide背对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板尾 nosegrind面对障碍物，滑前桥，板与障碍物平行 backside nosegrind背对障碍物，滑前桥，板与障碍物平行 crooked grind可以简单用k-grind表示背对障碍物，同时滑前桥和板头，面向前，板与障碍物成45度左右 front side crooked grind面对障碍物，同时滑前桥和板头，背向前，板与障碍物成45度左右boardslide背对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板底frontside boardslide面对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板底
《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义) Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world. Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n.认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) Motivation (词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. 很多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.( 由字面义派生出来的引申 义) Etymological motivation (词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. associative meaning 关联意义 Lexical meaning 词汇意义 Types of Meaning conceptual /denotative meaning 词义的分类概念意义 Grammatical meaning 语法意义directly to their origins. In other connotative meaning 内涵意义 stylistic meaning 文体意义 affective meaning 感情意义 collocative meaning 搭配意义 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义 ), is the meaning given in the dictionary and
半导体激光器驱动电源的控制系统 使用单片机对激光器驱动电源的程序化控制，不仅能够有效地实现上述功能，而且可提高整机的自动化程度。同时为激光器驱动电源性能的提高和扩展提供了有利条件。 1 总体结构框图 本系统原理，主要实现电流源驱动及保护、光功率反馈控制、恒温控制、错误报警及键盘显示等功能，整个系统由单片机控制。本系统中选用了C8051F单片机。C8051F单片机是完全集成的混合信号系统级芯片(SOC)，他在一个芯片内集成了构成一个单片机数据采集或控制系统所需要的几乎所有模拟和数字外设及其他功能部件，如本系统中用到的ADC和DAC。这些外设部件的高度集成为设计小体积、低功耗、高可靠性、高性能的单片机应用系统提供了方便，也大大降低了系统的成本。光功率及温度采样模拟信号经放大后由单片机内部A/D 转换为数字信号，进行运算处理，反馈控制信号经内部D/A转换后再分别送往激光器电流源电路和温控电路，形成光功率和温度的闭环控制。光功率设定从键盘输入，并由LED数码管显示激光功率和电流等数据。 2 半导体激光器电源控制系统设计 目前，凡是高精密的恒流源，大多数都使用了集成运算放大器。其基本原理是通过负反作用，使加到比较放大器两个输入端的电压相等，从而保持输出电流恒定。并且影响恒流源输出电流稳定性的因素可归纳为两部分：一是构成恒流源的内部因素，包括：基准电压、采样电阻、放大器增益(包括调整环节)、零点漂移和噪声电压;二是恒流源所处的外部因素，包括：输入电源电压、负载电阻和环境温度的变化。 2.1 慢启动电路 半导体激光器往往会因为接在同一电网上的多种电器的突然开启或者关闭而受到损坏，这主要是由于开关的闭合和开启的瞬间会产生一个很大的冲击电流，就是该电流致使半导体激光器损坏，介于这种情况，必须加以克服。因此，驱动电源的输入应该设计成慢启动电路，以防损坏，：左边输入端接稳压后的直流电压，右边为输出端。整个电路的结构可看作是在射级输出器上添加了两个Ⅱ型滤波网络，分别由L1，C1，C2和L2，C6，C7组成。电容C5构成的C型滤波网络及一个时间延迟网络。慢启动输入电压V在开关和闭合的瞬间产生大量的高频成分，经过图中的两个Ⅱ型网络滤出大部分的高频分量，直流以及低频分量则可以顺利地经过。到达电阻R和C组成的时间延迟网络，C2和C4并联是为了减少电解电容对高频分量的电感效应。 2.2 恒流源电路的设计 为了使半导体激光器稳定工作，对流过激光器的电流要求非常严格，供电电路必须是低噪声的稳定恒流源驱动，具体电路。 使用单片机对激光器驱动电源的程序化控制，不仅能够有效地实现上述功能，而且可提高整机的自动化程度。同时为激光器驱动电源性能的提高和扩展提供了有利条件。 1 总体结构框图 本系统原理，主要实现电流源驱动及保护、光功率反馈控制、恒温控制、错误报警及键盘显示等功能，整个系统由单片机控制。本系统中选用了C8051F单片机。C8051F单片机是完全集成的混合信号系统级芯片(SOC)，他在一个芯片内集成了构成一个单片机数据采集或控制系统所需要的几乎所有模拟和数字外设及其他功能部件，如本系统中用到的ADC和DAC。
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.
regular习惯为左脚在前的滑板姿势 goofy习惯为右脚在前的滑板姿势 fakie倒滑的姿势 swtich使用不习惯的站立姿势做动作 ollie豚跃，滑板中最基本的动作，就是普通人俗称的跳了；正常的滑行姿势，后脚发力起跳nollie正常滑板姿势，起跳使用钱叫发力的豚跃姿势 manul只用两个后轮滑行的动作 nosemanul只用两个前轮滑行的动作 frontside 180可以简单用fs表示带板跳外转180度 backside 180可以简单用bs表示带板跳内转180度 popshoveit板向身体内侧方向平转180度，人不转 front popshoveit板向身体外侧方向平转180度，人不转 kickflip可以简单用kf表示前脚向身体外侧踢板，使板自转 heelflip可以简单用hf表示前脚向身体内侧踢板，使板自转 5050面对障碍物，做滑双桥的动作 backside 5050背对障碍物，做滑双桥的动作 5-0面对障碍物，做滑后桥，板与障碍物平行或面向前板向外45度左右 backside 5-0背对障碍物，做滑后桥，板与障碍物平行或背向前板向内45度左右noseslide背对障碍物，外跳转90度做滑板头的动作 frontslide noseslide面对障碍物，内跳转90度做滑板头的动作 tailslide面对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板尾 backslide tailslide背对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板尾
nosegrind面对障碍物，滑前桥，板与障碍物平行 backside nosegrind背对障碍物，滑前桥，板与障碍物平行 crooked grind可以简单用k-grind表示背对障碍物，同时滑前桥和板头，面向前，板与障碍物成45度左右 front side crooked grind面对障碍物，同时滑前桥和板头，背向前，板与障碍物成45度左右boardslide背对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板底 frontside boardslide面对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板底 smith面对障碍物外跳转45度，滑后桥和板底，面向前板向外45度 backside smith背对障碍物内跳转45度，滑后桥和板底，背向后板向内45度 feeble面对障碍物内跳转45度，滑后桥和板底，背向后板向内45度 backslide feeble背对障碍物外跳转45度，滑后桥和板底，面向前板向外45度 salar面对障碍物，内跳转45度，背向后滑后桥，板与障碍物向内成45度 backside salar背对障碍物，外跳转45度，面向前滑后桥，板与障碍物向外成45度 nose blunt面对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板头跟前轮，板与障碍物成90度 backside nose blunt背对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板头跟前轮，板与障碍物成90度 tail blunt背对障碍物，外跳转90度，滑板尾跟后轮，板与障碍物成90度 frontslide tail blunt面对障碍物，内跳转90度，滑板尾跟后轮，板与障碍物成90度 lipslide面对障碍物，外转90度，面向前，滑板底 backside lipslide背对障碍物，内转90度，背向前，滑板底 over crooked面对障碍，外转45度，滑板头和前桥，面向前，板与障碍物成45度 backside over crooked背对障碍，内转45度，滑板头和前桥，背向前，板与障碍物成45度 frontside flip带板外跳转180度，同时做kickflip动作 backside flip带板内跳转180度，同时做kickflip动作
《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has
光纤激光器的控制系统 随着激光器在切割、焊接、表面处理等广泛应用。文中设计了应用于激光打标的功率控制系统，采用数字电位器方式使激光器的性能得到大幅提高，硬件电路设计结构简单、系统响应速度快，不需要额外器件，成本低廉、功能齐全、实用性强。 1、系统总体设计 1.1、控制系统设计 控制系统主要由单片机MC9S12XDP512、开关电源PC0-6131、数字电位器DS1867、数字温度传感器DS18B20、LCD1602显示器、键盘和报警装置等组成。 系统进行读写操作时，光纤激光器输出功率由单片机进行控制调节，提供所需要的激光功率，功率设定时，由单片机MC9S12XDP512对数字电位器DS1867输出电阻进行控制，以改变开关电源控制端的输入电压，使开关电源的输出电流改变，得到光纤激光器输出功率所需要的驱动电流，从而实现激光输出功率的变化。同时利用数字温度传感器对光纤激光器工作环境温度进行采集，利用单片机实现对温度数据的处理，当温度超出规定的40℃时，单片机会控制发光二级管进行温度报警，并利用LCD显示装置显示信息，用户可实时了解激光器的工作情况。 1.2、控制原理 激光器为电流型驱动器件，驱动电流是输出光功率的前提，通过改变激光器电源电流的大小来改变激光器的输出功率。系统控制激光器的输出功率的基本方法是：由单片机控制数字电位器DS1867的输出电阻，使开关电源控制端的电压改变，从而控制了开关电源的输出电流，改变光纤激光器功率的输出。 数字电位器DS1867的输出电阻由式(1)计算 R=D×RWL+RW (1) 其中，RW为滑臂电阻，即为内部电位器电子开关电阻，通常RW≤100 Ω，典型值为40 Ω；RWL为数字电位器DS1867内部电子阵列中每个电阻单元的阻值；D为输入的数字量。根据光纤激光器功率控制的要求，即用户对光纤激光器的输出功率性能的要求，设计出用户要求的10等级功率输出产品，不同的功率等级输出对激光打标的对象有不同的要求。经实验得出，系统设计需要开关电源输出电流的变化范围为0～12 A，功率对应电流线性输出，允许功率稳定度有1％的误差波动。把光功率分成10个等级输出，输入数字量D的值如表1所示，可以通过查表实现。 2、系统的硬件设计 2.1、单片机的选择 单片机MC9S12xDP512是Freescale公司生产的一种16位器件，其包括大量的片上存储器和外部I／O。由16位中央处理单元(CPU12X)、512 kB程序Flash、12 kB RAM、8 kB 数据Flash组成片内存储器。同时还包含两个异步串行通信接口(SCI)、一个串行外设接口(SPI)、一个8通道输入捕捉／输出比较(IC／OC)定时模块(TIM)、16通道12位A／D转换器(ADC)和一个8通道脉冲宽度调制模块(PWM)。MC9S12XD512具有91个独立的数字I ／O口，其中某些数字I／O口具有中断和唤醒功能。该单片机功能强大、运算速度快、可
滑板车行业在中国市场前景 如今，不管是在城市的广场、公园，还是在农村的宅院、公路上，时常能看到孩子们在玩滑板车，滑板车已成为当今孩子必不可少的玩具。14年前，在没有滑板车的吉林省市场闯进了一位传奇的创业人物，他让吉林的孩子们有了新奇的玩具，并带动了一批人跟着他创业，他就是李彦民。 1999年，李彦民认识了一个加工生产滑板车的朋友，并从他那了解到，滑板车在国外很受孩子们欢迎，不仅能锻炼孩子的平衡能力，而且有益于健身。当李彦民听说该产品只出口国外，而不在国内销售时，他认准了这是一个绝佳的商机。滑板车作为一种新鲜事物，要想成功打开市场缺口，就必须提高它的市场知名度。为此，李彦民和欧亚商都、长百大楼和长春国贸等大商场协商，把滑板车放到文体专卖区，请他们帮助推广、代卖。但是由于价格较高，而且人们对新鲜事物的认识和接受需要一个过程，所以起初滑板车的销量并不太好。 看到滑板车的销售并没有预期那么好，李彦民的亲属产生了质疑。但是李彦民还是坚持了下来，他相信卖滑板车和卖鞋子的道理是相通的，问题的关键在于怎么拓展销路。 从2001年起，李彦民就开始了他的市场开拓之路。一方面把滑板车的宣传主阵地逐步转移到长春市的各大儿童玩具店和体育用品店，一方面开始主攻全省各地的大型批发市场。只有把这两大块市场拿下了，滑板车才算打开了市场。为此，李彦民跑遍了全省各市州的所有玩具、体育用品批发市场，拿着滑板车的样品，一家家地宣传推介。许多批发市场的老板起初对滑板车不认可，当面回绝是常有的事，但是这并没有让李彦民退缩，一次不成，他就多去几次，很多老板都被李彦民的执着给磨得没招了，最终答应了与他合作。 回忆自己跑市场的经历，李彦民说除了清洁工之外，估计没有多少人会比他更知道早晨4点左右的长春是什么样了。每天清晨，他带着滑板车样品从家出发，每天得跑3个城市，在每个城市待3个小时，见20多个客户。 不懈的努力和艰辛的付出，李彦民终于苦尽甘来，滑板车迎来了销售转机，一度供不应求。到2004年，全省各地的300多家批发市场都已成为李彦民的忠实客户。 滑板车的市场不是我们厂家说了算，关键是现在的家长朋友都会选择对孩子成长和发展有益的玩具或运动方式。我也经常遇到，客户担心滑板车不好卖或者其他顾虑。符合社会潮流、满足消费者的需求，才是稳坐市场的关键。
Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad
《词汇学》名词解释总汇 1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. 2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society. 3.Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 6.Hyponymy(上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items). 7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language. 8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as. 10.Antonymy(反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem) 12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part. 13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem) 14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms. 16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。 18. back-formation（逆成法）: is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. 19. derivation（派生）: the process by which noninfectional affixes are added to roots to form words. 20. compounding（复合）: the process of joining together two linguistic forms which can function independently.