Gardner’s Motivation Theory in SLA Context in China

Dimensions of Motivation in Language LearningJeff TennantWEFLA 2004Universidad de Holguín“Oscar Lucero Moya”Course Overview IDefining motivationMotivation as an individual difference variable in second language acquisition (SLA)Some theories of motivation in psychologyCourse Overview IIRobert Gardner’s socio-educational modelDebates on the expansion of the modelEmpirical research studiesApproaches to motivating our studentsWhat is motivation?Brainstorming activity:What does the word “motivation” mean to you?Describe a situation in which you feel very motivated.Describe a situation in which you do not feel motivated.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” ISet a personal example with your own behavior.Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.Present the tasks properly.Develop a good relationship with the learners.Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” IIMake the language classes interestingPromote learner autonomyPersonalise the learning processIncrease learners’ goal-orientednessFamiliarize learners with the target language cultureWHICH OF THESE ARE MOST IMPORTANT TO YOU AND WHY?Defining MotivationVast and complex concept referring to what makes people do what they doNot an easy concept to defineWays of defining it have evolved along with theories of human behavior and mindDefinition from Madsen (1959):“By motivation, psychologists mean that which gives impetus to behavior byarousing, sustaining, and directing it toward the attainment of goals.”Earlier theories of motivation IDrive theory (Hull, 1952):physiological needs which create drives; people are motivated to satisfythose drivesReinforcement theory (Skinner, 1953):behaviorist psychology: stimulus-response, behavior controlled byreinforcementsLocke & Latham (1994: 13): “based on the premise that human action could be understood without reference to consciousness. The premise iswrong…”Earlier theories of motivation IIHumanistic psychology (Maslow): satisfaction of basic needs:PhysiologicalSafetyLoveEsteemself-actualizationCurrent dominant paradigmsCognitive revolution:Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior contributed to a declineof behaviorist theories and the development of cognitive theories Cognitive and social theories:People viewed as autonomous, thinking beings with minds, who are opento influences from their environment and social context, but are not fullydetermined by those influences.Language Learning MotivationThe most influential approach to motivation in language learning: R.C. Gardner Individual difference variable reflecting affective dimension of learningMotivation:Desire + Effort + Attitude, directed toward a GoalOrientations:Integrative orientationLearning an L2 to communicate with the people who speak it, discovertheir culture, etc.Instrumental orientationLearning a language for a practical purpose, such as to obtainemployment or get by while travelingMotivation and orientationsClément & Kruidenier (1983) also add:Travel orientationFriendship orientationOxford and Shearin (1994): many examples of orientations that they confuse with motivations:Do businessMake friendsIntellectual stimulationPersonal challengeShowing off to friendsAiding world peaceLearn a private code that parents wouldn’t knowTheories in Motivational PsychologyExpectancy-value theoryGoal theorySelf-determination theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IA dominant cognitive approach in recent research on motivational psychology Focus on motivation as:A person’s expectancy of success in a taskThe value the person attributes to success in the taskThree theories of expectancy of successAttribution theorySelf-efficacy theorySef-worth theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IIAttribution theory (Bernard Weiner)Causal attributions of past successes and failures, which will affect future effortsPeople can attribute success to:AbilityEffortTask difficultyLuckOther factors.Attribution of failure to lack of effort can be less demotivating thanattributing it to lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory IIISelf-efficacy theory“people’s judgement of their capabilities to carry out certain specific tasks”(Dörnyei, 2001a: 22)Four factors in self-efficacy according to Bandura (1993)Previous performanceVicarious learning (by observing models)Verbal encouragement by othersPhysiological reactionsExpectancy-Value Theory IVSelf-worth theory (Covington)People are motivated to maintain a sense of self-worth (i.e. to feel goodabout themselves)This can lead them to avoid making an effort so that unsatisfactoryperformance can be attributed to lack of effort rather than lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory VValue (or valence) component of expectancy-value theories:“Does a person want to do the task?Elements that define the intensity of the motivation4 componentsAttainment value: importance to the person of mastering the skill or task Intrinsic value: interest, esthetic appreciation, enjoymentExtrinsic utility value: relation to goals, how it improves the person’squality of lifeCost: negative component: expended effort and time, anxiety, fear offailureGoal Theories IGoals replace the notion of needs of earlier theoriesVariables in goal setting theory:Specificity of goalDifficulty of goalGoal commitmentGoal Theories IIMain findings of goal theory research (Locke, 1996), quoted in Dörnyei (20001a: 26):The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievementThe more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance isregulatedGoals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult High commitment to goals is attained when (a) the individual is convinced that the goal is important; and (b) the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable.Goal Theories IIIGoal orientation theoryMastery orientationFocus on learning, mastering content: “task-involvement goals”Performance orientationDemonstrate ability, get good grades, do better than others: “ego-involvement goals”Self-determination theory IDistinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of motivationIntrinsic:To experience pleasure, satisfy curiosityExtrinsic:Means to an end, receive awards, avoid punishmentAmotivation:Lack of regulation: “there is no point”; “I don’t know why I’m doing this”feelingSelf-determination theory IIContinuum of different types of extrinsic regulation (Vallerand, Deci & Ryan, Noels et al.)External regulation (or extrinsic): least self-determined: doing somethingdue to external pressuresIntrojected regulation: doing something because you think you should: obeya rule, conform to an external expectationIdentified regulation: doing something because you recognize its personal importance (e.g. hobby)Integrated regulation: doing something because it is considered part ofone’s self-identityMotivation as an individual difference variable in SLASome individual difference variables that have been studied:AgeAptitudeCognitive styleStrategy useAttitudes and MotivationThe role of age in SLAThe Critical Period HypothesisIs there an age after which native-like proficiency in an L2 in no longerattainable?Sometimes called “sensitive period”Research findings mixed: “yes and no”Before age 7, native-like proficiency quite certain7 to 14: more variation in degree of accentednessAfter age 14, native-like proficiency sometimes considered impossible, but some succeedNo biological evidence for critical periodAccess to Universal Grammar (UG) in SLAResearch related to role of age focuses now on learning mechanisms involved:Do L2 learners have access to Universal Grammar (specialized cognitive structures for language)?Issue still the subject of hot debateSome research supports hypothesis of UG accessOther research points to use of general learning mechanisms: e.g. gender in FrenchAptitudeDifferences in natural ability to learn an L2Partly related to general intelligence, partly distinctHas been shown to play an important role in language learning achievement Aptitude is focused on less nowadays in L2 education: preference to think in terms of what can be changedComponents of language learning aptitudePhonemic coding abilityAbility to identify sounds, establish sound-symbol linksGrammatical sensitivityAwareness of grammatical patterns, structuresInductive language learning abilityAbility to infer form-meaning links from contextRote learning abilityAbility to form and remember associations; plays role in vocabulary learningCognitive styleThe way people approach mental tasksOften seen as contrast between field dependence and field independence Field independent learners:Can focus on specific parts of what is being learned, without beingdistracted by overall pictureField dependent learners:More oriented to overall picture with less focus on smaller parts of itRole of cognitive styleIs one cognitive style better than the other for language learning? It depends on what aspects of learning we are considering…Field independent: better at analytical tasks involving grammatical accuracy;stronger on accuracy than fluencyField dependent: better at synthesis, broader picture, general communicative skills, even if not with perfect accuracy; stronger on fluency than accuracyStrategy useLanguage learning strategies: practices that aid language learningRebecca Oxford’s (1990) classification:Direct strategiesCognitive, memory, compensationIndirect strategiesMetacognitive, affective, socialLanguage learning strategiesCognitive strategies: repeating, translating, taking notes, summarizingMemory strategies: associating, using keywords, physical response or sensationCompensation strategies: using clues, switching to L1, using gestureLanguage learning strategiesMetacognitive strategies: organizing, self-monitoring, overviewing and linking already known materialAffective strategies: making positive statements, using relaxation, discussing feelings with other peopleSocial strategies: asking for correction, cooperating with peers, developing cultural understandingA study of strategy useUWO French 021 studentsMemory and cognitive strategies linked to achievement (grades) in the course Memory strategies were least used -- training in them could be helpfulStudents thought strategies could benefit them and should be integrated in curriculumThe “Good language learner” 11.Has an effective personal learning style or positive learning strategies2.Has an active approach to the learning task3.Has a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathywith its speakers4.Has technical know-how about how to tackle a language5.Has strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developingthe language into an ordered system and revising this system progressivelyThe “Good language learner” 21.Is constantly searching for meaning.2.Is willing to practise.3.Is willing to use the language in real communication.4.Has self-monitoring ability and critical sensitivity to language use.5.Is able to develop the target language more and more as a separatereference system and to learn to think in it.Gardner’s socio-educational modelLanguage learning is different from learning another subject matterNot just learning facts, but acquiring behaviour, ways of thinking and expressing oneself, that are those of another groupA central concept contributing to language learning success: the integrativemotiveImportance of attitudes:"an attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object,inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs or opinions about thereferent” (Gardner, 1985: 9)Gardner’s AMTB ISurvey instrument, questionnaire: the Attitudes / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)Validated in dozens of studies, the only one to have such convincing proof of its validity and statistical reliabilitySeveral questions for each trait studied, e.g. for motivational intensity:I actively think about what I have learned in my French class: a) veryfrequently (3); b) hardly ever (1), c) once in a while (2)A shorter version, the mini-AMTB: one question per traitGardner’s AMTB IIMotivation (mini-AMTB items)Desire: My desire to learn French is: Weak <-> StrongMotivational intensity: I would characterize how hard I work at learningFrench as: Very little <-> Very muchAttitudes toward learning the language: My attitude toward learning French is: Unfavourable <-> FavourableGardner’s AMTB IIIIntegrativeness (mini-AMTB items)Integrative orientation: If I were to rate my feelings about learning French in order to interact with Francophones, I would have to say they are: Weak <-> StrongAttitudes toward the target language group: My attitudes towardsFrancophones is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableInterest in foreign languages: My interest in languages other than French and English is: Very Low <-> Very HighGardner’s AMTB IVAttitudes toward the learning situation (mini-AMTB items)Attitudes toward the instructor: My attitude toward my French professor is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableAttitudes toward the course: My attitude toward my French classes is:Favourable <-> UnfavourableInstrumental orientation (mini-AMTB item):If I were to rate my feelings about learning French for practical purposessuch as to improve my occupational opportunities, I would say that theyare: Weak <-> StrongGardner’s AMTB VAnxiety (mini-AMTB items)French course anxiety: My anxiety level in my French classes is: Very Low <-> Very HighFrench use anxiety: My anxiety in speaking French outside of class is: Very Low <-> Very HighIntegrative motiveThe Integrative motive is composed of:IntegrativenessAttitudes toward the learning situationMotivationMotivation affects the success of learningAttitudes have an indirect effect on learning: their effects are mediated by motivationDebates on the expansion of the model ICrookes & Schmidt (1991): “Reopening the research agenda”, Oxford & Shearin (1994), Dörnyei (1994), criticisms of GardnerHis theory has dominated the field too muchHis approach to motivation doesn’t reflect teachers’ concernsHis theory is limited to the affective dimension from a social psychological approach, without considering other perspective from educationalpsychologyDebates on the expansion of the model IIGardner’s position:Some criticisms based on misinterpretations of his theory (e.g. the mistaken belief that the opposition between integrative and instrumental motivation isa central part of his model)Need to carry out empirical investigations to validate expanded theory« On with the challenge! »Empirical research studiesTremblay & Gardner (1995)Gardner, Tremblay Masgoret (1997): full empirical modelGardner at al. (2004): trait, state, changesGardner & Tennant: expanded mini-AMTBTremblay & Gardner (1995)Incorporation of new concepts in a causal model including socio-educational model elements:Goal-setting theory, Expectancy-value theoryStudy of students in French-language secondary schoolSome results:Language attitudes -> motivated behaviourGoal setting -> motivated behaviorAdaptive attributions -> self-efficiency -> motivated behaviourGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) I“Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation” 102 university students in intro FrenchComprehensive questionnaire including AMTB items, aptitude, field dependence/independence, self-confidenceGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) IIResults show links between:Attitudes and motivationAptitude and achievementMotivation and achievementMotivation and self-confidenceAchievement and self-confidenceStrategy use and achievement (negative correlation)Approaches to motivating our studentsWith all we know (and don’t know) about language learning motivation, can we language teachers motivate our students?We saw a number of suggestions in Zoltán Dörnyei’s “10 commandments’While these haven’t been demonstrated empirically to have definite effects on motivation, they are good tips to tryWilliams and Burden’s suggestions1.Recognize the complexity of motivation2.Be aware of both initiating and sustaining motivation3.Discuss with learners why they are carrying out activities4.Involve learners in decisions related to learning the language5.Involve learners in setting language learning goals6.Recognise people as individualsWilliams and Burden’s suggestions 21.Build up individuals’ beliefs in themselves2.Develop internal beliefs3.Help to move towards a mastery-oriented style4.Enhance intrinsic motivation5.Build up a supportive learning environment6.Give feedback that is informationalDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies ICreating the basic motivational conditions:Demonstrate and talk about your own enthusiasm for the course material, and how it affects you personallyTake the students’ learning very seriouslyDevelop a personal relationship with your studentsCreate a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroomPromote the development of group cohesivenessDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIGenerating initial motivation:Raise the learners’ intrinsic interest in the L2 learning processPromote ‘integrative’ values by encouraging a positive and open-mindeddisposition towards the L2 and its speakers, and towards foreignness ingeneralPromote the students’ awareness of the instrumental values associatedwith the knowledge of an L2Increase the students’ expectancy of success in particular tasks and inlearning in generalIncrease your students’ goal-orientedness by formulating explicit classgoals accepted by themDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIIMaintaining and protecting motivation:Make learning more stimulating and enjoyable by breaking the monotony of classroom eventsPresent and administer tasks in a motivating wayUse goal-setting methods in your classroomBuild your learners’ confidence by providing regular encouragementHelp diminish language anxiety by removing or reducing the anxiety-producing elements in the learning environmentBuild your learners’ confidence in their learning abilities by teaching them various learner strategiesDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IVEncouraging positive self-evaluation:Promote effort attributions in your studentsProvide students with positive information feedbackIncrease learner satisfactionOffer rewards in a motivational mannerUse grades in a motivating manner, reducing as much as possible theirdemotivating impactConclusionHave our ideas about motivation changed since the brainstorming at the beginning?。

College of Foreign Languages and LiteratureNorthwest Normal University题目：Motivation and Second Language Acquisition 班级：12级英语5班姓名：王文秀任课教师：曹依民提交日期：2015年7月3日评语及成绩：签名：日期：Motivation and Second Language Acquisition摘要在对第二语言学习的研究中，学习动机被认为是语言学习者个体因素中最具能动性的因素之一，它受到了众多研究者和教育工作者的关注。

随着全球化的发展，第二语言的重要性显而易见。

这就要求我们要深入研究了解动机与第二语言学习。

本文将从理论和实际应用的角度研究第二语言习得中的动机问题。

本文先从学习动机的定义出发阐述不同语言学家对动机不同角度的定义，包括被语言学家公认为合理的由Gardner & Lambert所下的定义，以及从人本主义角度出发的马斯洛的需求理论中对动机的定义，从而发现这些定义的局限性。

在阐述定义的基础上，文章从行为主义、人本主义及认知角度分别运用强化理论、需求理论及归因理论来研究及分析动机，说明对第二语言研究的意义。

随后采用语言学家Keller对影响学习动机的四大主要因素的划分，从兴趣、相关性、期待及对结果的满意度简要阐述影响学习的因素及其影响。

本文旨在帮助第二语言学习者意识到动机在二语习得的重要性。

关键字：动机，第二语言习得，定义，影响因素AbstractMotivation is one of the important affective factors widely studied on the second language acquisition by language learning researchers in the past years. With the development of globalization, the importance of the second language acquisition is obvious. So it is necessary for us to profound motivation and second language acquisition.This paper will research motivation in the second language acquisition from the theory to application, beginning with its different definitions given by different linguists on the base of various theories. It includes the well-accepted definition given by Gardner & Lambert, popular one defined by Maslow from humanistic perspective and other definitions proposed respectively by different linguists. In the process, the limitation of these definitions will be found. Then, the thesis focuses on the study and analysis of motivations from behavioral, humanistic and cognitive perspectives with the application of reinforcement theory, need theory and attribution theory to prove the significance of researching second language acquisition. Then, the author analyses affecting motivation factors，including interest, relevance, expectance and satisfaction or outcomes, which are divided by linguist Keller. This paper aims to help language learners realize theimportance of motivation in the second language acquisition.Key words: motivation, second language acquisition, definition, affecting factors1. IntroductionMotivation plays a vital role in the foreign language acquisition. A lot of linguists and psychologists believe motivation is one factor affecting language learning efficacy, the impulse stimulating persons to conduct certain activities, a kind of inner power promoting foreign language learning, and a type of conscious and positive state of psychology in learning activity. Regarded as one important element in language learning, motivation has been explored for more than fifty years by a lot of linguists, but the awkward situation still exists in present language learning setting. Many experts have done a lot of research around it and made contributions to it.With the development of globalization, the importance of the second language acquisition is obvious. So it is necessary for us to profound motivation and second language acquisition. This paper aims to explore and analyses language learning motivation from different perspectives: behaviorism, humanism and cognition, making reference to various classifications and definitions of motivation.The thesis is made up of six parts besides an introduction, a conclusion and a bibliography. Part two is literature review. Part three presents some basic theories in motivation. In this part, behaviorism, humanism and cognition are discussed. Part four is analysis of factors affecting motivation in detail. It consists of interest, relevance, expectance and satisfaction or outcomes.This paper pays attention on three questions:1.What is the definition of motivation?2.What are factors affecting motivation?3.How does the motivation affect second language acquisition?2. Literature reviewAlthough the term "motivation" is frequently used in education contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. Various definitions of motivation have been proposed over the course of decades of research. What we concern about motivation is mainly confined to EFL study, so we should put our emphasis on specific category.From the middle of 20th century, especially around 1990s, new definitions appeared with the developments in psychology. Motivation was then redefined as a dynamic process rather than astatic inner state. However, there is still disagreement about the definition of motivation.2.1 Definitions of MotivationMotivation is one of the main determinants of second language learning achievement and, accordingly, the last three decades have seen a considerable amount of research investigating the nature and role of motivation in the L2 learning process. Much of this research has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation research in a social psychological framework.2.1.1 Gardner's DefinitionIt's the fact that Gardner's definition of motivation in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the best known, frequently-quoted and under revision with the time passing. Gardner and Lambert (1972) define ‘motivation’ in terms of the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation. Gardner also proposed that all these three components were necessary to properly describe motivation in language learning. Any single one of them cannot reflect true motivation, so they must co-exist with each other.Eight years later, Gardner and Maclntyre (1993) defined motivation as "the desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction and satisfaction with the task." Gardner's definition is based on social psychology stressing the social nature of L2 learning. In his view, apart from learning grammar and language skills, the learning of an L2 involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviors which have a significant impact on the social nature of the learner. As we know, Gardner and his colleagues' researches are conducted among typically bilingual setting---Canada, where learners' language learning is greatly influenced by the learners' attitude towards the target language, therefore there is inevitable limitations existing in this definition by nature. Besides its shortcomings, Gardner and his colleagues had made great contributions to the motivation research in the late 1980s; other theorists began to challenge his theory and re-conceptualize the construct of L2 learning motivation.2.1.2 Brown’s DefinitionBrown (1981) identifies three types of motivation: (1) global motivation, which consists of a general orientation to the goal of learning a L2; (2) situational motivation, which varies according to the situation in which learning takes place (the motivation associated with classroom learning is distinct from the motivation involved in naturalistic learning); (3) task motivation, which is themotivation for performing particular learning tasks.2.1.3Williams and Burden's DefinitionWilliams and Burden (1997) defined motivation as "a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious decision to act, and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort, in order to attain a previously set goal or goals.” In order to make this definition more clearly, Williams and Burden (1997) presented a three-stage model of interactive factors within the social context: reasons for doing something----deciding to do something---sustaining the effort or persisting.From this model, we can see that firstly there must be some reasons to impel learners to undertake a particular activity; secondly, we should consider what is actually involved in deciding to do something and an individual may have strong reasons for doing something but without taking actual action; thirdly, people need to sustain the effort required to complete the activity. In this model, "deciding to do something" plays a central role.2.1.4 Maslow's DefinitionAccording to Maslow, "motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex, and it is an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organic state of affairs.” And his "need theory" can clearly and satisfactorily explain the language learners' motivation in all the learning environments. The need hierarchy is as follows (S.S.Chauhan, 1985):2.1. 5 Dornyei and Otto's DefinitionDornyei and Otto (1998) stated that "in a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, cumulative arousal in a person thatterminates and evaluates the cognitive processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritized, operationalized and successfully or unsuccessfully acted out" In this definition, motivation is viewed as a dynamic process in which many variables influence the learner's performance but they do not mention the sustaining of the learning motivation.2.1. 6 Keller's DefinitionKeller (1983) defined motivation as "Motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in this respect."Besides definitions given above, Kanfer and Ackerman (1989) made it more explicit by defining motivation as "the direction of attentional effort, the proportion of total attentional effort directed to the task (intensity), and the extent to which attentional effort toward the task is maintained over time (or persistence)." Oxford defined motivation as "what makes students want to learn languages and what causes them to put forth the effort to persist in this difficult adventure" (Oxford, 1996, p. 1). According to H.W Bernard, "motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals."In view of all these definitions, we can get the information that language learning motivation is the reason for learning the language, the central force or inner power that impulses people to go in the language learning process, how much conscious intellectual and physical effort the learners make to attain a previously set goal and how long the learner keeps this effort.3. Theories on MotivationMotivation is a vast and complicated subject with many theories in educational psychology. The main approaches are behavioral, humanistic and cognitive ones, which highlight different dimensions of motivation. However, there is no absolutely, straightforwardly and unanimously accepted concept of motivation, let alone the description of its nature within one framework. Different from the instinct theory studying the innate characteristics of motivation born in human beings, the behaviorism attaches more importance to the external factors for the study of motivation.3.1 BehaviorismBehaviorism, a theory about animal and human learning way which only focuses onobjectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities, has an important impact on psychology, education and language teaching.Behaviorists like Skinner take the notion that behavior is a function of its consequences, so the learners will repeat the desired behavior if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follow the behavior. Behaviorists prefer to explain human behaviors with formula S---R, believing motivation is a kind of impulsive force aroused by outside stimuli. According to Skinner, motivated behavior results from the consequences of the similar previous behavior and in other words, the consequences of previous behavior influence learners. Once learners obtain positive reinforcement for certain behavior, they tend to repeat it with vigor, vice versa learners tend to lose interest, and evade their performance and study.Behavioral interpretations of learning can provide reasons to explain why some learners react favorably to particular subjects but dislike others. Some learners may enter a classroom with a feeling of delight, while others feel uncomfortable or aversive to it. B.F.Skinner suggested that such differences could be traced back to their previous experiences, arguing that the learner who loved this subject had been shaped to respond that way by a series of positive experiences with the subject while the learner disliking the subject might have suffered a series of negative experiences.In brief, reinforcement methods are probably best used with learners who exhibit high anxiety about learning, poor motivation to learn, or a history of academic failures. And it is effective methods frequently used by teachers in classroom setting.3.2 HumanismMotivation and needs are closely related. On the one hand, we regard motivation as the fulfillment of a kind of needs, and on the other hand, human needs serve as drives or incentives which impulse one to take an action.When we study motivation from the perspective of humanism, it is necessary to mention hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow. He formulated a five-fold hierarchy of human needs which began with biological needs and made progress upward to the self-actualization. According to Maslow, "motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and that it is an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organic state of affairs." His need theory can clearly and satisfactorily explain the language learners' motivation in all learning environments. The need hierarchy is as follows (S.S.Chauhan, 1985):Although Maslow's theory has been confronted with a number of critiques and contradictions, it provides a useful way of thinking about the factors that activate human action. In terms of Maslow's needs hierarchy，needs for foreign or second language learning would mainly center on the psychological aspects of the second level in the hierarchy and, when those needs are satisfied, would relate to the third, fourth, and fifth levels in the pyramid. Additionally, as the needs at one level are met, their importance in motivating individual decreases, and the next higher level of needs becomes the strongest source of goal-directed behaviors.In view of Maslow's need hierarchy，failure to satisfy students' needs for safety and security in the foreign or second language learning setting probably hinder their risk-taking, accordingly, these psychological insecurity will make L2 learners very anxious ( MacItyre & Gardner, 1991) and they will regress in their needs, motivation, and performance in the classroom.3.3 CognitionAs its name implies, cognitive approach, emphasizing mental processes places itself in processes. Since the 1960s, the mechanistic approach to human motivation has given way to a more cognitive approach. The common element shared by particular cognitive theorists is the belief that it is necessary to examine a class of intervening variables when explaining behavior. The theoretical foundation of a cognitive approach can be traced to the writings of Kant (31) and to phenomenological thinking. Uan de Geer and Jaspers note that cognitive theory ranges from neobehavioristic mediation to phenomenological interpretation.A cognitive theory of behavior assumes that the first stage in the chain of events initiated bythe stimulus situation and resulted in the behavioral act is the construction of cognitive representation of the distal environment. The later events in the chain are aroused, modified and guided by this cognitive representation. The cognitive representation thus acts as the effective environment which arouses motives and emotions, and guides overt behavior toward its target or goal.The famous theory annotating motivation is attribution theory. People, after finishing one task, are likely to look for the reason why he can succeed or suffer failure, which is the first objective base, on which psychologist attribution. F. Heider, the one proposing attribution theory, believed explore people possessed two needs of understanding world and controlling environment. Ability and effort are internal characteristics; task difficulty and luck belong to external factors; task difficulty and ability are stable factors, whereas effort and luck change with variable situations. According to attribution theory, higher satisfaction occurs when success is self-attributed than those attributed to external factors. When people believe themselves---rather than luck, fate, the teachers, or an easy test have created the successful performance, they are happier with themselves and their skills.Attribution theory can explain, to some extent, the phenomenon that failure or success can have different effects on different individuals. It also gives implications for teachers in teaching by helping students setting up correct attribution.Many theorists advocate that the construct of motivation is not as a single entity but as a multifactoral one and they apply different ways to probe into motivation. Besides the motivation theories discussed above, Heider's naïve psychology, Jones & Davis' correspondence theory and Kelley's covariation theory all shed light on the motivation, explaining human beings learning motivation from different perspectives.4. Analysis of factors affecting motivationFor the last few decades, research on motivation in the field of second language has been strongly influenced by Gardner's Socio-Educational Model. However, other researchers, such as Crookes and Schmidt (1991), regard motivation as a much more complex construct than the one culturally related dichotomy, especially in different contexts of foreign language learning.Crookes and Schmidt (1991) then proposed an expanded definition of language learning motivation by applying Keller's education-oriented theory of motivation as their base. Keller(1983) identified four major determinants of motivation:①interest in the language based on existing attitudes, experience, and background knowledge on the learners' part;②relevance, which involves perception that personal needs, such as achievement, affiliation and power being met by learning the language;③expectancy of success or failure; and ④outcomes, i.e., the extrinsic or intrinsic rewards felt by the learner.4.1 InterestInterest, one of important inner incentives, plays a very important role in the language learning process. Interest in learning can be defined as a desire to acquire new information and to find out new objects, events and ideas. This may involve approaching and acquiring information about something new, seeking new information concerning something that the students have already known about (Katherine, 1981).4.1.1 Direct Interest vs. Indirect InterestInterest can be divided into two categories---direct interest and indirect one. Direct interest, resulting from direct learning materials and the learning process, can attract learners' attention and arouse their interest quickly, but it cannot last for a long time. For example, new information can provoke learners' interest directly, but when learners meet difficulties in the learning process or have not made any progress for a long time, they will lose the interest in it even abandon it Indirect interest, resulting from students themselves and lasting much longer, can spur learners to devote more strength and energy to study. With indirect interest, highly motivated students can set their own learning goals and tasks, adopt various learning strategies and make full use of any chances to enhance their ability or enlarge their knowledge horizon. Hence, cultivating students' indirect interest can do favor for language learning.4.1.2 Significance of InterestDeci and Ryan held that interest was "an important direct role in intrinsically motivated behavior in which people naturally approach activities that attract them". In other words, interest is believed to be a necessary and efficient means to provoke learners' intrinsic motivation, so it is a manifestation of inborn capabilities in terms of competency, self-assessment as well as personal accomplishments. It is acknowledged that whether the students are interested in English language learning directly influences the success or failure of English teaching and students' performance. Only students' interest in language learning is inspired, will they take the initiative or become active in learning English well.4.2 RelevanceThe second element is relevance, which refers to the extent to which the students feel that the instruction is connected with important personal needs, values, or goals. It is a prerequisite for "sustained motivation" and requires the perception of the learners that their personal needs are satisfied by the learning situation. Relevance, at a macro-level, associates with the motivation theories of needs hierarchy, achievement motivation, competence motivation, and reinforcement value; at the level of learning situation, it refers to the extent to which the classroom instruction and course content are seen to be conductive to achieving the goal, that is，to master the L2There are several kinds of learners' needs: instrumental needs, which are met when the learners have the belief that the content of a lesson is what they want; needs for achievement, for autonomy, for affiliation, for endurance, for aggression, for power, and so on.Keller (1983a, 1983b) proposed that motivation could be enhanced when students perceived that the learning activities could satisfy their basic needs, such as needs for achievement, power, or affiliation. In other words, teaching materials, teaching methods, level of difficulty should be correspondent to or related with students' needs and learning goals.4.3 ExpectanceThe third determinant is expectancy which refers to students' perceived likelihood of achieving success through personal control and is related to the learner's self-confidence and self-efficacy at a general level; it concerns perceived task difficulty, the amount of effort required, the amount of available assistance and guidance, the teacher's presentation of the task, and familiarity with the task type at the level of the learning situation. According to Keller (1983a), this category encompasses the motivation theories of locus of control, attribution theory, learned helplessness, personal causation, and self-efficacy.4.4 Satisfaction or OutcomesThe fourth determinant of motivation is satisfaction or outcomes that are related with the extrinsic or intrinsic reward felt by the learner. Activities for which the motivating forces are outcomes have been referred to as extrinsically motivated, as opposed to those which are intrinsically motivated. Satisfaction or outcomes include the satisfaction of goal fulfillments and its effects on motivation for involving in similar activities in the future. The learners will become unmotivated or less motivated once the outcomes of their great efforts are inconsistent with theiroriginal expectations, the grading system is subjective and arbitrary, or the intrinsically motivated person is confined into an externally controlled contingency system.Different factors and various teaching methods have close relationship with outcomes. Keller deemed that unexpected, noncontingent rewards rather than anticipated, salient, task-contingent rewards; verbal praise and informative feedback rather than threats, surveillance, or external performance evaluation could give learner better satisfaction or outcomes. In order to maintain a good learning setting to meet learner's satisfaction, consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment should be held. Allowing students to use a newly learnt skill in a realistic setting can arouse their senses of satisfaction to a large degree.5. ConclusionThis paper has explored and analyzed language learning motivation from different perspectives: behaviorism, humanism and cognition, making reference to various classifications and definitions of motivation. On the basis of the above discussion, we know that motivation is one of the important affective factors widely studied on the second language acquisition. The influence of motivation to the foreign language learners is profound. This paper presents a study of motivation and second language acquisition. After studying this paper, we can conclude that: First, the definition of motivation is various from different perspectives. And there is some limitation for these definitions, such as narrow perspectives on motivation. So it is necessary for human being to research deeply.Second, factors affecting motivation play much important role in second language acquisition. Strong motivation and confidence can let learners pay much attention and time on learning and hold positive attitude and help them keep in touch with native speakers and go into society. So, it is the key of mastering second language to help learners to build correct affective.Third, Motivation plays a vital role in the second language acquisition. The question is how to deal with them properly. Therefore, it is the key to help language learners to establish correct motivation.In conclusion, in view of present studies emphasizing excessively the theoretical research, and the notion that theory serves application, researchers come up with some implications for the interests of learning, serving as methods to arouse learning motivation, improving the presentsituation and enhancing language learners' awareness of motivation.Bibliography1.Alma C. Spithill, Motivation and Language Teaching. Hispania, V ol. 63, No (Mar., 1980), pp.72-76.2.Fred W. Danner; Edward Lonky, A Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Effects of Rewardson Intrinsic Motivation. Child Development, V ol. 52, No.3. (Sep., 1981), pp.1043一1052. 3.Gardner, R. C. Language Learning Motivation: The Student, the Teacher and the Researcher,University of Western Ontario, 2001.4.Gardner, R. C. & Tremblay, P.F. On Motivation: Measurement and Conceptual Consideration.The Modern Language Journal, V ol. 78, No.3. (Autumn, 1994), pp.359-368.5.Jeffrey A. French, Alan C. Kamil, & Daniel W. Leger, Editors, 2001. EvolutionaryPsychology and Motivation. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.6.Rebecca Oxford; Jill Shearin, Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the TheoreticalFramework, The Modern Language Journal, V ol. 78, No.l.(Spring,1994), pp.12-18.7.Robert C. Beck, Motivation: Theories and Principles (Forth Edition), Wake Forest University,pp 326-330.8.Russell G. Green & William W. Beatty & Robert M. Arkin, Human Motivation:Physiologival, Behavioral, and Social Approaches. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. pp. 9-243.9.包兰兰，A Study of the Relationship Between Language Learning Strategy and LearningMotivation，成都理工大学.May, 2005.10.陈维亚，学生学习动机的形成与发展，《中国教育学刊》，1999, 5 , pp.34-3 511.《高等教育心理学》。

外语学习中的社会文化因素——中国环境中的社会文化因素及学习者英语成绩的相关分析外语学习中的社会文化因素——中国环境中的社会文化因素及学习者英语成绩的相关分析湘潭大学硕士学位论文外语学习中的社会文化因素中国环境中的社会文化因素与学习者英语成绩的相关分析姓名谭江竹申请学位级别硕士专业英语语言文学指导教师文卫平20050501摘要第二语言习得简称二语习得的研究于20 世纪60 年代末70 年代初作为一门独立的学科发展起来了从那时起到现在的三十多年里这一领域的研究在各方面都取得了较大的成就一般说来二语习得的研究可以分为三类中介语研究学习者内部因素研究学习者外部因素研究学习者外部因素包括社会环境家庭环境学校环境课堂环境和教学方法总的来说可以归纳为社会文化因素国内外的研究者对二语习得中的社会文化因素做了大量的调查研究但是国外的研究多于国内的研究且多局限于二语习得环境在中国环境里进行的研究则很少国内学者虽然关注社会文化因素和外语学习但他们研究的中心大多是学习动机及其与外语成绩的关系而对于社会文化因素只是附带的研究主要关注中国环境中的社会文化因素及其与外语成绩的相关性研究也相对较少并且在有限的社会文化因素和外语学习研究中大都是理论研究缺乏实证检验此外国内研究者一般将态度和动机看作是一个情感因素涉及学习者态度与成绩关系的研究也很少因此本研究试图在Gardner 社会教育模式的基础上运用定量的方法探讨中国环境中影响学习者态度的社会文化因素及其与外语成绩之间的关系包括学习者态度与成绩的相关性本研究对 339 名湘潭大学非英语专业二年级的学生进行了问卷调查调查所得数据资料利用SPSS120借助描述性统计以及相关检验统计方法进行分析研究发现1社会主导性不同文化民族间的接触未来使用外语的机会文化间的差异说该语言的人的数量社会对外语水平的要求以及外语课堂情境因素包括外语课的质量外语教师外语教材和外语学习氛围会对学习者的语言学习产生影响2 社会主导性不同文化民族间的接触未来使用外语的机会说该语言的人的数量社会对外语水平的要求以及外语教师与学习者的语言成绩的关系呈正相关而外语课的质量与学习者的语言成绩呈负相关3学习者对外语课堂情境因素的态度与学习者的外语成2绩呈正相关而对外国文化外国人的态度与外语学习成绩的相关检测未获得支持这说明了外语情境与二语情境中影响学习者外语学习的社会文化因素存在差异另一方面也说明了社会文化环境影响学习者的态度继而影响学习者成绩的过程中还受其他多种因素的影响该研究具有以下教学启示中国环境中的社会文化因素对学习者的态度产生影响继而作用于学习者的动机并最终影响学习成绩因此激发处于特定社会文化环境中的学习者的语言学习动机很有必要1教师应加强对学生关于社会环境特点的正面宣传教育激发学生的社会责任动机和个人发展动机2教师应通过将西方文化知识融入英语教学提高学生对英语语言文化的内在兴趣具体来说教师在分析课文时应有意识地导入相关的文化知识教师应创造一个高效率的学习环境将学生置身于真实或虚拟的英语文化场景中以提高学生的英语学习效率同时教师应鼓励学生将其对英语的兴趣延伸至课外3教师应帮助建立一个和谐的英语课堂氛围关键词二语习得社会文化因素态度成绩中国环境3AbstractSecond language acquisition SLA research began to be recognized as a discipline in its own right around the end of 1960s and the early1970s and has a history of 35 years so far During this period SLA research has made great achievements which involve a broad range of questions from a wide variety of perspectives In general SLA researchmainly involves three major aspects interlanguage research learners internal factors research and learners external factors research Learners external factors mainly include social context homeenvironment school surroundings classroom and teaching methods all of which can be called socio-cultural factors Both western and domesticresearchers have conducted a great number of researches concerning socio-cultural factors in SLA However western researches far outweighdomestic researches with theories and practice are concerned and mostare confined to the L2 acquisition context while few studies are carriedout in the Chinese context Though domestic researchers have paid attention to socio-cultural factors and foreign language learning theirresearch focus is always on the learning motivation or its relation withachievement with socio-cultural factors as a side research Fewresearches focus on the socio-cultural factors in Chinese milieu and thecorrelation between socio-cultural factors and learners achievements Inthe rare studies that focus on socio-cultural factors and foreign languagelearning most are theoretical illustrations without abase of statisticaldata to support the theory In addition in many domestic researches both attitude and motivation are regarded as one affective factorfewresearches deal with the relation between attitude and achievement So this thesis is to conduct the quantitative study on socio-culturalfactors in Chinese milieu influencing learners in EFL classroom and thecorrelation between socio-cultural factors and learners achievements4including the correlation between learners attitudesand achievementson the basis of Gardners socio-educational model The questionnaire investigation was held among 339 non-English major second yearcollege students randomly selected from Xiangtan university All the data statistics are analyzed and obtained by means of SPSS120 for windows with descriptive statistical method and relevant test method Results of the research show 1 social dominance inter-group contacts cultural difference opportunities of using English in the futurelifenumber of English speakers societal requirement of Englishproficiencysituational factors of EFL classroom including the quality ofEnglishclass the climate of English study the content of English teaching materials and English teachers have effects on learners 2 social dominance inter-group contacts opportunities of using English in the future life number of English speakers societal requirement of Englishproficiency and English teachers have positive correlation with learnersEnglish achievements but the quality of Englishclass have negativecorrelation with learners English achievements 3 attitudes toward situational factors of EFL classroom have positive correlation with learners English achievements while attitudes toward target language culture and native speakers of target language have no correlation withlearners English achievements This indicates that socio-cultural factorsaffecting target language learning in foreign language situation are different from those in second language situation On the other hand this indicates that there are various factors involved in theprocess ofEnglish learningSince the socio-cultural factors in Chinese milieu are causally relatedto students attitudes which in turn influence their motivation whichhave direct effect on English learning outcomes it is necessary to arousethe learning motivation of students in the specific socio-cultural milieuThe study provides some implications for English teaching 1 Teachers5should strengthen the positive publicity and guidance about thesocialmilieu to arouse students social responsibility motivation and individualdevelopment motivation 2 Teachers should elevate students intrinsic interest in English language and culture by integrating culture into theEnglish teaching Firstly teachers should introduce the related culturalknowledge consciously while analyzing a text Secondly teachersshould create a high-efficient learning environment put students in realor virtual English culture scenes to improvestudents efficiency inEnglish learning Thirdly teachers should encourage students toextendtheir interest in English outside classroom 3 Teachers should helptocreate a harmonious atmosphere in the English classroomKey Words second language acquisition socio-cultural factor attitude achievement Chinese milieu6IntroductionSince China has implemented the reform and open policy especially China joined the WTO international association among our country and other countries have become frequent day by dayOpportunities forintercultural communication have been increasingly growing Thus the people who are capable of communicating with both native andnon-native speakers will be in greater demand throughout the society Soforeign language study has become a primary task It is a commonphenomenon that foreign language learners reach the linguistic and communicative competence to different degrees and at different paces for there are many factors involved in the differences To be more exactthe differences are partly caused by psychological factors eglanguageaptitude learning style motivation personality and anxiety etc and also partly determined by socio-cultural factors However in many casesresearchers pay more attention to internal factors in analyzing thedifferences while their researches into external factors are restrainedSecond language acquisition SLA is a complex process by whichpeople develop proficiency in a second or foreign language involving many interrelated factors Second language acquisition research began to be recognized as a discipline in its own right around the end of 1960sand the early 1970s and has a history of 35 years so far Block 2003 During this period SLA research has made great achievements which involved a broad range of questions from a wide variety of perspectivesFor example interlanguage and the natural route of development in second language acquisition individual learner differences and the universal hypothesis etc In general SLA research mainly involves three major aspects interlanguage research learners internal factors research and learners external factors research Wen Wang 20049Learners external factors mainly include social context homeenvironment school surroundings classroom and teaching methodswhich can also be called socio-cultural factors As far as learners external factors research is concerned researchers are always interestedin two aspects one is to investigate their effects on interlanguage theother is about their effects on learners internal factors which may havedirect effect on learners L2 proficiencyLanguages are social mechanism and are learned in social context Spolsky 1989 Hymes 1972 and else where has also continuallystressed the social nature of language Social accounts of second language learning have been primarily concerned with second language proficiency Ellis 1994 Social factors have an important but indirect effect on L2 proficiency Their effect is mediated by a number of variables among which attitudes are one set of important variables Social factors help to shape learners attitudes which in turn influencelearning outcomes Ellis 1994 Then the questions arise What are the socio-cultural factors affecting learners attitudes What is the relationbetween socio-cultural factors and L2 proficiency What about the relation between attitudes and L2 proficiencyGenerally second language acquisition is a general term thatincludes foreign language learning unless there is need todistinguishthe two The term second language acquisition means that thelanguage is not a native language in a country but is widely used as amedium of communication and is usually used alongside anotherlanguage or languages For example English as a second language is learnt in Fiji Singapore and Nigeria In contrast foreign language learning takes place in settings where the language is taught as a subject in schools but not used as a medium of instruction in educationor as a language of communication eg in government business orindustry within the community10In Chinese milieu English is taught and learnt mainly in theclassroom as a foreign language which means that students learn the language mostly by formal instruction and that they have fewopportunities to interact with speakers of target language compared withsecond language learners Foreign language learners will beinfluencedby specific socio-cultural factors Socio-cultural factors in the specificsocial milieu will influence not only the process of language learningbut also the result of language learning language proficiencyachievementThe present study sets out to identify the socio-cultural factors in foreign language learning and tries to explore whether there is a correlation between socio-cultural factors and learners Englishachievements in Chinese milieu including the correlation between learners attitudes and achievements It is mainly to make English teachers more aware of the important role socio-cultural factorsplayinEFL learning and benefit teachers to take effective teaching methods helping learners to improve English achievements and develop high English proficiencyThis thesis consists of five parts The first part is theintroductionabout the background to the present study including the development ofSLA research the social context in which Chinese students learnEnglish and the objective and significance of the present study The second part is a literature review of the major achievementsobtained instudying socio-cultural factors in SLA The third part is anempiricalstudy on socio-cultural factors and their effects on learnersEnglishachievements in Chinese milieu on the basis of Gardnerssocio-educational model The fourth part is implications and suggestionsbased on the analysis The last part is the conclusion includinglimitations of the present study and suggestions for the future research11Chapter 1 Literature Review of the Studies on Socio-culturalFactors in SLA11 Western Researches on Socio-cultural FactorsIn western countries there are a number of researches carried out on L2 learners external factors including the exploration of political social cultural factors influencing second language acquisition Conklin, Lourie 1983 the effect of social economic and political factors on language policy and planning in various contexts Fierman 1991Phillipson 1992 Twine 1991 the relationship between society andsecond language learning with learners age gender social class and ethnic identity involved Ellis 1994 the social models of secondlanguage acquisition Gardner 19791985 Schumann 1978a 1978b1986 Giles , Byrne 1982 and the social conditions for secondlanguage learning Spolsky 1989 In addition the role of attitude in second language learning has been extensively researched by Lambert and Gardner and their associates For exampleGardner and Lambert1972 Gardner 1985 The researches have laid a solid foundation for socio-cultural factors in SLA research In the following are themajorachievements of the researchers such as Gardner R Schumann JSpolsky B Ellis R Lambert W and etc which provide theoreticbasis for the present studycom Socio-educational ModelSince 1958 Gardner began to research on motivational variables from social views in second language acquisition whichwas guided by hisadvisor Wallace E Lambert The socio–educational modelwas firstproposed in 1974 in a final grant report authored by Gardner Smythe12Kirby and Bramwell although it was never published Schumann 1975 observed in an article that the model provides a powerful framework within which the dynamic social and psychological facts involved in second language acquisition can be understood The model hasundergone a series of versions Gardner 1979 1981 1983 1985 totake into account more information involved in the processGardners socio–educational model focuses on four variables social milieu individual differences language acquisition contexts andoutcomes which are causally interplay in second language acquisition process Second language acquisition takes place in a social milieuinwhich the cultural beliefs influence the development of two sets ofattitudinal variablesintegrativeness and attitudes toward the learningsituation –which in turn influence motivation that has directeffecton L2proficiency The following figure Figure 11 is the socio-educational model that emphasizes its major operational characteristicsLANGUAGESOCIAL ACQUISITIONMILIEU INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CONTEXTS OUTCOMESIntegrative motiveIntegrativenessCulturalbeliefs MotivationFormalLinguisticAttitudes towardthe learningsituationNon-Informal linguisticLanguageaptitudeFigure 11 Gardners 1985 socio-educational model13Integrativeness is a cluster of attitudes relating to outgroups and foreign languages in general as well as attitudes toward thespecificlanguage community and integrative orientations to language study Gardner Lalonde and Pierson 1983 While attitudes toward thelearning situation involve two primary aspects evaluation of the language teacher and evaluation of thelanguage course such aslearners attitudes toward teachers L2 class and textbooks etcCompared with other parts this part is more dynamic Gardner 2000 The social and cultural milieu in which learners grow up determines their beliefs about language and culture and influences the extent towhich they identify with the TL culture and also the extent to which theyhold positive attitudes toward the learning situationThe strength of the model explains how setting is related toproficiency one of the primary goals of any social theory of SLAby positing a series of intervening variables attitudes motivation self-confidence and by trying to plot how these are interrelated and howthey affect learning Gardner recognized the need to pay close attentionto the social milieu but he didnt give more account of socio-culturalfactors that determine the attitudinal variables of the modelbesides thetwo 1 importance of language objectives and 2 opportunities to use thelanguage Spolsky 1989In terms of socio-educational model Gardner himself emphasized the fact that his model is empirical and developing So from 1970snumerous researchers and practitioners carried on a series of researchesrelated to Gardners model For example Gardner Lalonde and Pierson 1983 Lalonde , Gardner 1984 and Dornyei 1990 tested thevalidity of the model Tremblay and Gardner 1995 expanded the model by adding three elements ie goal salience valence and self-efficacy One research by Genesee Rogers and Holobow 1983 stressed thesocial context of the relevance of integrativeness and found that L214learners perceptions of the TL Groups support for learning their language is positively correlated with the learners self rated proficiencyin the language and to their reported willingness to belong tosocialgroups that include members of the TL groupcom Other Models concerning Socio-cultural FactorsApart from Gardners socio-educational model there are many other models involving researches on socio-cultural factors and second language proficiency among which thewell-known model isSchumanns acculturation modelSince 1975 John Schumann has been working on the acculturationmodel that tries to clarify the importance of both social and effectivefactors on L2 learning The acculturation model is designed to identifymajor causing variables underlying natural L2 acquisition Gardner 1985 and explain social factors effects on L2 learning in natural setting That is to say the model excludes the learners who receive formal instruction in formal contextAcculturation is defined generally as the process of becomingadapted to a new culture Brown 1980 129 According to Schumann1978a 1978b 1978c learners will acquire the L2 only to the degree that they acculturate and the extent to which learners acculturate depends on two sets of factorssocialpsychological factorsthatdetermine learners levels of social and psychological distance The various social and psychological factors that Schumann identified are ofimportance Social factors are primary Ellis 1994231 whichdetermine social distance including social dominance integration pattern enclosure cohesiveness size cultural congruence attitude and intended length of residenceAs Schumann 1986 acknowledged the acculturation model hasreceived only limited support Maples 1982 study might be taken as15support for the model which found a strong relationship betweensocialdistance and measures of L2 English proficiency Seven out of the eightsocial factors were negatively correlated with proficiency Thesocialfactors in descending area of importance were attitudes social class cohesiveness intended length of residence size of L2 group enclosure and perceived status which were found to have a significant effectonL2 English proficiency It should be pointed out that the subjects werereceiving L2 instruction in classrooms While other studies for exampleStauble 1984 Schmidt 1983 failed to support the model because no relationship between social distance and development was found Oneofthe reasons for the mixed results is the problem of measurement ofacculturation Schumann has ever proposed that the direct effect of thedifferent social factors on L2 acquisition is mediated in terms of theamount of learners contact with TL speakers However the greatest failing of the acculturation model is that there is no explanation abouthow social factors influence the quality of contact that learners experience Ellis 1994Spolsky s 1989 general theory of L2 learning tries to solve theproblem ie Who learns How much of What languageunder Whatconditions It calls on a model to explore how to specify the conditionsunder which learning takes place Spolsky concluded 74 conditions for L2 learning There are a number of conditions described for thesocialcontext such as Number of Speakers condition Great Traditioncondition and Linguistic Convergence condition etc which areconditions that affect attitudes and opportunities for learning The Exposure condition Integrative Motivation condition and Language Values condition etc are conditions relating to attitudes and motivationof second language learnersAccording to Spolsky the conditions described for the social context influence second language learning in two ways one is that they lead to16a learners attitudes which are divisible into those toward the communityspeaking the target language and into those toward the learningsituations These two kinds of attitude are parallel to Gardnersintegrativeness and attitudes toward learning situation insocio-educational model The other lies in the provision of opportunitiesfor language learning which may be grouped into formal and informal situations The variables in the model so far are social context attitudesof various kinds motivation personal characteristics such as age personality capabilities previous knowledge learning opportunities formal or informal and linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes forthelearner The whole process can be showed in the following figureFigure 12AgeLinguisticAttitudes PersonalityAndSocialof various n Learning Non-linguisticoicontext takinds v opportunities outcomesitoMCapabilities For the learnerPreviousknowledgeFigure 12 Spolskys 1989 model of second language learningIn this regard the causal relation that social context leads to attitudeswhich appear in the learner as motivation that joins with other personalcharacteristics and finally the interplay between learner and situationdetermines learners language proficiency is similar to the linear relationof the socio-educational model However its difference from Gardners17model is partly in details of the theory and partly in the implications ofthe preference modelcom Social Context of SLASecond language learning of any kind takesplace in a socialcontext Spolsky 198925 In general the language-learning contexts include formal context and informal context Dulay Burt and Krashen 1982 which are also called educational context and natural context correspondingly In educational contexts formal learning takes place through conscious attention to rules and principles and the emphasis ison mastery of linguistic knowledge While informal learning occurs in natural contexts which is considered to result from direct participationand observation and what is learnt is its social significance aswell as thesubject matter Krashen 1976 1985 claimed that there are twoindependent ways of learning a second language acquisition andlearning ie conscious learning process and subconscious learning process corresponding to what occurs to language learners ineducational and natural contexts separatelyLearners L2 learning is influenced by the context they are in whichhas been shaped by socio-cultural factors Social factors determine thelearning opportunities which individual learners experience Ellis 1994Following Judd 1978 natural contexts can be identified into three typesmajority language context official language context andinternationallanguage context due to the various speakers with whom the L2 learnersmay communicate for example native speakers of the language or other L2 users Skuttnab-Kangas 1986 1988 distinguished four broad types of educational context segregation mother tongue maintenancelanguage shelter submersion and immersion among which L2learners are all in multilingual settings but what occurs in various educational contexts are different which is crucial to learners L218proficiency Ellis 1994 added a fifth type foreign language classroomsas an additional context found in monolingual situations The languageclassroom is a setting where the target language is taught as a subjectonly and is not commonly used as a medium of communication outsidethe classroom It includes both foreign language classrooms andsecond language classrooms With regard to the language classroom the role relationships between teacher and student are likely to be crucialEllis 1994 227 According to Ellis informal learning is not onlypossible but is actively encouraged in classroom learning situation com Researches on Attitudinal Variables in SLAIn exploring the role of attitudes in SLA many researchers madegreat contributions Gardner and Lambert began to research bilingual skill development from the perspective of emotions and attitudes Gardner , Lambert 1959 1972Social factors influence L2 proficiency indirectly and attitudes are one set of important variables involved in the process of L2acquisitionEllis 1994 As far as attitude is concerned L2 learners havedifferentattitudes toward the target language target language speakers the target-language culture the social value of learning the L2particularuses of the target language and themselves as members of their own culture In general positive attitudes toward the target language the target ethnolinguistic group and its culture may enhance learning whilenegative attitudes to impede learning see Gardner , Lambert 1972Gardner , Smythe 1975 Gardner and Smythe 1975 have foundthat persistence in language study and eagerness to interact in languageclasses also hinge on learners attitudes and motivation Gardner 1981 However it does not follow that learners with negative attitudes towardthe target language culture will invariably fail to learn the L2 for thereare other factors affecting the outcomes Ellis 1994210 noted thatthe19relationship between attitudes and L2 learning is almost certainly bi-directional and dynamic and is likely to vary according tosettingLearners attitudes have an impact on their level of L2 proficiency andare themselves influenced by this success The attitudes would become more tolerant as proficiency in the second language increased Lambert1987 While some researchers didnt find neat relation betweenattitudes and second language achievement For example Genesee and Hamayan 1980Another result concerning attitude is about measurement of variouskinds of attitude Among the main characteristics of attitudes providedby Baker 1988 there is one concerning that attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolarthey vary in degree of favorabilityunfavorabilityAttitudes can be measured both directly and indirectly For example theSemantic Differential Technique Spolskys 1969 Identity Scale are indirect measurement while direct measurement of attitudes usually involves self-report questionnaires taking the form of a series of statements to which learners respond on a five-point scale Gardner andLambert 1972 used this kind of question extensively in their studies ofattitudes According to Lambert 1977 the stereotype the feeling and the reaction tendency are three major components of attitude Typical measurement methods are used to reflect mainly one component oranother For example the stereotype component is measured through rating scales the feeling and reaction components are measured throughdirect questioning and multidimensional scaling procedurescom Researches on Situational Factors in Language ClassroomGardners socio-educational model 1985 involves the great socialcontext that may influence learners attitudes and motivation while。

外语学习动机与大学英语教学摘要:：本文拟阐述了行为主义心理学、认知心理学和社会心理学对学习动机理论的不同理解，并在此基础上，结合自身教学实践，探讨了这些理论对大学英语课堂教学的启示和意义。

通过对外语学习的动机释义、类型的分析,探讨了我国大学生英语学习的动机,并给大学英语教师提出几点启示。

关键词:外语学习动机;释义;类型;大学英语教学据雅克博维次(Jakobovits)的研究表明，影响二语言习得的主要因素是:动机占33%。

才能占33%,智力占20%,其他占14%。

二语言学习者首先要有强烈的学习愿望,从而产生学习动力,进而付诸行动。

[1]因此,学习动机是二语言成功习得的一个重要因素。

学习动机和学习效果之间有紧密的联系：学习动机强的人容易取得良好的学习效果；学习动机弱的人则学习效果较差。

因此，教师如何设计、改进教学方法，激发学生的学习动机不仅是教师们关心的话题，也是许多教育专家和学者研究的对象。

本文在一些成熟的学习动机理论的基础上，结合我国大学生英语教学的特点和自身教学的一些经验，探讨了如何组织教学，并积极调动和激发学生的学习兴趣。

一、外语学习动机动机被普遍认为是成功学习外语的一个重要因素。

所谓动机,就是对某种活动有明确的目的性以及为达到该目的而作出一定的努力。

语言学家Gardner和Lambert把动机分成“综合型动机”(integrativemotivation)和“工具型动机”(instru2mentalmotivation)两类。

[2]前者指学习者对目的语社团有特殊兴趣,期望参与或融入该社团的社会生活;后者指学习者为了某—特殊目的,如通过某一考试,获得某—职位等。

1、Gardner的社会心理模式Gardner和Lambert早在20世纪5O年代就开始对二语习得的学习动机进行了研究。

他们的社会心理学模式理论是最早从社会学的角度来探讨动机xq-语习得的影响。

根据他们的分类，动机可以分为融人性动机(integrative motivation)和工具性动机(instrumental motivation)。

The Inspiration and Cultivation of Students’Motivation on English Learningin Middle Schoolby高悦A thesis presented to the School of English Education ofXi’an International Studies Universityin partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree ofBachelor of ArtsMay5, 2014Class: 2010-1Advisor: 赵花兰西安外国语大学毕业论文开题报告AcknowledgementsI would like to express my sincere thanks here to those who have contributed greatly in various ways to the development of this paper. First and foremost, I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my mentor, Professor X. I am deeply indebted to her encouragement, valuable instructions and suggestions in accomplishing this paper. Without her patient instruction, insightful criticism and expert guidance, the thesis would not have been completed. Secondly, I am also much obliged to the teachers in English education department for their enlightening instructions which I benefited a lot. Thirdly, thanks to the help from the Liberians, this paper is finished more easily and frequently. Thirdly, my heartfelt thanks are given to my roommates and friends for their thorough reading, and polishing the language of the paper. In addition, I am grateful to my beloved family for their constant support and encouragement financially and mentally all though these years.The Inspiration and Cultivation of the Students’ Motivation on English Learning in Middle SchoolAbstract:With the continuous development of globalization, researches on English language teaching have been paid much more attention than ever before. According to Jakobovits’ survey，we can see that motivation is one of the main affective factors that affect foreign language learning. However, previous studies were concentrated more on the classification of thelearning motivation and theoretical research. Fewer researches on the relationship between motivation theory and teaching and the application of motivation theory are conducted before. In the article, first of all, the author expounds the definition of previous scholars about motivation, from Pit Corder, Garnder, to Pintrich & Schunk, to Du Fuxing. Secondly, the author illustrates the traditional classification of motivation. Thirdly, three related theories are introduced in this paper. Fourthly, the author sums up the main problems of Chinese English learners in middle school: the anxiety in English classroom and exam-oriented learning mode. In order to solve those problems, the author suggests a series of methods for stimulating students learning motivation: Firstly, through establishing a basic motivational environment, let the students study in a cheerful and positive learning environment; secondly, English teachers can enhance students’autonomy with the application of collaborative learning mode; thirdly, exposed in the culture of target language, students can be inspired to develop the integrative motivation; fourthly, by increasing the English learners' sense of self-efficacy and the attribution training, teachers can stimulate students' English learning motivation. Sincerely, the author hopes that problems and corresponding methods discussed in this paper can help English teachers improve the quality of English teaching.Key words: motivation theory; English learning; attribution theory论中学生英语学习动机的激发和培养摘要:随着全球化的不断发展，“英语热”一直有增无减，关于英语教学的研究也因此倍受重视。

The Motivation in Second Language Acquisition1.IntroductionDifferent people have different causes, processes and results of L2 learning. In fact, these differences are caused by different main bodies of L2 learning. Among various factors which can influence the L2 learners, there is an important one--- that is emotional factor, including motivation, attitude, interests, personality and so on. This paper will talk about one factor--- motivation.Motivation is an important non-intellectual and emotional factors in SLA (Second Language Acquisition) and have great influence on L2 (Second Language) learning.2.Definition of MotivationGardner defined motivation as a combination of effort and desire to achieve the goal of learning the language and favorable attitudes towards learning the language.Williams and Burden’s “social constructive approach” defined motivation as a state of cognitive and emotional arousal which leads to a conscious decision to act and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and physical effort. While Dornyei regarded motivation as a process whereby a certain amount of instigation force arises, initiates an action, and persists as long as no other force comes into play to weaken it andthereby terminate action, or until the planned outcome has been reached.3.Types of MotivationBased on Gardner’s model and on the work of Zoltan Dornyei, motivation can be divided into two general orientations: integrative and instrumental.3.1 Integrative Motivation（融合性动机）Motivation has been identified as the learner's orientation（定向）with regard to the goal of learning a second language. It is thought that students who are most successful when learning a target language are those who like the people that speak the language, admire the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate into the society in which the language is used. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.When someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions, integrative motivation is a key component in assisting the learner to develop some level of proficiency(精通) in the language. In another word, learners with integrative motivation are more active in class and are less likely to drop out.3.2Instrumental Motivation（工具性动机）In contrast to integrative motivation is instrumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical or concrete from the study of a second language. With instrumental motivation the purpose of language acquisition is more utilitarian, such as meeting the requirements for school or university graduation, applying for a job, etc. Instrumental motivation is a characteristic of second language acquisition, where little or no social integration of the learner into a community using the target language takes place, or in some instances is even desired. It combines with integrative motivation to serve as a powerful predictor of success in formal contexts.4.Importance of MotivationMotivation is an important factor in L2 achievement. If we can correctly know, train and inspire the L2 learner’s motivation, the lear ner’s potential will be exploited fully, in which way he can make an extremely huge progress in the L2 learning. "Given motivation, anyone can learn a language."(Corder 1981) This phrase from the famous applied linguist Corder brings out the importance of motivation.The following is an example, which is about a 35-year-old learner who wanted to learn spoken English. The motivation of learning English in fact came from his responsibility as a father who wanted to instruct his son. This motivation caused him to practice oral English seriously everyday and even made dialogue with his son. From this example, we can see clearly that how important the motivation is for the L2 learner.5.Factors in L2 Learning MotivationMotivation plays a crucial role in SLA, thus it is necessary to analyze those factors influencing L2 learning motivation.5.1 ValueValue is often labeled by various researchers as valence, incentive value, attainment value, task value and so on.High levels of the value of the L2-------- intensify l earners’ interest--------- intensify L2 learning motivationThe L2 is very difficult to learn-----------more efforts, time and energy------------ some difficulty in the persistence of learning activity5.2 Self-efficacySelf-efficacy has to do with the lea rner’s opinion about his or her ability to carry out a task.Learners with a low sense of self-efficacy in SLA regard difficult learning tasks as a threat to their dignity. Consequently, this kind of learners is often inclined to lose faith in their abilities and is likely to give up the learning tasks.In contrast, learners with a strong sense of self-efficacy will encounter tough tasks with confidence and will sustain efforts in the face of failures. Therefore, learners having high self-efficacy are generally high achievers.5.2Teacher’s EffectA teacher’s role in shaping learners’ motivation to learn a L2 is complex.A good teacher------------proper guidance and support in L2 learningThe teacher’s personality, behavior and teachingmethods------------- th e degree of learners’ being attracted to engage in learning tasksA teacher’s inappropriate responses t o learners’ learning activities------------- weaken learners’ motivation6.How to Inspire Motivation in SLAFirst, a relaxed atmosphere in English classroom should be created. A relaxed classroom atmosphere facilitates students toexpress their opinions and makes them not feel embarrassed when they make mistakes.Second, the teacher should guide the students to setshort-term goals. Thus, the students can make progress regularly and get some external rewards, which all motivate them to learn English willingly and full of enjoyment. Third, the teacher should enhance English-related values and promote students’ learning attitudes. In this aspect, the key is to make English course attractive and arouse students' curiosity to learn and to master it.At last, the teacher should try to increase students’self-confidence in English learning. Self-confidence determines the amount of efforts and time students will spend and the persistence they will display in the process of learning. To increase confidence, it is necessary for the teacher to give encouragement to students.7.Conclusion1、Motivation is clearly a highly complex phenomenon.2、Among internal sources of motivation, self-confidencemay be more important than either type of motivation insome contexts.3、These two types of motivation should be seen ascomplementary rather than as distinct and oppositional.。

A Study on Motivation of College Students inEnglish LearningAbstract：Based on the concept of the learning motivation and its development，this paper points outs the main factors influencing the English learning motivation in Chinese college students. Through the motivational questionnaire of 60 students in Yinxing International Hospitality Management College，this article draws from the related scholars' and historical reviews，and analyzes the main factors affecting the English learning motivation of college students from the students' internal，social and educational perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to put forward four strategies to stimulate the English learning motivation。

These four strategies can help students enhance the ability to learn English that：1）to communicate with the English teachers actively，in order to establish a good relationship between teachers and students; 2) to evaluate and attribute reasonably the students' English learning; 3) to enhance their interest in English learning through a variety of ways；4) to develop students’ sense of social responsibility and self—worth。