Sixty years of Operational Research
Ken Bowen
*
Royal Holloway,University of London,Egham Hill,Surrey TW200EX,UK
Received 10December 2001;accepted 30January 2003
Abstract
This paper describes the author ?s experience of 60years of Operational Research and presents some thoughts on the nature of the work of an Operational Researcher.ó2003Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
Keywords:History of OR;Practice of OR
1.Introduction
This is an account of the way in which my own work in Operational Research (OR)developed,and what sort of mathematics has aided me.I also discuss,in general terms,how OR elsewhere was proceeding,how the various strands stand today,and what,perhaps,the future may hold.
2.1941–1946
In January 1941,I became a naval analyst in technical radio intelligence 1managing an opera-tional department passing intelligence to Bletchley Park and other authorities.Additionally,I was
also responsible for developing ways by which the quality and quantity of information obtained could be enhanced,by improvements to equip-ment and to data-handling.I did not,at the time,see this as OR:indeed,it was not until much later that I ?rst heard the term and what it implied.
Improving the operational performance of the groups that I controlled,internally and externally,was,I now perceive,a successful OR task.How-ever,there were limitations on the value we could o?er to the users of our output,since we were never allowed to discuss the speci?c nature of how they used this intelligence,let alone the reasons why they needed it.Consequently,we could rarely go beyond a certain routine process:feed-back was very limited and face-to-face discussion was a rare event.
The mathematics I needed was largely that re-lated to radio-propagation and the working of transmitters,receivers and aerial systems.Fourier series also came in useful.Measurement was very much biased towards classi?cation:had I been of
*
Tel.:+44-1-784443082;fax:+44-1-784430766.
1
With keyed morse communications,our task was to match transmitters (Radio-Fingerprinting)and the operators (TINA):with other signals interest was mainly directed to their function and purpose.
0377-2217/$-see front matter ó2003Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00267-4
European Journal of Operational Research 153(2004)
618–623
https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,/locate/dsw
the calibre of my former tutor,Henry(JHC) Whitehead2,I might well have discovered fuzzy sets,which I recognised immediately when I met them25years later.Occasionally,I worked on equipment problems,primarily concerned with devices that improved the data I required.One exception was a study of how to run a long loop of recording wire over a drum made of threaded rods without tension building up and the wire snapping: an analogous problem was recently discussed on a TV programme,trying to reinvent the water rais-ing equipment that may have been used for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon!
3.1946–1954
The war ended with my having a great interest in radio equipment,and a generally diminished recall of my university mathematics.I could have gone back to do pure mathematical research,and I also had the possibility of a transfer to the(new) GCHQ at Cheltenham.However,a more attrac-tive option was to run a small statistical group to be concerned with the analysis of data from radio equipment under development,primarily naviga-tional aids,direction?nders and communication systems(radar was worked on elsewhere).My work could be described as data driven since I had no prior knowledge of statistics as a subject area.
Mathematically,it was interesting,mainly be-cause the distributions I dealt with were seldom standard,but I needed little more than basic cal-culus and algebra.From an OR standpoint,it would have been more what was called assessment, had it not been for the closeness with which I was able to work with the users and to incorporate both operational and technical factors.I was able to spend a lot of time at sea,partly on trials and partly just getting experience of equipment in use: this incidentally also gave me useful knowledge of radar which I was able to use later.
Apart from statistical work,I also carried out purely mathematical studies.The most interesting of these was an attempt to select from a number of useable frequencies(which could be modelled as the?rst n integers),a set in which no three were in arithmetic progression(AP).Operationally,two frequencies in use would cause interference on a third should the three be in AP,due to non-linear resonators inherent in a ship?s structure.The so-lution was required for very large values of n(up to several hundred)and the set selected was to be reasonably evenly spread over the whole range. You will recognise this as a now-solved problem in number theory.I did not solve it,but by a process of successive approximations starting from1,2,4, 5,10,11,13,14,28,29,31,32,37,38,40,41,...,I obtained a good enough set.There were no com-puters,and it is worth mention that,as with complicated statistical calculations,I was depen-dent on standard calculators,punched cards and a lot of arithmetic.
It may also be worthy of note that in many areas of work the geometry of conics proved to be an important aspect of the models I needed to develop.
4.Operational Research––?rst comment
I?rst became aware of OR in1949from a talk by E.C.(Bill)Williams,then Director of Opera-tional Research,Admiralty.Like Moli e re?s Bour-geois Gentilhomme,who found that he had been speaking prose all his life,I recognised what I had been doing,albeit not yet in full context,for the past10years.Helped by wise seniors,I planned my route towards involvement in tactical and strategic inquiry,so as to extend the equipment-oriented OR that had been my main endeavour.
I also looked at what was happening in indus-try,and it was very di?erent to what was going on in Naval Operational Research.The latter con-centrated on tactical problems,under considerable di?culty since there was no real(i.e.?ghting)en-vironment:games and exercises at sea were the vehicles for getting data to add to the limited amount of relevant wartime data(and later that from the Korean and Suez wars)to establish greater accuracy of estimation of Operational performance.Industry was moving primarily on
2Henry was in OR at the Admiralty with PMS Blackett for a
while,but he found it not to his mathematical taste and went to
Bletchley Park to work in cryptographic analysis.
K.Bowen/European Journal of Operational Research153(2004)618–623619
the‘‘housekeeping’’side:inventory control,stock control and other models tended to be mechanistic and in comparison to naval battle models,very sophisticated.Queuing theory and reliability the-ory were also becoming subjects in their own right. None of this seemed relevant to the current naval problems.Both were doing OR,but never did the twain meet.
5.1954–1961
For me,a key period was the Sta?Course at Greenwich in1954,followed by a course at the Naval Tactical School.Not only did this give me the status of a quali?ed Naval Sta?O?cer,but it introduced me to a range of tactical and strategic issues including ones of collaboration with the other two services.Following this,I might have gone on to the Department of OR,Admiralty but I chose to stay in my R&D Establishment with the opportunity of looking at some equipment as-sessments in a wider context.
An important one concerned a projected peri-scope detection radar,the potential of which I examined taking into account what sonar and other underwater systems(seaborne and airborne) could play in submarine detection.The study showed the radar to add little to the operational outcome of antisubmarine warfare and it was not proceeded with.
Another looked at the need for a UHF DF equipment,operating on the new UHF voice communications,helping to get aircraft safely back to the carrier.Again there were many alter-native aids,many of them radar,and it seemed again that only a small operational gain would be bought at a high price.I had however forgotten that the old VHF DF,albeit not very accurate, was user-friendly and the pilots loved it.In the words of one of my Naval advisers‘‘I agree with Bowen?s analysis,but not with his conclusions’’! The equipment was developed and I added human factors to my list of subject areas for essential study.
In1956,I went to sea(a period of18months)as Scienti?c Adviser to CinC Home Fleet/CINC-EASTLANT.I was responsible for all naval exercise analyses and,in one case,a major air defence exercise,I was also a member of the ex-ercise planning team,enabling me to set all re-quirements for data collection.My main NATO post was Records O?cer at the Maritime Head-quarters at Northwood:I redesigned the data collection and analysis process and the enhanced ?ow of useful intelligence to SACLANT was ac-knowledged:at least one other NATO headquar-ters adopted a similar reorganisation.The various analyses carried out,both for national and NATO working,had direct impact on tactical doctrine.
From1958to1961,I served as Scienti?c Ad-viser to the Director of Naval Plans,Admiralty and,in a part-time capacity,to the Chief of Am-phibious Warfare(CAW).My concerns were now at the strategic level;in many cases,the issues analysed were of3-service concern.My task was essentially to prepare reports and briefs for con-sideration at Chiefs of Sta?level,and I depended heavily on analyses carried out by both opera-tional research and equipment assessment scien-tists.
Mathematically,there was nothing that posed di?culties.The essential features of the work were to know what was going on in‘‘the corridors of power’’,to know those who were the authorities or experts in the many areas in which information might be required,and to provide timely and logically supported advice.Being‘‘right’’was im-portant:the work done had a major bearing on the Navy?s‘‘voice’’in debates with the other services and on the establishing of Naval policy.
Perhaps my most important contribution re-lated to the nuclear deterrent which was now passing from the RAF?s V-bomber force to the Navy?s planned POLARIS submarines.The de-terrent level was quoted as‘‘at least50%damage to each and every one of a stated number of Soviet Union cities’’.The rationale for this I found to be non-existent:it merely stated what the RAF could do!By changing the statement to‘‘an average level of50%’’,I showed that there could be,on that basis,a massive saving,and such a change was accepted in principle.This also triggered a much-needed debate on what might be considered to deter an attack on the UK and,further,whether the concept of an independent nuclear deterrent
620K.Bowen/European Journal of Operational Research153(2004)618–623
had military relevance or was purely a political/ diplomatic concept related to relations(particu-larly information exchange)with the US.Eventu-ally,the independent UK deterrent,became the smallest operationally viable force of POLARIS submarines that could be deployed!
Of other tasks that a?ected the future,it is in-teresting to note that tactical planning that I was involved in for CAW had an eventual pay-o?in the e?cient way in which the amphibious forces of the Royal Marines were deployed in the Falklands war.I was then retired from Defence,but I was able to predict quite accurately the operations that would be carried out(fortunately later work had helped to ensure that the relevant forces would survive!).
6.1961–1967
This period was my most intense phase of de-fence OR activity.Initially,in the Department of OR,Admiralty,I was concentrating on simple mathematical models in the?elds of anti-subma-rine warfare and air defence,using variants of Lanchester models of combat(di?erential equa-tions of battle),and also examining vulnerability of ships to torpedo and missile attack.My re-sponsibility was the development of operational models related to operations in support of friendly nations overseas.Indonesia and Kuwait were countries I examined in detail,the?rst as a po-tential enemy,the second as an ally threatened by Iraq.My most studied texts were the multivo-lumed Times atlases:such geographical aspects as water depths and beaches,what nations owned the many islands and who might threaten them,were among my many concerns.
Informally,I set up a group,including analysts from the other services and developed conceptual models of the diverse activities of an intervention in which the naval r^o le was to move,supply and defend military units;the Royal Marines with their helicopters and landing craft were special ele-ments.
Everything came together,when I moved in 1965to the new central Defence Operational Analysis Establishment at West By?eet,where ail that I had ever done and learnt seemed to serve my responsibilities for maritime warfare advice to the MOD.
My team slowly built up to include o?cers of ail three services,a few scientists with long expe-rience in naval warfare,and some with specialist knowledge of earlier OR studies of air and army problems.We expanded existing models,eschew-ing computer simulation models because of the then di?culty of getting large enough samples,and developed useful‘‘games’’to examine submarine attack processes and airborne movement of army units.
In1966–1967,we carried out major studies for the Secretary of State for Defence,a movement study to examine the intervention potential of existing forces and what would be needed in10 years time,and a more general appreciation of UK capabilities in antisubmarine warfare and the defence of major units.Both were successful studies.Importantly,the Royal Marine compo-nents of our defence forces were shown to be essential.
7.Operational Research––second comment
In general,application of OR in industry and commerce had expanded into many areas but it had become increasingly mathematical,concen-trating still on‘‘shop-?oor’’activities.There was certainly little of a strategic nature.There were however notable exceptions in some Government departments,at the National Coal Board,in the British Steel Corporation,and at Rolls Royce, and,in general,there were more than enough ideas to feed on to make membership of the OR Society a necessity.What I gained mainly bore fruit in strengthening my bias towards simple models for ‘‘casting light’’and against solution-oriented op-timisations.
Linear programming was the one modelling area that was well and truly adopted(it formed the central modelling approach for the second stage of the intervention movement studies referred to above).Otherwise,ideas for modelling were de-pendent of a large number of sources,few of them from conventional OR areas.
K.Bowen/European Journal of Operational Research153(2004)618–623621
8.1967–1979
My last12years in MOD were spent as an in-dependent researcher.My main topic was con?ict; initially,this was a concern with understanding how we might avert wars rather then how we might win them.I had sta?to support me,both in-house and in universities;these worked on further extensions of Lanchester Theory,on fuzzy logic and on research games.
The con?ict work gradually moved into studies of the operational research process itself:the logic that drove this was the interdependence of con?ict and problems.Increasingly,attention got focused on questions such as‘‘how do we work to ensure that we are studying the right problem?’’;‘‘how do we determine what models will best serve our purpose?’’;‘‘what limitations are there on possible ways ahead,unless organisations also are chan-ged?’’,and so on.Mathematics was not the key; subject areas such as psychology and the social sciences had relevant things to say,as had lin-guistics,particularly related to confusions caused by the way language was used.
None of this was new,since re?ection on my own practice,and my discussions with other practitioners,showed that we had often in e?ect dealt with these questions.But our processes were implicit not explicit,and were not fully understood nor adequately developed.
It is not possible to cover the wide range of inquiry that?lled the years up to my formal re-tirement in1979.Su?ce it to say that I ended with an association with many like-minded researchers in many countries,a good working knowledge of con?ict resolution processes and of decision theo-ries,and a certainty that except for problems that could be fully and simply de?ned,mathematics had a much more limited role to play in opera-tional research than many believed.
9.Operational Research––third comment
The1970s were not a good period for OR.As needs for help with decision problems shifted to-wards the strategic end of the spectrum,opera-tional research tools and processes were lacking.In defence,this was increasingly felt and the estab-lishment.I served came under increasing criticism. Some moves towards better links between foreign policy and defence analysts were attempted,but a change in the emphases of OR foundered on a general desire to hold fast to the familiar.This was the decade when Russell Acko?spoke out in two papers,published and debated by the OR Society,‘‘The future of OR is past’’and‘‘Resurrecting the future of OR’’[1,2].Across the board,industrial and civil government OR included,the future did not seem bright.
10.1979to date
Throughout the1980s,at Royal Holloway,I developed my own ideas on improving OR process, particularly in problem formulation and sharpened these through the work of a Research Assistant and two doctoral students on contracts and other consultancy work.I worked closely with individual researchers elsewhere who were developing practi-cal applications of meta and hypergames,cognitive mapping,Strategic Choice,systems thinking and other processes that provided structure for dealing with the largely unquanti?able aspects of prob-lems.We were all,in e?ect,seeking theories of decision aiding rather than theories of decision.We were not trying to replace mathematical OR ap-proaches but to understand better when various standard modelling techniques were appropriate and when they were not.
This sort of work has continued apace and much is now operationally available.Similar ex-tensions of the scope of OR have also taken place in many European countries.A Working Group, of which I am a member,ensures that communi-cation of ideas is widespread.I am less optimistic about the direction in which US operational re-search is moving.
11.Operational Research––fourth and?nal com-ment
Where does OR stand today?The number of analysts who understand the non-mathematical
622K.Bowen/European Journal of Operational Research153(2004)618–623
structuring processes are increasing in number and industry in particular is taking good advantage of this,either through their own sta?but also by using the growing number of strong consultancy groups.In government OR,similar tendencies are seen.In the case of defence,there are still big problems mainly because of the rapid move to-wards concepts of interposition and humanitarian aid.The balance needed between the so-called soft and hard techniques is under urgent examination.
The greatest di?culty for OR workers today is that,although improved methodology is available, any process used can only carve out an m-dimen-sional slice of an n-dimensional problem(m is likely to be very much less than n).Di?erent pro-cesses are chosen by di?erent people and although there may always be good help given,the end re-sults will not be the same.As yet,we have only vague understanding of the impact of the di?er-ences,although though there is nothing that seems to be inherently inconsistent between the processes available;techniques developed within individual processes certainly seem to be transferable.The logical problem is that,ultimately,the process is an individual?s way of working and even if we try to follow suit,we end up with our way of working not someone else?s.We seem to need something like a choreographer?s notation,to describe,step by step,what we are doing.
I have elsewhere made a plea for help from pure mathematics(see[3]).We already have in various places bits of graph theory and set theory,and ideas from topology,algebra,fuzzy logic and much more.The structures that de?ne the ways of working are very complicated with feedback and recursion everywhere.The catch-22situation is that operational researchers are not pure mathe-maticians(although some,like me,may have been such long ago)and pure mathematicians are not attracted by the messy,ill-de?ned worlds that operational researchers live in.If this can be overcome,maybe decision making can be helped by OR to come to take place in a more rational, cooperative and non-confrontational manner,with con?ict working to create desirable change with-out destroying continuity and stability.There is no harm in having a dream.
References
[1]R.L.Acko?,The future of operational research is past,
Journal of the Operational Research Society30(1979)93–104.
[2]R.L.Acko?,Resurrecting the future of operational re-
search,Journal of the Operational Research Society30 (1979)189–199.
[3]K.Bowen,A challenge:Can mathematics aid development
of the process of operational research?IMA Journal of Mathematics Applied in Business and Industry,2,73–77.
K.Bowen/European Journal of Operational Research153(2004)618–623623
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关于会议纪要的规范格式和写作要求 一、会议纪要的概念 会议纪要是一种记载和传达会议基本情况或主要精神、议定事项等内容的规定性公文。是在会议记录的基础上，对会议的主要内容及议定的事项，经过摘要整理的、需要贯彻执行或公布于报刊的具有纪实性和指导性的文件。 会议纪要根据适用范围、内容和作用，分为三种类型： 1、办公会议纪要(也指日常行政工作类会议纪要)，主要用于单位开会讨论研究问题，商定决议事项，安排布置工作，为开展工作提供指导和依据。如，xx学校工作会议纪要、部长办公会议纪要、市委常委会议纪要。 2、专项会议纪要(也指协商交流性会议纪要)，主要用于各类交流会、研讨会、座谈会等会议纪要，目的是听取情况、传递信息、研讨问题、启发工作等。如，xx县脱贫致富工作座谈会议纪要。 3、代表会议纪要(也指程序类会议纪要)。它侧重于记录会议议程和通过的决议，以及今后工作的建议。如《××省第一次盲人聋哑人代表会议纪要》、《xx市第x次代表大会会议纪要》。 另外，还有工作汇报、交流会，部门之间的联席会等方面的纪要，但基本上都系日常工作类的会议纪要。 二、会议纪要的格式 会议纪要通常由标题、正文、结尾三部分构成。
1、标题有三种方式：一是会议名称加纪要，如《全国农村工作会议纪要》;二是召开会议的机关加内容加纪要，也可简化为机关加纪要，如《省经贸委关于企业扭亏会议纪要》、《xx组织部部长办公会议纪要》;三是正副标题相结合，如《维护财政制度加强经济管理——在xx部门xx座谈会上的发言纪要》。 会议纪要应在标题的下方标注成文日期，位置居中，并用括号括起。作为文件下发的会议纪要应在版头部分标注文号，行文单位和成文日期在文末落款(加盖印章)。 2、会议纪要正文一般由两部分组成。 (1)开头，主要指会议概况，包括会议时间、地点、名称、主持人，与会人员，基本议程。 (2)主体，主要指会议的精神和议定事项。常务会、办公会、日常工作例会的纪要，一般包括会议内容、议定事项，有的还可概述议定事项的意义。工作会议、专业会议和座谈会的纪要，往往还要写出经验、做法、今后工作的意见、措施和要求。 (3)结尾，主要是对会议的总结、发言评价和主持人的要求或发出的号召、提出的要求等。一般会议纪要不需要写结束语，主体部分写完就结束。 三、会议纪要的写法 根据会议性质、规模、议题等不同，正文部分大致可以有以下几种写法： 1、集中概述法(综合式)。这种写法是把会议的基本情况，讨
titlesec&titletoc中文文档 张海军编译 makeday1984@https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html, 2009年10月 目录 1简介,1 2titlesec基本功能,2 2.1.格式,2.—2.2.间隔, 3.—2.3.工具,3. 3titlesec用法进阶,3 3.1.标题格式,3.—3.2.标题间距, 4.—3.3.与间隔相关的工具, 5.—3.4.标题 填充,5.—3.5.页面类型,6.—3.6.断行,6. 4titletoc部分,6 4.1.titletoc快速上手,6. 1简介 The titlesec and titletoc宏包是用来改变L A T E X中默认标题和目录样式的，可以提供当前L A T E X中没有的功能。Piet van Oostrum写的fancyhdr宏包、Rowland McDonnell的sectsty宏包以及Peter Wilson的tocloft宏包用法更容易些；如果希望用法简单的朋友，可以考虑使用它们。 要想正确使用titlesec宏包，首先要明白L A T E X中标题的构成，一个完整的标题是由标签+间隔+标题内容构成的。比如： 1.这是一个标题，此标题中 1.就是这个标题的标签，这是一个标签是此标题的内容，它们之间的间距就是间隔了。 1
2titlesec基本功能 改变标题样式最容易的方法就是用几向个命令和一系列选项。如果你感觉用这种方法已经能满足你的需求，就不要读除本节之外的其它章节了1。 2.1格式 格式里用三组选项来控制字体的簇、大小以及对齐方法。没有必要设置每一个选项，因为有些选项已经有默认值了。 rm s f t t md b f up i t s l s c 用来控制字体的族和形状2，默认是bf,详情见表1。 项目意义备注（相当于） rm roman字体\textrm{...} sf sans serif字体\textsf{...} tt typewriter字体\texttt{...} md mdseries(中等粗体)\textmd{...} bf bfseries(粗体)\textbf{...} up直立字体\textup{...} it italic字体\textit{...} sl slanted字体\textsl{...} sc小号大写字母\textsc{...} 表1:字体族、形状选项 bf和md属于控制字体形状，其余均是切换字体族的。 b i g medium s m a l l t i n y（大、中、小、很小） 用来标题字体的大小，默认是big。 1这句话是宏包作者说的，不过我感觉大多情况下，是不能满足需要的，特别是中文排版，英文 可能会好些！ 2L A T E X中的字体有5种属性：编码、族、形状、系列和尺寸。 2
信用证操作实务指南――信用证的流程跟单信用证操作的流程简述如下 1. 买卖双方在贸易合同中规定使用跟单信用证支付。 2. 买方通知当地银行（开证行）开立以卖方为受益人的信用证。 3. 开证行请求另一银行通知或保兑信用证。 4. 通知行通知卖方，信用证已开立。 5. 卖方收到信用证，并确保其能履行信用证规定的条件后，即装运货物。 6. 卖方将单据向指定银行提交。该银行可能是开证行，或是信用证内指定的付款、承兑或议付银行。 7. 该银行按照信用证审核单据。如单据符合信用证规定，银行将按信用证规定进行支付、承兑或议付。 8. 开证行以外的银行将单据寄送开证行。 9. 开证行审核单据无误后，以事先约定的形式，对已按照信用证付款、承兑或议付的银行偿付。 10. 开证行在买方付款后交单，然后买方凭单取货。 信用证的开立 1. 开证的申请 进出口双方同意用跟单信用证支付后，进口商便有责任开证。第一件事是填写开证申请表，这张表为开证申请人与开证行建立了法律关系，因此，开证申请表是开证的最重要的文件。 2. 开证的要求
信用证申请的要求在统一惯例中有明确规定，进口商必须确切地将其告之银行。信用证开立的指示必须完整和明确。申请人必须时刻记住跟单信用证交易是一种单据交易，而不是货物交易。银行家不是商人，因此申请人不能希望银行工作人员能充分了解每一笔交易中的技术术语。即使他将销售合同中的所有条款都写入信用证中，如果受益人真的想欺骗，他也无法得到完全保护。这就需要银行与申请人共同努力，运用常识来避免开列对各方均显累赘的信用证。银行也应该劝阻在开立信用证时其内容套用过去已开立的信用证（套证）。 3. 开证的安全性 银行接到开证申请人完整的指示后，必须立即按该指示开立信用证。另一方面，银行也有权要求申请人交出一定数额的资金或以其财产的其他形式作为银行执行其指示的保证。 按现行规定，中国地方、部门及企业所拥有的外汇通常必须存入中国的银行。如果某些单位需要跟单信用证进口货物或技术，中国的银行将冻结其帐户中相当于信用证金额的资金作为开证保证金。 如果申请人在开证行没有帐号，开证行在开立信用证之前很可能要求申请人在其银行存入一笔相当于全部信用证金额的资金。这种担保可以通过抵押或典押实现（例如股票），但银行也有可能通过用于交易的货物作为担保提供融资。开证行首先要对该笔货物的适销性进行调查，如果货物易销，银行凭信用证给客户提供的融资额度比滞销商品要高得多。 4. 申请人与开证行的义务和责任 申请人对开证行承担三项主要义务： (1)申请人必须偿付开证行为取得单据代表代向受益人支付的贷款。在他付款前，作为物权凭证的单据仍属于银行。 (2)如果单据与信用证条款相一致而申请人拒绝“赎单”，则其作为担保的存款或帐户上已被冻结的资金将归银行所有。
毕业论文写作要求与格式规范 关于《毕业论文写作要求与格式规范》，是我们特意为大家整理的，希望对大家有所帮助。 (一)文体 毕业论文文体类型一般分为：试验论文、专题论文、调查报告、文献综述、个案评述、计算设计等。学生根据自己的实际情况，可以选择适合的文体写作。 (二)文风 符合科研论文写作的基本要求：科学性、创造性、逻辑性、
实用性、可读性、规范性等。写作态度要严肃认真，论证主题应有一定理论或应用价值;立论应科学正确，论据应充实可靠，结构层次应清晰合理，推理论证应逻辑严密。行文应简练，文笔应通顺，文字应朴实，撰写应规范，要求使用科研论文特有的科学语言。 (三)论文结构与排列顺序 毕业论文，一般由封面、独创性声明及版权授权书、摘要、目录、正文、后记、参考文献、附录等部分组成并按前后顺序排列。 1.封面：毕业论文(设计)封面具体要求如下： (1)论文题目应能概括论文的主要内容，切题、简洁，不超过30字，可分两行排列;
(2)层次：大学本科、大学专科 (3)专业名称：机电一体化技术、计算机应用技术、计算机网络技术、数控技术、模具设计与制造、电子信息、电脑艺术设计、会计电算化、商务英语、市场营销、电子商务、生物技术应用、设施农业技术、园林工程技术、中草药栽培技术和畜牧兽医等专业，应按照标准表述填写; (4)日期：毕业论文(设计)完成时间。 2.独创性声明和关于论文使用授权的说明：需要学生本人签字。 3.摘要：论文摘要的字数一般为300字左右。摘要是对论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，是文章内容的高度概括。主要内容包括：该项研究工作的内容、目的及其重要性;所使用的实验方法;总结研究成果，突出作者的新见解;研究结论及其意义。摘要中不列举例证，不描述研究过程，不做自我评价。
填制进口开证申请书的步骤为： 1、DATE(申请开证日期)。在申请书右上角填写实际申请日期。 2、TO(致)。银行印制的申请书上事先都会印就开证银行的名称、地址，银行的SWIFT CODE、TELEX NO等也可同时显示。 3、PLEASE ISSUE ON OUR BEHALF AND/OR FOR OUR ACCOUNT THE FOLLOWING IRREVOABLE LETTER OF CREDIT(请开列以下不可撤销信用证)。如果信用证是保兑或可转让的，应在此加注有关字样。开证方式多为电开(BY TELEX)，也可以是信开、快递或简电开立。 4、L/C NUMBER(信用证号码)。此栏由银行填写。 5、APPLICANT(申请人)。填写申请人的全称及详细地址，有的要求注明联系电话、传真号码等。 6、BENEFICIARY(受益人)。填写受益人的全称及详细地址。 7、ADVISING BANK(通知行)。由开证行填写。 8、AMOUNT(信用证金额)。分别用数字和文字两种形式表示，并且表明币制。如果允许有一定比率的上下浮动，要在信用证中明确表示出来。 9、EXPIRY DATE AND PLACE(到期日期和地点)，填写信用证的有效期及到期地点。 10、PARTIAL SHIPMENT(分批装运)、TRANSHIPMENT(转运)。根据合同的实际规定打“×”进行选择。 11、LOADING IN CHARGE、FOR TRANSPORT TO、LATEST DATE OF SHIPMENT(装运地/港、目的地/港的名称，最迟装运日期)。按实际填写，如允许有转运地/港，也应清楚标明。 12、CREDIT AVAILABLE WITH/BY(付款方式)。在所提供的即期、承兑、议付和延期付款四种信用证有效兑付方式中选择与合同要求一致的类型。 13、BENEFICIARY'S DRAFT(汇票要求)。金额应根据合同规定填写为：发票金额的一定百分比;发票金额的100%(全部货款都用信用证支付);如部分信用证，部分托收时按信用证下的金额比例填写。付款期限可根据实际填写即期或远期，如属后者必须填写具体的天数。信用证条件下的付款人通常是开证行，也可能是开证行指定的另外一家银行。
公文格式规范与常见公文写作 一、公文概述与公文格式规范 党政机关公文种类的区分、用途的确定及格式规范等，由中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅于2012年4月16日印发，2012年7月1日施行的《党政机关公文处理工作条例》规定。之前相关条例、办法停止执行。 （一）公文的含义 公文，即公务文书的简称，属应用文。 广义的公文，指党政机关、社会团体、企事业单位，为处理公务按照一定程序而形成的体式完整的文字材料。 狭义的公文，是指在机关、单位之间，以规范体式运行的文字材料，俗称“红头文件”。 ?（二）公文的行文方向和原则 ?、上行文下级机关向上级机关行文。有“请示”、“报告”、和“意见”。 ?、平行文同级机关或不相隶属机关之间行文。主要有“函”、“议案”和“意见”。 ?、下行文上级机关向下级机关行文。主要有“决议”、“决定”、“命令”、“公报”、“公告”、“通告”、“意见”、“通知”、“通报”、“批复”和“会议纪要”等。 ?其中，“意见”、“会议纪要”可上行文、平行文、下行文。?“通报”可下行文和平行文。 ?原则： ?、根据本机关隶属关系和职权范围确定行文关系 ?、一般不得越级行文 ?、同级机关可以联合行文 ?、受双重领导的机关应分清主送机关和抄送机关 ?、党政机关的部门一般不得向下级党政机关行文 ?(三) 公文的种类及用途 ?、决议。适用于会议讨论通过的重大决策事项。 ?、决定。适用于对重要事项作出决策和部署、奖惩有关单位和人员、变更或撤销下级机关不适当的决定事项。
?、命令（令）。适用于公布行政法规和规章、宣布施行重大强制性措施、批准授予和晋升衔级、嘉奖有关单位和人员。 ?、公报。适用于公布重要决定或者重大事项。 ?、公告。适用于向国内外宣布重要事项或者法定事项。 ?、通告。适用于在一定范围内公布应当遵守或者周知的事项。?、意见。适用于对重要问题提出见解和处理办法。 ?、通知。适用于发布、传达要求下级机关执行和有关单位周知或者执行的事项，批转、转发公文。 ?、通报。适用于表彰先进、批评错误、传达重要精神和告知重要情况。 ?、报告。适用于向上级机关汇报工作、反映情况，回复上级机关的询问。 ?、请示。适用于向上级机关请求指示、批准。 ?、批复。适用于答复下级机关请示事项。 ?、议案。适用于各级人民政府按照法律程序向同级人民代表大会或者人民代表大会常务委员会提请审议事项。 ?、函。适用于不相隶属机关之间商洽工作、询问和答复问题、请求批准和答复审批事项。 ?、纪要。适用于记载会议主要情况和议定事项。?（四）、公文的格式规范 ?、眉首的规范 ?（）、份号 ?也称编号，置于公文首页左上角第行，顶格标注。“秘密”以上等级的党政机关公文，应当标注份号。 ?（）、密级和保密期限 ?分“绝密”、“机密”、“秘密”三个等级。标注在份号下方。?（）、紧急程度 ?分为“特急”和“加急”。由公文签发人根据实际需要确定使用与否。标注在密级下方。 ?（）、发文机关标志（或称版头） ?由发文机关全称或规范化简称加“文件”二字组成。套红醒目，位于公文首页正中居上位置（按《党政机关公文格式》标准排
ctex宏包说明 https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,? 版本号：v1.02c修改日期：2011/03/11 摘要 ctex宏包提供了一个统一的中文L A T E X文档框架，底层支持CCT、CJK和xeCJK 三种中文L A T E X系统。ctex宏包提供了编写中文L A T E X文档常用的一些宏定义和命令。 ctex宏包需要CCT系统或者CJK宏包或者xeCJK宏包的支持。主要文件包括ctexart.cls、ctexrep.cls、ctexbook.cls和ctex.sty、ctexcap.sty。 ctex宏包由https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,制作并负责维护。 目录 1简介2 2使用帮助3 2.1使用CJK或xeCJK (3) 2.2使用CCT (3) 2.3选项 (4) 2.3.1只能用于文档类的选项 (4) 2.3.2只能用于文档类和ctexcap.sty的选项 (4) 2.3.3中文编码选项 (4) 2.3.4中文字库选项 (5) 2.3.5CCT引擎选项 (5) 2.3.6排版风格选项 (5) 2.3.7宏包兼容选项 (6) 2.3.8缺省选项 (6) 2.4基本命令 (6) 2.4.1字体设置 (6) 2.4.2字号、字距、字宽和缩进 (7) ?https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html, 1
1简介2 2.4.3中文数字转换 (7) 2.5高级设置 (8) 2.5.1章节标题设置 (9) 2.5.2部分修改标题格式 (12) 2.5.3附录标题设置 (12) 2.5.4其他标题设置 (13) 2.5.5其他设置 (13) 2.6配置文件 (14) 3版本更新15 4开发人员17 1简介 这个宏包的部分原始代码来自于由王磊编写cjkbook.cls文档类，还有一小部分原始代码来自于吴凌云编写的GB.cap文件。原来的这些工作都是零零碎碎编写的，没有认真、系统的设计，也没有用户文档，非常不利于维护和改进。2003年，吴凌云用doc和docstrip工具重新编写了整个文档，并增加了许多新的功能。2007年，oseen和王越在ctex宏包基础上增加了对UTF-8编码的支持，开发出了ctexutf8宏包。2009年5月，我们在Google Code建立了ctex-kit项目1，对ctex宏包及相关宏包和脚本进行了整合，并加入了对XeT E X的支持。该项目由https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,社区的开发者共同维护，新版本号为v0.9。在开发新版本时，考虑到合作开发和调试的方便，我们不再使用doc和docstrip工具，改为直接编写宏包文件。 最初Knuth设计开发T E X的时候没有考虑到支持多国语言，特别是多字节的中日韩语言。这使得T E X以至后来的L A T E X对中文的支持一直不是很好。即使在CJK解决了中文字符处理的问题以后，中文用户使用L A T E X仍然要面对许多困难。最常见的就是中文化的标题。由于中文习惯和西方语言的不同，使得很难直接使用原有的标题结构来表示中文标题。因此需要对标准L A T E X宏包做较大的修改。此外，还有诸如中文字号的对应关系等等。ctex宏包正是尝试着解决这些问题。中间很多地方用到了在https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,论坛上的讨论结果，在此对参与讨论的朋友们表示感谢。 ctex宏包由五个主要文件构成：ctexart.cls、ctexrep.cls、ctexbook.cls和ctex.sty、ctexcap.sty。ctex.sty主要是提供整合的中文环境，可以配合大多数文档类使用。而ctexcap.sty则是在ctex.sty的基础上对L A T E X的三个标准文档类的格式进行修改以符合中文习惯，该宏包只能配合这三个标准文档类使用。ctexart.cls、ctexrep.cls、ctexbook.cls则是ctex.sty、ctexcap.sty分别和三个标准文档类结合产生的新文档类，除了包含ctex.sty、ctexcap.sty的所有功能，还加入了一些修改文档类缺省设置的内容（如使用五号字体为缺省字体）。 1https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5883437.html,/p/ctex-kit/
学生会文档书写格式规范要求 目前各部门在日常文书编撰中大多按照个人习惯进行排版，文档中字体、文字大小、行间距、段落编号、页边距、落款等参数设置不规范，严重影响到文书的标准性和美观性，以下是文书标准格式要求及日常文档书写注意事项，请各部门在今后工作中严格实行： 一、文件要求 1.文字类采用Word格式排版 2.统计表、一览表等表格统一用Excel格式排版 3.打印材料用纸一般采用国际标准A4型（210mm×297mm），左侧装订。版面方向以纵向为主，横向为辅，可根据实际需要确定 4.各部门的职责、制度、申请、请示等应一事一报，禁止一份行文内同时表述两件工作。 5.各类材料标题应规范书写，明确文件主要内容。 二、文件格式 （一）标题 1.文件标题：标题应由发文机关、发文事由、公文种类三部分组成，黑体小二号字,不加粗，居中，段后空1行。 （二）正文格式 1. 正文字体：四号宋体，在文档中插入表格，单元格内字体用宋体，字号可根据内容自行设定。 2.页边距：上下边距为2.54厘米；左右边距为 3.18厘米。
3.页眉、页脚：页眉为1.5厘米；页脚为1.75厘米； 4.行间距：1.5倍行距。 5.每段前的空格请不要使用空格，应该设置首先缩进2字符 6.年月日表示：全部采用阿拉伯数字表示。 7.文字从左至右横写。 （三）层次序号 (1)一级标题：一、二、三、 (2)二级标题：（一）（二）（三） (3)三级标题：1. 2. 3. (4)四级标题：（1）（2）（3） 注：三个级别的标题所用分隔符号不同，一级标题用顿号“、”例如：一、二、等。二级标题用括号不加顿号，例如：（三）（四）等。三级标题用字符圆点“.”例如：5. 6.等。 （四）、关于落款： 1.对外行文必须落款“湖南环境生物专业技术学院学生会”“校学生会”各部门不得随意使用。 2.各部门文件落款需注明组织名称及部门“湖南环境生物专业技术学院学生会XX部”“校学生会XX部” 3.所有行文落款不得出现“环境生物学院”“湘环学院”“学生会”等表述不全的简称。 4.落款填写至文档末尾右对齐，与前一段间隔2行 5.时间落款：文档中落款时间应以“2016年5月12日”阿拉伯数字
政府公文写作格式 一、眉首部分 （一）发文机关标识 平行文和下行文的文件头，发文机关标识上边缘至上页边为62mm，发文机关下边缘至红色反线为28mm。 上行文中，发文机关标识上边缘至版心上边缘为80mm，即与上页边距离为117mm，发文机关下边缘至红色反线为30mm。 发文机关标识使用字体为方正小标宋_GBK，字号不大于22mm×15mm。 （二）份数序号 用阿拉伯数字顶格标识在版心左上角第一行，不能少于2位数。标识为“编号000001” （三）秘密等级和保密期限 用3号黑体字顶格标识在版心右上角第一行，两字中间空一字。如需要加保密期限的，密级与期限间用“★”隔开，密级中则不空字。 （四）紧急程度 用3号黑体字顶格标识在版心右上角第一行，两字中间空一字。如同时标识密级，则标识在右上角第二行。 （五）发文字号 标识在发文机关标识下两行，用3号方正仿宋_GBK字体剧
中排布。年份、序号用阿拉伯数字标识，年份用全称，用六角括号“〔〕”括入。序号不用虚位，不用“第”。发文字号距离红色反线4mm。 （六）签发人 上行文需要标识签发人，平行排列于发文字号右侧，发文字号居左空一字，签发人居右空一字。“签发人”用3号方正仿宋_GBK，后标全角冒号，冒号后用3号方正楷体_GBK标识签发人姓名。多个签发人的，主办单位签发人置于第一行，其他从第二行起排在主办单位签发人下，下移红色反线，最后一个签发人与发文字号在同一行。 二、主体部分 （一）标题 由“发文机关+事由+文种”组成，标识在红色反线下空两行，用2号方正小标宋_GBK，可一行或多行居中排布。 （二）主送机关 在标题下空一行，用3号方正仿宋_GBK字体顶格标识。回行是顶格，最后一个主送机关后面用全角冒号。 （三）正文 主送机关后一行开始，每段段首空两字，回行顶格。公文中的数字、年份用阿拉伯数字，不能回行，阿拉伯数字：用3号Times New Roman。正文用3号方正仿宋_GBK，小标题按照如下排版要求进行排版：
实训一：信用证的操作 第一部分：基础知识 一、单选题 1、在L/C结算方式中，相关各方处理的是（ A ） A单据B货物C服务D其他 2、狭义的单证是指（） A单据和文件B信用证和证书C单据和信用证D信用证和文件 3、在制作单据的“十字方针”中，（）是基本前提。 A简明B正确C完整D及时 4、各种单据具有其内在的逻辑性，应以（）时间确定各单据的日期。 A许可证B提单C报检单D发票 5、申请开证前，要落实的事情是（） A进口批准手续及外汇来源B货物入境通关手续 C、货物检验手续D货物保险手续 6、开立信用证必须以签订的合同为依据，为保证“证同一致”，正确的做法是（） A在信用证中注明“参阅XXX号合同”B在信用证中列明合同要求的所有条款 C在信用证中注明“系XXX号合同项下货物”D将合同副本作为附件在信用证后 7、合同上要求货物装运前必须经过买方的指定代表检验，如果开证申请人希望在信用证中体现这一要求，则开证申请书恰当的填写方式是（） A.DOCUMENTS REPURED:APPLICANT MUST INSPECT THE GOODS BEFORE SHIPMENT B.DOCUMENTS REQUIRED:THE APPIONTED REPRESENTATIVE OF THE BUYER SHALL INSPECTION C.DOCUMENTS REQUIRED:GOODS MUSTBE INSPECTED BY THE APPOINTED REPRESENTATIVE OF THE APPLICANT D.DOCUMENTS REQUIRED: GOODS MUSTBE INSPECTED BY THE APPOINTED REPRESENTATIVE OF THE APPLICANT EVIDENCING THAT GOODS HAVE BEEN INSPECIED BEFORE SHIPMENT 8、信用证开立后，应由一家通知行进行通知，以下关于通知行选择的正确做法是（）A由开证申请人指定B由开证行指定C由受益人选择D由进口商和出口商在订立合同时确定 9、在信用证的开证时间，如果合同只规定最后装运期，那么买方应在合理的时间内开证，这个时间是（）。 A在发票之前B装运期的最后一天C不晚于保险单日期D一般掌握在合同规定的交货期前半个月或一个月开到卖方 10、信用证经过保兑后，保兑行（） A只有在开证行没有能力付款时，才承担保证付款责任 B和开证行一样，承担第一性付款责任 C需和开证行商议决定双方各自的责任 D只有在买方没有能力付款时，才承担付款责任 11、来料加工和补偿贸易中常使用（） A循环信用证B对开信用证C对背信用证D预支信用证 12、根据《UCP600》的规定，可转让信用证可以转让的次数是（） A.1次 B.2次 C.3次 D.4次 13、在我国出口业务中，通常只接受（） A光票信用证Ｂ不可撤销信用证Ｃ银行承兑远期信用证Ｄ对背信用证 14、信用证修改通知书的内容在两项以上，受益人（）
tabularx宏包中改变弹性列的宽度\hsize 分类：latex 2012-03-07 21:54 12人阅读评论(0) 收藏编辑删除 \documentclass{article} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{latexsym} \usepackage{CJK} \usepackage{tabularx} \usepackage{array} \newcommand{\PreserveBackslash}[1]{\let \temp =\\#1 \let \\ = \temp} \newcolumntype{C}[1]{>{\PreserveBackslash\centering}p{#1}} \newcolumntype{R}[1]{>{\PreserveBackslash\raggedleft}p{#1}} \newcolumntype{L}[1]{>{\PreserveBackslash\raggedright}p{#1}} \begin{document} \begin{CJK*}{GBK}{song} \CJKtilde \begin{tabularx}{10.5cm}{|p{3cm} |>{\setlength{\hsize}{.5\hsize}\centering}X |>{\setlength{\hsize}{1.5\hsize}}X|} %\hsize是自动计算的列宽度，上面{.5\hsize}与{1.5\hsize}中的\hsize前的数字加起来必须等于表格的弹性列数量。对于本例，弹性列有2列，所以“.5+1.5=2”正确。 %共3列，总列宽为10.5cm。第1列列宽为3cm，第3列的列宽是第2列列宽的3倍，其宽度自动计算。第2列文字左右居中对齐。注意：\multicolum命令不能跨越X列。 \hline 聪明的鱼儿在咬钩前常常排祠再三& 这是因为它们要荆断食物是否安全&知果它们认为有危险\\ \hline 它们枕不会吃& 如果它们判定没有危险& 它们就食吞钩\\ \hline 一眼识破诱饵的危险，却又不由自主地去吞钩的& 那才正是人的心理而不是鱼的心理& 是人的愚合而不是鱼的恳奋\\
广州中医药大学研究生学位论文基本要求与写作规范 为了进一步提高学位工作水平和学位论文质量，保证我校学位论文在结构和格式上的规范与统一，特做如下规定： 一、学位论文基本要求 （一）科学学位硕士论文要求 1.论文的基本科学论点、结论，应在中医药学术上和中医药科学技术上具有一定的理论意义和实践价值。 2.论文所涉及的内容，应反映出作者具有坚实的基础理论和系统的专门知识。 3.实验设计和方法比较先进，并能掌握本研究课题的研究方法和技能。 4.对所研究的课题有新的见解。 5.在导师指导下研究生独立完成。 6.论文字数一般不少于3万字，中、英文摘要1000字左右。 （二）临床专业学位硕士论文要求 临床医学硕士专业学位申请者在临床科研能力训练中学会文献检索、收集资料、数据处理等科学研究的基本方法,培养临床思维能力与分析能力,完成学位论文。 1.学位论文包括病例分析报告及文献综述。 2.学位论文应紧密结合中医临床或中西结合临床实际，以总结临床实践经验为主。 3.学位论文应表明申请人已经掌握临床科学研究的基本方法。 4.论文字数一般不少于15000字，中、英文摘要1000字左右。 （三）科学学位博士论文要求 1.研究的课题应在中医药学术上具有较大的理论意义和实践价值。 2.论文所涉及的内容应反映作者具有坚实宽广的理论基础和系统深入的专门知识，并表明作者具有独立从事科学研究工作的能力。 3.实验设计和方法在国内同类研究中属先进水平，并能独立掌握本研究课题的研究方法和技能。
4.对本研究课题有创造性见解，并取得显著的科研成果。 5.学位论文必须是作者本人独立完成，与他人合作的只能提出本人完成的部分。 6.论文字数不少于5万字，中、英摘要3000字；详细中文摘要(单行本)1万字左右。 （四）临床专业学位博士论文要求 1.要求论文课题紧密结合中医临床或中西结合临床实际，研究结果对临床工作具有一定的应用价值。 2.论文表明研究生具有运用所学知识解决临床实际问题和从事临床科学研究的能力。 3.论文字数一般不少于3万字，中、英文摘要2000字；详细中文摘要(单行本)5000字左右。 二、学位论文的格式要求 （一）学位论文的组成 博士、硕士学位论文一般应由以下几部分组成，依次为：1.论文封面；2. 原创性声明及关于学位论文使用授权的声明；3.中文摘要；4.英文摘要；5.目录； 6.引言； 7.论文正文； 8.结语； 9.参考文献；10.附录；11.致谢。 1.论文封面：采用研究生处统一设计的封面。论文题目应以恰当、简明、引人注目的词语概括论文中最主要的内容。避免使用不常见的缩略词、缩写字，题名一般不超过30个汉字。论文封面“指导教师”栏只写入学当年招生简章注明、经正式遴选的指导教师1人，协助导师名字不得出现在论文封面。 2．原创性声明及关于学位论文使用授权的声明（后附）。 3.中文摘要：要说明研究工作目的、方法、成果和结论。并写出论文关键词3～5个。 4.英文摘要：应有题目、专业名称、研究生姓名和指导教师姓名，内容与中文提要一致，语句要通顺，语法正确。并列出与中文对应的论文关键词3～5个。 5.目录：将论文各组成部分(1～3级)标题依次列出，标题应简明扼要，逐项标明页码，目录各级标题对齐排。 6.引言：在论文正文之前，简要说明研究工作的目的、范围、相关领域前人所做的工作和研究空白，本研究理论基础、研究方法、预期结果和意义。应言简
（公文写作）毕业论文写作要求和格式规范
中国农业大学继续教育学院 毕业论文写作要求和格式规范 壹、写作要求 （壹）文体 毕业论文文体类型壹般分为：试验论文、专题论文、调查方案、文献综述、个案评述、计算设计等。学生根据自己的实际情况，能够选择适合的文体写作。 （二）文风 符合科研论文写作的基本要求：科学性、创造性、逻辑性、实用性、可读性、规范性等。写作态度要严肃认真，论证主题应有壹定理论或应用价值；立论应科学正确，论据应充实可靠，结构层次应清晰合理，推理论证应逻辑严密。行文应简练，文笔应通顺，文字应朴实，撰写应规范，要求使用科研论文特有的科学语言。 （三）论文结构和排列顺序 毕业论文，壹般由封面、独创性声明及版权授权书、摘要、目录、正文、后记、参考文献、附录等部分组成且按前后顺序排列。 1．封面：毕业论文（设计）封面（见文件5）具体要求如下： （1）论文题目应能概括论文的主要内容，切题、简洁，不超过30字，可分俩行排列； （2）层次：高起本，专升本，高起专； （3）专业名称：现开设园林、农林经济管理、会计学、工商管理等专业，应按照标准表述填写； （4）密级：涉密论文注明相应保密年限； （5）日期：毕业论文完成时间。 2．独创性声明和关于论文使用授权的说明：（略）。
3．摘要：论文摘要的字数壹般为300字左右。摘要是对论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，是文章内容的高度概括。主要内容包括：该项研究工作的内容、目的及其重要性；所使用的实验方法；总结研究成果，突出作者的新见解；研究结论及其意义。摘要中不列举例证，不描述研究过程，不做自我评价。 论文摘要后另起壹行注明本文的关键词，关键词是供检索用的主题词条，应采用能够覆盖论文内容的通用专业术语，符合学科分类，壹般为3～5个，按照词条的外延层次从大到小排列。 4．目录（目录示例见附件3）：独立成页，包括论文中的壹级、二级标题、后记、参考文献、和附录以及各项所于的页码。 5．正文：包括前言、论文主体和结论 前言：为正文第壹部分内容，简单介绍本项研究的背景和国内外研究成果、研究现状，明确研究目的、意义以及要解决的问题。 论文主体：是全文的核心部分，于正文中应将调查、研究中所得的材料和数据加工整理和分析研究，提出论点，突出创新。内容可根据学科特点和研究内容的性质而不同。壹般包括：理论分析、计算方法、实验装置和测试方法、对实验结果或调研结果的分析和讨论，本研究方法和已有研究方法的比较等方面。内容要求论点正确，推理严谨，数据可靠，文字精炼，条理分明，重点突出。 结论：为正文最后壹部分，是对主要成果的归纳和总结，要突出创新点，且以简练的文字对所做的主要工作进行评价。 6．后记：对整个毕业论文工作进行简单的回顾总结，对给予毕业论文工作提供帮助的组织或个人表示感谢。内容应尽量简单明了，壹般为200字左右。 7．参考文献：是论文不可或缺的组成部分。它既可反映毕业论文工作中取材广博程度，又可反映文稿的科学依据和作者尊重他人研究成果的严肃态度，仍能够向读者提供有关
开信用证步骤及样本
填制进口开证申请书的步骤为： 1、DATE(申请开证日期)。在申请书右上角填写实际申请日期。 2、TO(致)。银行印制的申请书上事先都会印就开证银行的名称、地址，银行的SWIFT CODE、TELEX NO等也可同时显示。 3、PLEASE ISSUE ON OUR BEHALF AND/OR FOR OUR ACCOUNT THE FOLLOWING IRREVOABLE LETTER OF CREDIT(请开列以下不可撤销信用证)。如果信用证是保兑或可转让的，应在此加注有关字样。开证方式多为电开(BY TELEX)，也可以是信开、快递或简电开立。 4、L/C NUMBER(信用证号码)。此栏由银行填写。 5、APPLICANT(申请人)。填写申请人的全称及详细地址，有的要求注明联系电话、传真号码等。 6、BENEFICIARY(受益人)。填写受益人的全称及详细地址。 7、ADVISING BANK(通知行)。由开证行填写。 8、AMOUNT(信用证金额)。分别用数字和文字两种形式表示，并且表明币制。如果允许有一定比率的上下浮动，要在信用证中明确表示出来。 9、EXPIRY DATE AND PLACE(到期日期和地点)，填写信用证的有效期及到期地点。
10、PARTIAL SHIPMENT(分批装运)、TRANSHIPMENT(转运)。根据合同的实际规定打“×”进行选择。 11、LOADING IN CHARGE、FOR TRANSPORT TO、LATEST DATE OF SHIPMENT(装运地/港、目的地/港的名称，最迟装运日期)。按实际填写，如允许有转运地/港，也应清楚标明。 12、CREDIT AVAILABLE WITH/BY(付款方式)。在所提供的即期、承兑、议付和延期付款四种信用证有效兑付方式中选择与合同要求一致的类型。 13、BENEFICIARY'S DRAFT(汇票要求)。金额应根据合同规定填写为：发票金额的一定百分比;发票金额的100%(全部货款都用信用证支付);如部分信用证，部分托收时按信用证下的金额比例填写。付款期限可根据实际填写即期或远期，如属后者必须填写具体的天数。信用证条件下的付款人通常是开证行，也可能是开证行指定的另外一家银行。 信用证样本 Issue of a Documentary Credit （开证行,一般为出口商的往来银行，须示开证行的信用程度决定是否需要其他银行保兑confirmation 见49）
%=== 配合前面的ntheorem宏包产生各种定理结构,重定义一些正文相关标题===% \theoremstyle{plain} \theoremheaderfont{\normalfont\rmfamily\CJKfamily{hei}} \theorembodyfont{\normalfont\rm\CJKfamily{song}} \theoremindent0em \theoremseparator{\hspace{1em}} \theoremnumbering{arabic} %\theoremsymbol{} %定理结束时自动添加的标志 \newtheorem{definition}{\hspace{2em}定义}[chapter] %\newtheorem{definition}{\hei 定义}[section] %!!!注意当section为中国数字时，[sction]不可用！ \newtheorem{proposition}{\hspace{2em}命题}[chapter] \newtheorem{property}{\hspace{2em}性质}[chapter] \newtheorem{lemma}{\hspace{2em}引理}[chapter] %\newtheorem{lemma}[definition]{引理} \newtheorem{theorem}{\hspace{2em}定理}[chapter] \newtheorem{axiom}{\hspace{2em}公理}[chapter] \newtheorem{corollary}{\hspace{2em}推论}[chapter] \newtheorem{exercise}{\hspace{2em}习题}[chapter] \theoremsymbol{$\blacksquare$} \newtheorem{example}{\hspace{2em}例}[chapter] \theoremstyle{nonumberplain} \theoremheaderfont{\CJKfamily{hei}\rmfamily} \theorembodyfont{\normalfont \rm \CJKfamily{song}} \theoremindent0em \theoremseparator{\hspace{1em}} \theoremsymbol{$\blacksquare$} \newtheorem{proof}{\hspace{2em}证明} \usepackage{amsmath}%数学 \usepackage[amsmath,thmmarks,hyperref]{ntheorem} \theoremstyle{break} \newtheorem{example}{Example}[section]