题目(中)南太平洋物种与生态环境以及
危机应对措施分析
(英)South Pacific: An Analysis of the Ecosystem And Measures to the Eco-crisis
姓名与学号平帆 3120100152
指导教师曹龙
年级与专业2012级应用生物大类
所在学院求是学院
South Pacific: An Analysis of the Ecosystem and
Measures to the Eco-crisis
PING Fan
(Zhejiang University, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Hangzhou)
Abstract: The South Pacific is located in the southern hemisphere, which has more than two thousand islands and one-quarter of the sea on the earth. Island animal’s origin, breeding, and migration, is accompanied by the establishment and improvement of marine ecosystems. The South Pacific owns an abundant diversity of species and developed marine industry. It provides a valuable resource for human beings. But now, overfishing, greenhouse effect and all kinds of crisis happened in the south Pacific. Human-beings will come up with a series of measures to turn it around, making the sustainable development works in the south Pacific.
Key words: South Pacific; Marine Community; Greenhouse Effect
1.Introduction
The South Pacific, this broad ocean still remains little known after Captain Cook’s epic voyages in 1768. The turquoise seas and islands look like heaven on Earth. In the vast water, isolated islands harbor life that’s scarcely seen on the land. Nevertheless, the South Pacific also has a tough side like erupting volcanic islands, tremendous storms, and etc. Thanks to those destructive forces over the ocean, life is able to spread to the remote islands and thousands of ecosystems are built up to succeed.
Compared to lands and offshores, the South Pacific seems to be healthier ocean. Due to little or no protection, however, this natural treasure store is put into the hardest position because of the greenhouse effect, overfishing, climate changes, leading to the crisis of marine ecosystem consequently. For the South Pacific, 21st century can be its critical time unless the human beings take action to mitigate these series of problems. Accordingly, people should take multiple and effective measures to preserve the South Pacific.
2.Overview of the South Pacific
2.1Geography
The South Pacific is in the south of the Pacific Ocean, mostly locating at the latitude around 60 degrees south. The total area of the South Pacific is about 7100 km2 and water storage accounts for 25% of the total. Apart from Australia and New Zealand, there are 27 countries and areas in the South Pacific, including Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The countries and areas consist of 2,000 islands, only 1% (550,000 km2) of the South Pacific area. The population has reached up to 7,500,000 [1]. (Data, 2010)
2.2Geology
Lying in the south Circum-Pacific seismic belt [2], the South Pacific is teemed with all sorts of volcanic islands, such as Hawaii Archipelago, Solomon Islands, generated by submarine volcanic activities. Hawaii Archipelago was created by a great mantle plume under the seabed of the Pacific plate [3].
This volcanic chain starts east from Hawaii Island and ends up north in the Meiji seamounts [4], and it still remains the most active geologic areas on the earth.
Figure1Model diagram of the Hawaiian mantle plume. Primary and secondary rock types are colour coded as follows: red, eclogite representing recycled oceanic crust; blue, peridotite; yellow, reaction (secondary) pyroxenite produced by in?ltration of eclogite- derived melt into peridotite; white and red, eclogitic restite; black dots, melts; violet, magma pathways, conduits and small magma chambers. Recycled material is concentrated in the plume centre. The seismic low-velocity zone observed previously in the depth range 170–130km corresponds to signi?cant melting of eclogite. This melt disappears at lower pressures because it separates from eclogite and is consumed by reaction with peridotite to produce secondary pyroxenite. Mixing of melts probably takes place at shallowcrustal levels in smallmagmabodies rather thanin the mantle or in large stable magma chambers [4].
60 miles under the seabed, lava is pushed by the extremely high pressure from the core of earth to the surface. The moving speed of lava is usually no less than 100m/h [5]. Though the cover is cooled down by the sea water, molten lava can erupt out of the sea when the pressure is high enough, finally forming the new lands.
In the meanwhile, the ancient volcanoes keep erupting above the sea level. When the ongoing lava spreads to edges of the island, the deep, freezing ocean currents are confronted with the boiling
lava (1,000-1,300℃) and then lava rapidly cools down with the releasing vapor and bursting. In the past 25 years, Hawaii’s lava has forged almost 2,500km2 of new land [6]. Very soon, this rigid land will possess its own terrene life garden.
2.3Climate
Most of the South Pacific belongs to warm water. The average temperature of the surface is between 28-29℃[7]. The occasional cold currents, deriving from the polar area, make the sea water around New Zealand the colder one. The subtropical high and cold high pressure control different waters of the different areas, so the most powerful and destructive waves, tornadoes and storms appear in the South Pacific.
At 40 degree latitude, the Roaring Forties blast the coastline. Yet it is the foul weather that produce the abundance of life [8]. The waves sparked by storms run 3,000 miles, unlocking the deep’s reserve of nutrients and sending them to the surface by washing out the islands, which provides a possibility of food and life. Cyclones, forming in the ocean and reaching the diameter of 600 miles, are able to recreate the islands [9]. Remarkably, all kinds of the plants and animals are carried to isolate islands from thousands miles away. Each South Pacific island has its own unique set of creatures owing to the evil power of climate.
3.Species Profile in the South Pacific
The diversity of creatures in the South Pacific are influenced by unique geography and climate conditions. Lists of examples help explain the species and ecology situation.
3.1The Origin and Evolution of the Species on Islands
There are thousands of islands in the South Pacific, many of which are unbelievably remote. Even the closer neighbors can be hundreds of miles away. The ocean is a giant moat stretching to the horizon in every direction, cutting off the communication of species between islands. Surprisingly, no matter how far or small an island is, animals and plants have conquered the massive ocean barrier to reach these specks of land. Many of species came from New Guinea and then spread to the whole area. As the conquerors, they are provided with great opportunities to develop all types of ecosystem.
On the little island in Vanuatu lives the largest terrestrial invertebrate on Earth: Robber Crab. The biggest one can weigh up to 4kg and have a leg span of 1m [10]. Robber crabs are probably the few animals in the world able to break into a coconut for the reward of a meal rich in protein [10]. That is why they are also called Coconut Crabs. With so few creatures making it to the remote islands, the giant crustaceans seem to have filled a niche normally taken by medium-sized mammals. Maybe that is why robber crabs have grown so big. How did these crabs get to so many of the South Pacific’s most isolated islands? The female crabs carries the thousands of eggs, also the answer. Millions of eggs will be laid into the sea by the female crabs [11]. The eggs will hatch in the water immediately. Thus, the larvae have to find a new land in 50 days.
For most of animal castaways like robber crabs, finding new land through water way in this vast oceans is a chance in a million. But if the total population is incredibly large, they still get the very
chance to become Columbia to the New World.
Occasionally, the blowing in the wind replaces the current to be the free-rider. Thermal updrafts can carry the spores 30,000 feet into the jet stream, then throwing them onto the remote islands. Large insects or even all the creatures can be sucked up into the sky by cyclones with the speed in excess of 100mph. When the storm subsides, 87% of species will drop into the ocean but a very few will land on the ground and from these survivors, the succession of the new community will go on. For instance, the ancestors of Hawaii’s fruit flies are carried and then abandoned on Hawaii, for 30 million years, on the back of cyclones. They attract females with elaborate courtship rituals [12], which differs from the other species of fruit flies. Since that first settler, they have evolved into nearly 1,000 species. Most of the Hawaii fruit flies develop the ability to undergo the 10th sea wind and rains.
Flying also plays a pivotal role in reaching new islands. Sooty terns, one of the most successful travelers, can stay in the air for 4 years [13] without landing. But to breed, they must return to nesting sites on remote islands, introducing new life conveniently. Sticky or barbed seeds fasten on their feathers and hitch rides across oceans. On some islands, 75% of plant arrived with the birds, even in the stomachs of which. Plus, the seafood those birds bring back to the islands is turned into nutrient, rich guano [14], plant fertilizer. Combining two factors, the rigid islands are likely to transform into the paradise of the creatures.
To sum up, quite a lot of the plants and animals on the islands of the South Pacific were from the outside, after selected by ocean currents and storms. When settled down, they adapted to the harsh environment and evolved into new species. Furthermore, some of the new species can reform the original landscape and environmental conditions. Then, after passive migrations to the other remote islands, they reali ze the communication between the South Pacific’s islands, in the case that promotes the diversity and abundance of the species. It is not hard to see that the whole chain will be devastated if any part of it is broken by human activity.
3.2The Migration and Subsistence of the Species in Ocean
Plankton is key to all marine food chains. The nutrients that plankton need are locked in the deep, denied access to the surface by a layer of water call the thermocline, around 200m down[15]. The little life that exists at the surface seeks shelter no matter how superficial it may be. In time, whole marine communities build on the flotsam. A huge amount of the plankton feed lot of fish and squid. Surprisingly, there are more squid in the ocean than fish and they take part in the greatest migration of animals on the earth [16].
For instance, despite sitting on the equator, the water around the Galapagos are cooled by currents flowing all the way from Antarctica. Thanks to the nutrients carried by the cool current, the water here is rich in plankton, feed huge shoals of fish. So many fish may be followed by predators.
In the marine community [17], large marine mammals and fish are above the small fish and squids. Short-finned pilot whales are one of the predators [18]. They can use their sonar to track the huge shoals of squid, leaving the barren upper layers far behind. Tiger sharks somehow can capture sea
birds like albatross chicks [19] when those chicks make their maiden flights over the water.
Tropical islands are a magnet for marine life. But the bonus lies underwater because of the deep current colliding with islands to force small but vital amounts of nutrients up from the depths. At 50m deep, sea fans are the first to benefit [20]. Corals have sunlight to help them grow closer to the surface. Due to the smallest trickle of nutrients, the coral community become another vital one in the marine ecosystem, which supports a great variety of life than any other ocean habitat [21]. Every year, thousands of sperm whales gather in the South Pacific to breed [22]. It is reported that the calf weigh one ton just 10 days after their birth. To avoid the predators, tiger sharks, sperm whales come to the warm sea to breed the offspring. However, the whale hunters change everything.
Accordingly, the marine community is a system that transforms the light into the chemical energy by plankton or sea plants, or ingest the inorganic nutrients in seawater to support the primary consumer and carnivorous marine mammals and fish (secondary consumer), finally leading to biological bodies processed by decomposer. Thanks to these groups, the stability of the South Pacific’s environment can be formed and maintained i n long term.
4.Crisis of the Species and Environment
The ocean is a place that waits for us to explore and its huge resource reserve arouses the attention from all the countries. Because of limitations of human cognition about the ocean and self-interests drive, the environment of the South Pacific deteriorate rapidly in recent decades.
4.1Overfishing
Over 60% of the world’s fish catch comes from the South Pacific [23], optimal fishing not only provides human kinds with the food containing massive animal protein, fat, but also contributes a lot to the development of the ocean industry and economy. However, overfishing brings about a devastating blows to the South Pacific. Humpback whales were hunted so relentlessly during the last century that their numbers crashed by 90% [24].
Figure 2 Global trends in the state of world marine sigh stocks, 1974-2011(FAO, 2014)
A leading group of ecologists [25] recently predicted than in just 40 years, seafood will be off the menu. Four different tuna species are fished with 4 million tons per year and increasing four times every ten years, including skipjack, yellow-fin tuna. Fishing for export is now big business in the tropical Pacific, with tuna alone accounting for 30 times [26] more fish than all the fish caught by subsistence fishermen. This commercial fishing is the chief factors leading to a catastrophe of fish. The restoration of the marine animal’s amount is limited. For example, as the top predators of the marine community, sharks dwarf in the number. In French Polynesia, the number of grey reef sharks have declined in these years [27]. Oceanic whitetip, may once have been the richest animal on the earth, now may have decreased by a staggering 99% in last 50 years.
4.2Greenhouse Effect
It is wide acknowledged that the greenhouse contributes to the sea level rise in the global scale. According to the rate of the sea level rise given by CU [28], the satellite data shoe a linear trend of 3.2±0.4mm/yr.
Figure 3 2014_rel4Global Mean Sea Level Time Series (seasonal signals removed) by CU Sea Level Research
Group, University pf Colorado (Edited: 2014-05-23) [28].
Those whose houses are built in the low land of the islands become the first ‘ecological r efugee’. Tuvalu’s nine atolls and islands are the land to 12,000 people, nowhere is higher than 5m above sea level. In 2006, the population of islands experienced their highest tides [29], with the seawater poisoning the soil and groundwater, which threatens the Tuvalu’s people. Their contribution to global warming is tiny, but its impact on them is destructive. Without immediate implements, the whole nation may have to be evacuated. By 2200, Stefan Rahmsdorf demonstrate that the rise of the sea level can come to 1.5m-3.5m [30]. By that time, Papua New Guinea, Maldives, Kiribati, including Tuvalu would have been the ruins undersea.
1973, compared with the scenarios of the IPCC(shown as
dashed lines and gray ranges).(Top) Monthly carbon dioxide
concentration and its trend line at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (blue),
up to January 2007, from Scripps in collaboration with NOAA.
ppm, parts per million. (Middle) Annual global- mean land
and ocean combined surface temperature from GISS (red)
and the Hadley Centre/ Climatic Research Unit (blue) up to
2006, with their trends. (Bottom) Sea-level data based
primarily on tide gauges (annual, red) and from satellite
altimeter (3-month data spacing, blue, up to mid- 2006) and
their trends. All trends are nonlinear trend lines and are
computed with an embedding period of 11 years and a
minimum roughness criterion at the end (6), except for the
satellite altimeter where a linear trend was used because of
the short- ness of the series. For temperature and sea level,
data are shown as deviations from the trend line value in
1990, the base year of the IPCC scenarios [30].
More than that, greenhouse effect give rise to the amount of the dissolved carbon dioxide. It is slowly turning the sea more acidic, making it harder for sea animals, such as sea butterflies and some plankton, to build up their calcium shells. Eventually, it breaks the whole marine food chain and the fish catch will drop. Consequently, it will lead to a worldwide malnutrition.
4.3Others
Coral reef, known as the ‘rainforest in the ocean’[31], benefits people with various sea products and is the key position in maintaining the diversity of the marine species. Due to the ocean acidification, the coral reefs in the South Pacific is shrinking year by year and the some fish is losing their habitats.
The amount of birds also decreases because of the inappropriate fishing techniques. Long-line fishing with excessive hooks result in catching of the fish-aimed predators. In addition, less fish is sure to influence the birds like albatross [32]. Thousands of adult black-footed albatross are caught each year on fishing lines. 19 of the world’s 22 species of albatross[33] are endangered or vulnerable
to extinction thanks to long-line fishing.
Figure 5 Effect of the occurrence and spatial extent of long-li ne ?sheries on the probability of decline (expressed as a percentage of the initial abundance) for the populations of six islands (a–e) and for the entire metapopulation (f). The lines in each panel indicate without long-line ?shery (continuous line), with?shery affecting only Apotres (dashed line) and with ?shery affecting all Crozet Islands (dotted line). The distance to Apotres and the initial population size of each island are indicated above each panel.
5.Measures
5.1International Conservation Groups
In the 1970s, a campaign to ‘Save the Whale’ made the headlines around the world, arousing the global attention, and led to an unprecedented agreement to protect the world’s whales. The idea is promoted by Greenpeace [34]. Greenpeace are trying to monitor the human activities in the high sea pockets they are patrolling. Though regulated by international treaty, the boats from China, America and the European Union are free. By documenting their illegal catches, Greenpeace highlight the reasons to declare more marine reserves.
5.2Marine Reserves
Coming to the preservation of wild animals in the ocean, the marine reserves are younger comparing to the land. Less than 1% of the Pacific Ocean is protected. It is divided into separate fishing zones. Beyond these are called ‘high sea’, where overfishing and contamination happens frequently.
Figure 6 Pacific map showing the territorial waters (EEZ) of Pacific countries and three areas of international waters (1, 2, 3). Greenpeace is campaigning for these ocean areas to become designated as the first marine reserves in international waters. This would protect tuna spawning areas and migration routes, seamounts and close a loophole that allows tuna pirates from operating in these areas and stealing tuna from the Pacific.
Therefore, it is necessary to set up the marine reserves in laws and enlarge the personal fishing areas. In terms of the economic principle called ‘the tragedy of the commons’[35], there are too many free riders competing with each other in the public areas of the South Pacific. Overfishing and contamination is provoked by ambiguously defined property rights. Only under the negotiations between countries to redefine the property rights if the fishing areas and formulate the laws and rules can we put an end to the tragedy of the commons fundamentally.
5.3Tourism
The humpback whales mentioned above recently have made a comeback, surging from 5,000 to 60,000. Today, these whales are met by boats loaded not with harpoons, but numerous tourists.
5.4Sustainable Fishing Techniques
In Fiji, the villagers of Moturiki Islands use a traditional fishing technique known as a fish drive, they work together to scare the fish off the reef and into an ever-smaller corral. The birds near New Zealand benefit from a law that demonstrates all long-line fishing vessels must use bird-friendly methods. Therefore, many of the fishermen there choose to set lines at night, when the albatross are resting. And thei r ‘tori’ lines also are effective at scaring birds away from the dangerous hooks.
5.5Coral Gardening
Considering the importance of the coral community in the marine ecosystem, Fiji, biologists are working with local fishermen to bring the fish back by replanting the coral reefs repeatedly [36]. The coral gardeners safeguard the reef, looking for the ones that need more space for growing. They will give the uprooted corals a concrete disc to start fresh. Given the sunlight, plenty of nutrients and the right temperature, the corals will branch out within 6 months. In two years, a single coral can multiply into 50 or more. If replicated, coral gardening help restore reefs throughout the South Pacific.
5.6Awareness
When those measures mentioned above, people are greeted with lots of scientific and green thoughts about the protection. For example, sharks are caught mostly for satisfying the eager from the oriental taste. In fact, fin-soup is exaggerated in its nutritional value. In study, it is tested that the total sugar, acid mucopolysaccharide, essential amino-acid are all lower in the fin-soup compared with sea cucumber [37]. If it is wide known by people, the need for shark fins drop with the decline of the shark fishing.
6.Conclusion
In conclusion, the South Pacific is the earth's most precious treasure of the biodiversity, including precious biological resources, thus maintaining the stability of marine ecosystem. In recent years, as a result of natural factors and human activities, the South Pacific faced with unprecedented threats to biodiversity and ecosystem. Therefore, we need to take a variety of measures with science and technology to protect the fragile paradise, the South Pacific.
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