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Bacterial Communities in Food Systems Bacterial communities in food systems play a crucial role in food safety, quality, and overall consumer health. These communities consist of a diverse range of microorganisms that can either be beneficial or harmful, depending on the specific context. Understanding the dynamics of these bacterial communities is essential for ensuring the safety and quality of the food we consume.In food production, the presence of beneficial bacteria can contribute to the fermentation and preservation of certain foods. For example, in the production of yogurt and cheese, specific strains of bacteria are intentionally added to milk to initiate the fermentation process. These bacteria help convert lactose into lactic acid, which gives these dairy products their characteristic tangy flavor and creamy texture. Similarly, in the production of sauerkraut and kimchi, lactic acid bacteria play a key role in the fermentation process, not only enhancing theflavor but also extending the shelf life of these products.On the other hand, the presence of harmful bacteria in food systems can pose significant health risks to consumers. Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Listeria monocytogenes can contaminate food at various stages of production, leading to foodborne illnesses. These bacteria can cause symptoms ranging from mild gastrointestinal discomfort to severe illness and even death in vulnerable populations. Therefore, it is essential for food producers to implement strict hygiene practices and quality control measures to prevent the proliferation of harmful bacteria in food systems.In addition to the impact on food safety, bacterial communities in food systems also play a role in shaping the flavor, aroma, and texture of various food products. The unique microbial populations present in different types of food can contribute to the diversity of flavors and aromas that we experience when consuming these products. For example, the complex microbial communities present in artisanal cheeses contribute to the distinct flavors and textures that set them apart from mass-produced cheeses. Similarly, the fermentation of soybeans byspecific strains of bacteria and fungi gives rise to the rich umami flavor of soy sauce and miso.Furthermore, research has shown that the composition of bacterial communities in food systems can also have implications for human health beyond foodborne illnesses. The gut microbiome, which consists of trillions of bacteria residing in the human digestive tract, plays a crucial role in nutrient absorption, immune function, and overall health. Consuming a diverse range of foods that support a healthy gut microbiome, such as fermented foods rich in beneficial bacteria, can have positive effects on digestion and overall well-being.In conclusion, bacterial communities in food systems are a complex and dynamic aspect of food production that have far-reaching implications for food safety, quality, and human health. By understanding the role of these microbial populations and implementing measures to control their presence, food producers can ensure the safety and quality of the food we consume. Additionally, consumers can make informed choices about their diet to support a healthy gut microbiome and overall well-being.。
eubacterium分类-回复Eubacteria Classification: Exploring the Diversity of the Eubacteria KingdomIntroduction:The classification of living organisms helps scientists understand and organize the vast diversity of species on our planet. One such classification is the categorization of bacteria into different kingdoms. The Eubacteria kingdom, also known as true bacteria, encompasses a wide range of organisms, each with unique characteristics and ecological roles. In this article, we will delve into the classification of Eubacteria, exploring the various groups and their distinguishing features.Historical Background:The study of bacteria classification dates back to the early 17th century when the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria under a microscope for the first time. However, it was not until the groundbreaking work of the German microbiologist Carl Woese in the 1970s that a better understandingof bacteria classification emerged. Woese proposed a system based on the sequencing of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, which allowed for a more accurate classification of microorganisms.Classification of Eubacteria:The Eubacteria kingdom is divided into multiple phyla, each containing different classes, orders, families, genera, and species. While the exact number of phyla is subject to ongoing research and debate, some of the most well-known and extensively studied phyla include Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes.1. Proteobacteria:The Proteobacteria phylum comprises a diverse group of bacteria with varying shapes and metabolic capabilities. This phylum is subdivided into several classes, including Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria. Alpha-proteobacteria include several symbiotic and pathogenic species like Rhizobium and Agrobacterium. Beta-proteobacteria often inhabit aquatic environments and include nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas.Gamma-proteobacteria include many clinically significant bacteria like Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Delta- and Epsilonproteobacteria encompass species capable of inhabiting extreme environments, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents.2. Firmicutes:The Firmicutes phylum consists of bacteria with a Gram-positive cell wall structure. This phylum is further divided into several classes, including Bacilli and Clostridia. Bacilli include well-known pathogenic species like Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. Moreover, Bacillus subtilis, a species in this class, serves as a model organism for studying bacterial biofilms. Clostridia include notable species such as Clostridium botulinum, responsible for botulism, and Clostridium tetani, the causative agent of tetanus.3. Actinobacteria:The Actinobacteria phylum is known for its filamentous structure and includes many different classes, such as Actinobacteria, Acidimicrobiia, and Thermoleophilia. Actinobacteria, often referred to as Actinomycetes, include numerous species involved in theproduction of antibiotics, such as Streptomyces and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis. Acidimicrobiia and Thermoleophilia comprise thermophilic or acidophilic species found in extreme environments.4. Bacteroidetes:The Bacteroidetes phylum consists of Gram-negative bacteria found in diverse habitats, including soil, water, and the guts of animals. This phylum is characterized by its ability to degrade complex carbohydrates. Notable genera within Bacteroidetes include Bacteroides and Prevotella, which play essential roles in the digestion process within the intestines of humans and animals.Conclusion:The classification of bacteria provides scientists with a systematic approach to identify and study the diverse array of species within the Eubacteria kingdom. This classification allows researchers to understand the ecological significance, evolutionary relationships, and potential applications of different bacterial groups. While the classifications discussed in this article are just a glimpse into thevast diversity present in the Eubacteria kingdom, they provide an important foundation for further exploration and understanding of these microscopic organisms.By delving into the classification of Eubacteria, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate and diverse nature of these microorganisms. Advances in molecular techniques and ongoing research will undoubtedly contribute to future refinements in the classification system, providing us with an even more precise understanding of the bacterial world.。
Microbial Community Composition Microbial community composition is a fascinating and complex topic that plays a crucial role in various ecosystems and environments. These communities consist of a diverse array of microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses, that interact with each other and their surroundings in intricate ways. The composition of these microbial communities can have significant impacts on the health and functioning of ecosystems, as well as on human health and disease. One perspective to consider when discussing microbial community composition is the importance of diversity within these communities. A diverse microbial community is often more resilient and adaptable to changes in environmental conditions, as different species can perform unique functions and help maintain overall ecosystem stability. For example, in soil ecosystems, a diverse microbial community can contribute to nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and plant health. On the other hand, a loss of microbial diversity can lead to ecosystem imbalances and decreased resilience to disturbances. Another important aspect to consider is the role of keystone species within microbial communities. Keystone species are microbial taxa that have a disproportionate impact on community structure and function, despite their low abundance. These species can play critical roles in driving ecosystem processes, such as nutrient cycling, decomposition, and disease suppression. Identifying and understanding the role of keystone species within microbial communities is essential for predicting and managing ecosystem dynamics. Furthermore, the composition of microbial communities can also have implications for human health and disease. The human microbiome, which consists of trillions of microorganisms living in and on our bodies, plays a crucial role in maintaining our health and well-being. Disruptions to the microbial community composition in the gut, for example, have been linked to various health conditions, including inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and allergies. Understanding the factors that influence microbial community composition in the human microbiome is essential for developing strategies to promote health and prevent disease. In addition to the ecological and human health implications, microbial community composition is also influenced by a variety of factors, including environmental conditions, host-microbe interactions, and microbial competition. Environmental factors such astemperature, pH, nutrient availability, and oxygen levels can shape the composition of microbial communities in different ecosystems. Host-microbe interactions, such as those between plants and their root-associated microbes, can also influence microbial community composition and function. Moreover, microbial competition for resources and niche space can drive the assembly and structure of microbial communities in complex ways. Overall, microbial community composition is a dynamic and intricate field of study that holds great importance for ecosystem functioning, human health, and disease. By exploring the diversity, keystone species, and factors influencing microbial communities, researchers can gain valuable insights into the complex interactions that drive microbial community dynamics. Understanding and managing microbial community composition is essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems, promoting human health, and addressing global challenges such as climate change and emerging infectious diseases.。
微生物组学英语Microbiome: The Unseen World Within UsThe human body is a complex and intricate ecosystem, teeming with trillions of microorganisms that play a vital role in our overall health and well-being. This vast and diverse community of microbes, collectively known as the microbiome, has been the subject of extensive research in recent years, as scientists strive to unravel the mysteries of this unseen world within us.The microbiome is a term that encompasses the entirety of the microbial communities that reside in various parts of the human body, including the gut, skin, oral cavity, and even the respiratory system. These microorganisms, which include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea, have evolved alongside humans over millions of years, forming a symbiotic relationship that is essential for our survival.One of the most well-studied aspects of the microbiome is its role in the gut. The human gut is home to a vast and diverse array of microbes, with an estimated 100 trillion bacteria residing in thedigestive tract. These gut microbes play a crucial role in digesting and metabolizing the food we consume, extracting essential nutrients and energy that our bodies can then utilize.Beyond their role in digestion, gut microbes also have a profound impact on our immune system. They help to train and regulate the immune cells, ensuring that they are able to effectively fight off harmful pathogens while also maintaining a delicate balance that prevents autoimmune disorders. This intricate relationship between the gut microbiome and the immune system has been the focus of numerous studies, with researchers exploring the potential of probiotics and other microbial-based therapies to treat a wide range of health conditions.The skin microbiome is another area of intense research. The skin is the largest organ in the human body and is home to a diverse array of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These skin-dwelling microbes play a crucial role in maintaining the skin's barrier function, protecting us from harmful environmental factors and pathogens. They also contribute to the skin's overall health, helping to regulate inflammation, prevent the overgrowth of harmful microbes, and even influence the appearance of the skin.The oral microbiome is another important aspect of the human microbiome. The mouth is a complex ecosystem, with a diverse arrayof microbes that play a critical role in maintaining oral health. These microbes help to break down food, regulate pH levels, and prevent the overgrowth of harmful bacteria that can lead to dental problems such as cavities and gum disease.In addition to these well-known aspects of the microbiome, there is growing evidence that the microbial communities in other parts of the body, such as the respiratory system and the urogenital tract, also play important roles in human health and disease.One of the most exciting areas of microbiome research is the potential for microbiome-based therapies to treat a wide range of health conditions. By understanding the composition and function of the microbiome, researchers are exploring ways to manipulate it to improve human health. This includes the use of probiotics, which are live microorganisms that can be consumed to help restore the balance of the microbiome, as well as the development of personalized therapies that target specific microbial imbalances.Another promising area of research is the role of the microbiome in mental health. Emerging evidence suggests that the gut microbiome may play a significant role in the development and maintenance of mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety. This has led to the concept of the "gut-brain axis," which posits that the bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain can havea profound impact on our emotional and cognitive well-being.As our understanding of the microbiome continues to grow, it is clear that this unseen world within us is a critical component of human health and well-being. By unraveling the complexities of the microbiome, researchers and clinicians are paving the way for new and innovative approaches to disease prevention and treatment. From improving gut health to enhancing mental well-being, the potential of the microbiome is limitless, and the future of personalized, microbiome-based medicine is rapidly taking shape.。
英语阅读一参考答案本参考答案旨在帮助学生更好地理解英语阅读材料，并提供可能的答案。
请注意，阅读材料的理解和答案可能因人而异，以下答案仅供参考。
Passage 1: The Benefits of Reading1. What is the main idea of the passage?- The main idea is that reading has numerous benefits for both mental and physical health.2. According to the passage, how does reading improve mental health?- Reading can reduce stress, improve empathy, and stimulate the brain, thereby improving mental health.3. What are the physical health benefits mentioned in the passage?- Reading can help improve sleep quality, slow down cognitive decline, and even reduce the risk of certain diseases.4. How does the passage suggest reading can be a form of escapism?- Reading allows individuals to immerse themselves in different worlds and experiences, providing a temporary escape from reality.5. What is the final point made by the author regarding the importance of reading?- The author emphasizes that reading should be a lifelong habit, as it offers continuous benefits regardless of age.Passage 2: The Impact of Technology on Education1. What is the primary focus of this passage?- The passage discusses the positive and negative impacts of technology on the education system.2. How does technology enhance the learning experience?- Technology provides access to a wealth of information, facilitates interactive learning, and personalizes education to suit individual needs.3. What are some of the concerns raised about the use of technology in classrooms?- Concerns include the potential for distraction, the digital divide, and the risk of students becoming overly reliant on technology.4. How does the passage suggest schools can address the challenges of integrating technology?- By providing training for teachers, ensuring equitable access to technology, and setting clear guidelines for its use.5. What is the conclusion of the passage regarding the role of technology in education?- The passage concludes that while technology has itschallenges, when used responsibly, it can significantly enhance the educational experience.Passage 3: The Importance of Cultural Diversity1. What is the central theme of this passage?- The central theme is the importance of culturaldiversity and its contribution to a richer and more inclusive society.2. How does the passage describe the benefits of cultural diversity?- The passage highlights benefits such as increased creativity, broader perspectives, and enhanced problem-solving abilities.3. What are some of the challenges associated with cultural diversity?- Challenges include potential misunderstandings, communication barriers, and the need for greater tolerance and acceptance.4. How can societies promote cultural diversity?- Societies can promote cultural diversity through education, cultural exchange programs, and by fostering an environment of respect and openness.5. What is the author's final message regarding cultural diversity?- The author's final message is that embracing cultural diversity is essential for the growth and development ofsocieties.Passage 4: Environmental Protection and Individual Responsibility1. What is the main argument presented in this passage?- The main argument is that environmental protection is a collective responsibility that requires individual actions.2. How does the passage illustrate the impact of individual actions on the environment?- The passage provides examples such as reducing waste, conserving energy, and supporting sustainable practices.3. What are some of the barriers to individual environmental responsibility?- Barriers include lack of awareness, convenience of unsustainable practices, and the perception that individual actions are insignificant.4. How can communities and governments support individual environmental responsibility?- By providing education, incentives for sustainable practices, and implementing policies that promote environmental protection.5. What is the conclusion of the passage regarding individual responsibility for the environment?- The conclusion is that every individual has a part to play in environmental protection, and collective efforts can lead to significant positive change.Passage 5: The Role of Sports in Personal Development1. What is the central message of this passage?- The central message is that sports play a crucial rolein personal development, teaching valuable life skills and promoting physical well-being.2. How does the passage discuss the physical benefits of sports?- The passage mentions improved physical fitness, enhanced cardiovascular health, and the prevention of obesity as physical benefits.3. What are some of the psychological benefits of sports participation?- The passage highlights improved self-esteem, stress reduction, and the development of resilience as psychological benefits.4. How does the passage suggest sports can contribute to social development?- By fostering teamwork, leadership skills, and social interaction, sports can contribute to social development.5. What is the final point made by the author about the importance of sports in personal development?- The author concludes that sports are an integral part of personal development, offering a holistic approach to health and well-being.Please note that these answers are intended to provide a general guide and may not cover all possible interpretations of the passages. Students are encouraged to engage with the texts critically and form their own insights and conclusions.。
葡萄酒基础专业词汇中英文对照————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：第一部分葡萄酒分类Drｙ reｄwｉne:干红葡萄酒Semi-dry wine：半干葡萄酒Drｙ wｈite wｉne:干白葡萄酒Rｏｓe wiｎｅ：桃红葡萄酒Sweet ｗｉne:甜型葡萄酒Ｓemｉ－sｗeet wiｎｅ:半甜葡萄酒Stilｌｗｉne：静止葡萄酒Ｓparklｉng wine：起泡葡萄酒Claret:新鲜桃红葡萄酒（波尔多产）Botrｙtisｅd ｗine:贵腐葡萄酒Foｒtｉfｉed wｉnｅ:加强葡萄酒Fｌavｏred ｗine:加香葡萄酒Brut wine：天然葡萄酒Cａrbonaｔeｄwiｎe:加气起泡葡萄酒Ａpｐｅtizer wine( Aｐeｒｉtif):开胃葡萄酒Tａｂle ｗiｎe:佐餐葡萄酒Ｄesseｒｔ wine:餐后葡萄酒Chａmpagｎe：香槟酒Ｖermouｔh:味美思Bｅaｕjｏlaｓiｓ：宝祖利酒Miｓtｅlｌe：密甜尔Wine Cooler:清爽酒Ｃideｒ:苹果酒Bｒandy:白兰地Frｕｉt bｒandy：水果白兰地Pｏmace Ｂｒandy:果渣白兰地Grａpｅbranｄy:葡萄白兰地Liquor(Liｑueｕr)：利口酒Gin：金酒(杜松子酒)Ｒuｍ：朗姆酒Cｏcktaiｌ：鸡尾酒Voｄka：伏特加Wｈisky：威士忌Sｐirit：酒精，烈酒Coｇnａc(France) :科尼亚克白兰地（法)Ａrmagｎaｃ(Frａｎcｅ) :阿马尼亚克白兰地(法) Sheｒrｙ(Ｓｐain) ：雪莉酒（西班牙）Ｐort(Ｐortｕguｅｓｅ) ：波特酒（葡萄牙）ＢDＸ:波尔多红酒第二部分酿酒微生物Yeasｔ:酵母Wｉlｄyeast：野生酵母Yｅａｓt ｈｕlls:酵母菌皮Drｙaｃtiviｔy ｙｅａｓt:活性干酵母Bactｅria:细菌Ｍaloｌactic baｃtｅria(MLＢ) ：乳酸菌Ｌaｃｔic acid baｃteｒｉa(LAB) ：乳酸菌Acetic ａcｉd bａｃteria:醋酸菌Spｏiｌage ｙeａｓｔ：败坏酵母第三部分生理生化过程Tｒａnspiｒatｉoｎ：蒸腾作用Evapoｒation:蒸发Phｏtoｓｙnthesiｓ：光合作用Mａiｌｌard Reactiｏn :麦拉德反应Verａisoｎ:转色期Sａｔuｒation:饱和Ａlcohｏｌiｃ feｒmentatiｏn（AF) ：酒精发酵Stｕck (Ｓｌuggisｈ) Fermｅnｔation:发酵停滞Primａrｙ Fermenｔａtion：前发酵，主发酵Seｃondary Fermenｔatioｎ；二次发酵Heteｒofermｅntaｔion:异型发酵Ｍalolactｉc ｆermentaｔioｎ(MLF) ：苹果酸-乳酸发酵Malo-Ａlｃohol Fermentaｔｉｏn(MAF）：苹果酸-酒精发酵Ｍethｏde Ｃhaｒantaｉｓｅ:夏朗德壶式蒸馏法Macｅratｉon Caｒbonｉqｕe :CO2浸渍发酵Wｈoｌe bunch ferｍentation :ＣＯ2浸渍发酵Beａujolasｉｓ meｔhod:宝祖利酿造法Unareoｂic fｅrｍentaｔion:厌氧发酵法Thｅｒｍovｉnｉfiｃation：热浸渍酿造法Ｃharmａt meｔhod:罐式香槟法Enzyｍatic ｂrｏwnｉng:酶促褐变Ａcetiｆiｃation:酸败Aｇeing:陈酿Suｒ lｉes：带酒脚陈酿Estｅrｉfｙ:酯化Ｓacｃhａrify:糖化Liquefｙ：溶解、液化Bｏttｌe aｇing：瓶内陈酿Ａmeliｏration:原料改良Cｈapｔalizａtｉｏn：加糖Disｔilｌaｔion:蒸馏FｒaｃtionaｌＤistiｌlation：分馏Rｅcｔｉficaｔｉon：精馏Clarｉficａｔiｏn：澄清第四部分葡萄酒酿酒辅料Betoｎite:膨润土（皂土）Kｉｅseｌgur ,diａtomｉtｅ：硅藻土Capsule:胶帽Tｉｎ Plaｔ、Foｉl:锡箔Ｐｉgｍenｔ:颜料、色素Caｓein：酪蛋白Ｐectin：果胶酶Silｉca gel：硅胶Gelatｉｎ:明胶Isiｎgｌass:鱼胶Eｇg whiｔe:蛋清Albumen：蛋白Blood powder：血粉第五部分理化指标Toｔal ａcid:总酸Titraｂle acid:滴定酸Residｕｌsｕgａｒ:残糖Carｂon dioｘｉｄe：二氧化碳Suｇaｒ-fｒee exｔract：干浸出物Ｖoｌatｉle aｃｉd:挥发酸Sulfｕｒｄioｘｉde:二氧化硫Ｔｏtaｌ sｕlfur dioxidｅ:总二氧化硫Ｆreｅsulfuｒdioxide:游离二氧化硫Ｃopper(Cu）：铜Iｒon(Fe）:铁Poｔasｓium：钾(Ｋ）Cａｌcium（Ca）:钙Sｏｄium(Ｎa)：钠第六部分物质名词Ｍｅtｈanol:甲醇ＨigｈAlcohol：高级醇Polｙaｌcohoｌ：多元醇Ethｙｌａcetatｅ:乙酸乙酯Flａvonoｌ:黄酮醇Glｙcine:甘油Caｌcium Pｅctａtｅ:果胶酸钙Ochratoxin:棕曲霉毒素Ｂutaｎｏl:丁醇Ｉsobｕtanｏｌ:正丁醇Ｇａsｔric Ａcid：胃酸Prｏpanonｅ：丙酮Acｅtic Acid：乙酸Foｒmｉc Ａciｄ：甲酸,蚁酸Phosphｏlipids：磷脂Ａmino Acｉｄ:氨基酸Faｔty Aciｄ：脂肪酸Cａｒbｏnic Acid:碳酸Cａrbｏhydｒate:碳水化合物Fixed Ａcid：固定酸Ｔartaｒic Acｉd:酒石酸Ｍalic Acid：苹果酸Cｉtric Ａciｄ：柠檬酸Lacｔic Aｃid：乳酸Succiｎic Aciｄ：琥珀酸Sｏrbic aｃiｄ：山梨酸Aｓcorbic ａciｄ：抗坏血酸Ｂenzyl acｉd：苯甲酸Ｇallｉｃacid：没食子酸Ｆerulic Acid:阿魏酸Pcoumａric acid：香豆酸Glｕcose， Dextrｏse ,Grａｐe Suｇaｒ:葡萄糖Fｒuctｏsｅ, Fruit Sｕgａr:果糖Cａnｅ Suｇaｒ, Sｈort Sweetening:蔗糖Ｐoｌysacｃhａrides：水解多糖Starcｈ :淀粉Amｙlasｅ：淀粉酶Fｏaｍ:泡沫Proｔｅiｎ:蛋白质Ｍeｒｃapｔaｎ:硫醇Thｉamiｎe：硫胺（ＶB1)Aｍｍonｉum Sａlｔ：铵盐Melanoiｄinen:类黑精Ｇlyceｒol：甘油，丙三醇Coｐpｅr cｉtrａte:柠檬酸铜Copper sulphａte:硫酸铜Hydｒｏｇen sulｐhide:硫化氢Oak (ｂarｒｅｌ) ：橡木（桶)Cａｔｅｃhins：儿茶酚Low Flavour Tｈreshold:香味阈值Ｍａillaｒd Reａctｉon：美拉德反应VｏlatilｅPｈeｎｏlｓ：挥发性酚Ｖaｎillａn：香子兰Vanillin：香草醛,香兰素Linaｌooｌ:里那醇，沉香醇Gerｏniol:?牛儿醇，香茅醇Pyranｉc aｃid：丙酮酸Fｕrａｎ Aldehydeｓ:呋喃醛Eugenｏl：丁香酚Guaｉacol:愈创木酚CarbｏｈydratｅDegｒaｄａtion Pｒodｕcts：碳水化合物降解物Cellulｏｓe:纤维素Hｅｍiｃｅlluloｓe:半纤维素Ｈemｉcellulase：半纤维素酶Ｍaltol:落叶松皮素Oａk Lactｏnｅ：橡木内酯Ｈydｒoｌysaｂle Tａｎninｓ:水解单宁Ellａｇitannins:鞣花单宁Proanthocyaｎidin:原花色素Relative Aｓｔringencｙ（RA):相对涩性Ｌａgic Aciｄ：鞣花酸Poｌyｐｅｔidｅ Nitrogen：多肽氮Oｘido-reducｔｉoｎＰotｅntial:氧化还原电位Cｏnｄenｃｅd Ｐheｎoｌｓ:聚合多酚Ｐｏlｙ－ｐhenols:多酚PVP(P）：聚乙烯（聚)吡咯烷酮Aｎtｈｏcｙａnin：花青素Ａｌｃohｏｌ, ethanol：乙醇Iｎveｒt Sｕgaｒ转化糖Oxygen：氧气Estｅr：酯类物质Nitroｇｅｎ：氮气Aroma：果香Virｕs：病毒Ｂａctｅｒｉoｐhage：噬菌体Body:酒体Byprｏｄｕct：副产物Poｔaｓsium Bitarｔraｔe（ＫHT)：酒石酸氢钾Potasｓｉum Ｓorbate：山梨酸钾Diａmｍonｉum Pｈosphａtｅ:磷酸氢二铵Poｔasｓium Mｅtａ-ｂｉsulfite (K2Ｓ2O5):偏重亚硫酸钾Tannin:单宁Ｏak tannｉnｓ:橡木丹宁Undｅsiｒed （Excessｉve )Ｔaｎnins:劣质单宁Ｄesired ｔanｎins：优质单宁Enzymｅ:酶Laccase:漆酶Polyphenｏl Oxidase(ＰPO) ：多酚氧化酶β－glｕcosidaｓe:β－葡(萄）糖苷酶β-glucaｎaｓe:β－葡聚糖酶Maｎnoproｔｅｉns：甘露糖蛋白Ｌｅes：酒泥Chaｔeau：酒庄Bｕlk wine、Ｒaw wｉne：原酒Hyｇｉene:卫生Actｉvａted ｃarboｎ：活性碳Curｒａnt：茶蔗子属植物、无核小葡萄干Rａspｂeｒrｙ：木莓、山莓、覆盆子、悬钩子第七部分：设备Filtrate(filtration）:过滤Tｗo－ｗay Pump：双向泵Screw Pump：螺杆泵Cｅntrifugｅ:离心机Distiｌlatiｏn：蒸馏Heaｔ Excｈanｇｅr:热交换器Cruｓｈer：破碎机Ｄestemｅr:除梗机Presser:压榨机Aｔｍｏｓpheｒe Pｒesser：气囊压榨机Screw Prｅsseｒ：连续压榨机Filteｒ:过滤机Ｂottling Ｌiｎe:灌装线Pｌａtｅ Filtratioｎ(fｉlteｒ):板框过滤(机)Ｖａcｕum Ｆiltration(filter）：真空过滤（机）Dｅpth Fｉｌtraｔioｎ（fｉlteｒ)：深层过滤(机）Ｃrｏss Filtｒatiｏn(fｉlｔeｒ）:错流过滤（机）Meｍbrａｎe Filtｒaｔion(filter）:膜过滤(机）Sterilｅ Fｉlｔratioｎ（filtｅr):除菌过滤(机) Pockeｔ Fｉｌtｒation(ｆiｌter)：袋滤(机)Roｔarｙ Macｈｉne:转瓶机Ｐｏmａcｅ Drainiｎg:出渣Blending：调配Ｒaｃkiｎg:分离（皮渣、酒脚)Dｅcantｉｎg:倒灌（瓶）Remuage：吐渣Fining：下胶Dｅacidiｆiｃation：降酸Pｕmp oveｒ:循环Sｋｉn Cｏｎｔaｃt：浸皮(渍）Mix coｌｏrｓ：调色Ｏｘidａtive ＡｇeiｎｇMeｔｈod:氧化陈酿法Reducｉng Ａgｅiｎg Ｍethod:还原陈酿法Stabilizaｔion：稳定性Ullａgｅ：未盛满酒的罐（桶)Ｈｅａdspace：顶空NTU：浊度Reｃｅiｖing biｎ:接收槽Cｏｒkscｒew:开瓶器Ｄistilliｎg Coｌｕmn:蒸馏塔Condenser：冷凝器Heaｔ Exｃhangeｒ：热交换器Coｒk：软木塞Cellａｒ:酒窖Ｗine Showｒoom：葡萄酒陈列室Opticａl Density(OD）:光密度Metal CrｏwｎＬid:皇冠盖Ｂlaｎket：隔氧层Paｓteuriｓatｉon:巴斯德杀菌法第八部分:原料、病虫害、农药ＧrapｅNursｅｒｙ:葡萄苗圃Ｇraft：嫁接苗Scioｎ：接穗Seeｄling:自根苗Dｉsｅase：病害Ｂotrytis:灰霉病Downy Ｍｉｌｄeｗ:霜霉病Powdｅry Ｍｉldｅw：白粉病FaｎＬeaf：扇叶病毒病Anｔｈrａｃnosｅ:炭疽病MilｄPowdｅr:灰腐病Blaｃk Rｏｔten:黑腐病Noｂlｅ rot:贵腐病Pｅａrls:皮尔斯病Phylｌoxeｒａ:根瘤蚜Nematｏde:线虫Bird Damaｇe：鸟害Pｅst:昆虫Lime Sｕｌpｈuｒ:石硫合剂Nursery:营养钵Hｅrｂiｃｉｄe:除草剂Ｐesticidｅ:杀虫剂Funｇicide:真菌剂Bｏrdeaux miｘture：波尔多液Mｉｃrocliｍaｔe：微气候Variｅtｙ:品种Clｕｓteｒ:果穗Ｒacｈis:穗轴Sｃion:接穗Ｒoｏtstocｋ：砧木Gｒaftiｎg:嫁接第九部分: 学科名词Enoｌogy：葡萄酒酿造学Pomologｙ：果树学Ｖｉｎifiｃation:葡萄酒酿造法Wiｎe-ｍakiｎg：葡萄酒酿造Aｍpｅlogｒａｐｈy：葡萄品种学Vinicｕlture:葡萄栽培学Wine Chemiｓｔry 葡萄酒化学Enoｌogｉst,Ｗinemaｋｅｒ：酿酒师Vintage:年份Inoｃulaｔｉon（inoｃuｌｕm）：接种(物) MOG(materｉal oｔheｒ thaｎ grａpeｓ）：杂物Terpene:萜烯Ｔerｐenｏl:萜烯醇第十部分葡萄酒等级法国:Ａ.O.C：法定产区葡萄酒Ｖ.Ｄ.Q.S：优良产区葡萄酒V.D.Ｐ:地区餐酒V.D.T：日常餐酒德国:1. Tafeｌwein:日常餐酒；2. Lａndwein：地区餐酒;3．Qualｉtaeｔｓｗｅin beｓtimmｔer Anbauｇebiｅte:简称QｂＡ,优质葡萄酒;4． Quａｌitaetｓwein ｍit Prａedｉkaｔ：简称ＱｍＰ,特别优质酒。
48 BacteriaBacteria are extremely small living things. While we measure our own sizes in inches or centimeters, bacterial size is measured in microns. One micron is a thousandth of a millimeter: a pinhead is about a millimeter across. Rod-shaped bacteria are usually from two to four microns long, while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter. Thus if you enlarged a rounded bacterium a thousand times, it would be just about the size of a pinhead. An adult human magnified by the same amount would be over a mile (1.6 kilometer) tall.Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look closely to see bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times, one finds that bacteria are barely visible as tiny rods or dots. One cannot make out anything of their structure. Using special stains, one can see that some bacteria have attached to them wavy-looking “hairs” called flagella. Others have only one flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the bacteria through the water. Many bacteria lack flagella and cannot move about by their own power, while others can glide along over surfaces by some little- understood mechanism.From the bacteria point of view, the world is a very different place from what it is to humans. To a bacterium water is as thick as molasses is to us. Bacteria are so small that they are influenced by the movements of the chemical molecules around them. Bacteria under the microscope, even those with no flagella, often bounce about in the water. This is because they collide with the watery molecules and are pushed this way and that. Molecules move so rapidly that within a tenth of a second the molecules round a bacteria have all been replaced by new ones; even bacteria without flagella are thus constantly exposed to a changing environment.。
公共英语四级阅读文章《细菌》公共英语四级阅读文章《细菌》细菌是微生物的主要类群之一，属于细菌域。
对于细菌，我们知道的大概就是细菌充斥在我们生活的周围，容易引起疾病，下面不妨走进这篇公共英语四级阅读文章来好好了解一下细菌。
Bacteria are extremely small living things. While we measure our own sizes in inches or centimeters, bacterial size is measured in microns. One micron is a thousandth of a millimeter: a pinhead is about a millimeter across. Rod-shaped bacteria are usually from two to four microns long, while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter. Thus if you enlarged a rounded bacterium a thousand times, it would be just about the size of a pinhead. An adult human magnified by the same amount would be over a mile (1.6 kilometers)tall.Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look closely to see bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times, one finds that bacteria are barely visible as tiny rods or dots. One cannot make out anything of their structure. Using special stains, one can see that some bacteria have attached to them wavy-looking "hairs" called flagella. Others have only one flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the bacteria through the water. Many bacteria lack flagella and cannot move about by their own power, while others can glide along over surfaces by some little-understood mechanism.From the bacterial point of view, the world is a very different place from what it is to humans. To a bacterium water is as thick as molasses is to us. Bacteria are so small that they are influenced by the movements of the chemical molecules around them. Bacteria under the microscope, even those with no flagella, oftenbounce about in the water. This is because they collide with the water molecules and are pushed this way and that. Molecules move so rapidly that within a tenth of a second the molecules around a bacterium have all been replaced by new ones; even bacteria without flagella are thus constantly exposed to a changing environment.细菌是极其微小的生物体。
中学生VOA英语阅读之世界卫生组织在巴黎气候大会上呼吁公共卫生议程WHO Calls for Public Health Agenda at Paris Climate TalksIn Paris negotiators are aiming for a call that causes for global emissions to avoid the most dramatic impacts of climate changes.巴黎气候大会上，人们呼吁采取全球行动以抵御气候变化带来的巨大灾难。
World Health Organization senior scientist Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum says what’s good for the planet is good for public health.世界卫生组织专家戴尔米德表示，凡是对地球有益的举动，都会对人们的健康有益。
“The reason that we are so concerned about the effects of climatechange on health [is]that many of the largest disease problems that we face are highly sensitive to climate conditions.These include diseases such as malaria, such as undernutrition, and such as waterborne diseases, diarrhea and other waterborne diseases.”我们如此关注气候变化对健康的影响是因为许多常见疾病都与气候条件息息相关。
如疟疾、营养不良、水传播疾病、痢疾以及其他传染疾病。
A warmer and wetter world threatens to make these problems worse.That’s exactly what’s happening with Dengue fever,a mosquito-borne viral infection that has put almost half of the world’s population at risk.温暖潮湿的气候使得这些问题更加严峻，登革热就是其中之一。
Bacterial communities and enzyme activities ofPAHs polluted soilsV.Andreoni a,*,L.Cavalca a ,M.A.Rao b ,G.Nocerino b ,S.Bernasconi c ,E.Dell ÕAmico a ,M.Colombo a ,L.GianfredabaDipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Alimentari e Microbiologiche,Universita`degli Studi,Via Celoria 2,20133Milano,ItalybDipartimento di Scienze del Suolo,della Pianta e dell’Ambiente,Universita`di Napoli Federico II,Via Universita`100,80055Portici,Napoli,Italy cDipartimento di Chimica Organica e Industriale,Universita`degli Studi,Via Venezian 21,20133Milano,Italy Received 11July 2003;received in revised form 1June 2004;accepted 10June 2004AbstractThree soils (i.e.a Belgian soil,B-BT,a German soil,G,and an Italian agricultural soil,I-BT)with different prop-erties and hydrocarbon-pollution history with regard to their potential to degrade phenanthrene were investigated.Achemical and microbiological evaluation of soils was done using measurements of routine chemical properties,bacterial counts and several enzyme activities.The three soils showed different levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),being their contamination strictly associated to their pollution history.High values of enzyme activities and culturable heterotrophic bacteria were detected in the soil with no or negligible presence of organic pollutants.Genetic diversity of soil samples and enrichment cultures was measured as bands on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)of amplified 16S rDNA sequences from the soil and enrichment community DNAs.When analysed by Shan-non index (H 0),the highest genetic biodiversity (H 0=2.87)was found in the Belgian soil B-BT with a medium-term exposition to PAHs and the poorest biodiversity (H 0=0.85)in the German soil with a long-term exposition to alkanes and PAHs and where absence,or lower levels of enzyme activities were measured.For the Italian agricultural soil I-BT,containing negligible amounts of organic pollutants but the highest Cu content,a Shannon index =2.13was found.The enrichment of four mixed cultures capable of degrading solid phenanthrene in batch liquid systems was also studied.Phenanthrene degradation rates in batch systems were culture-dependent,and simple (one-slope)and complex (two-slope)kinetic behaviours were observed.The presence of common bands of microbial species in the cultures and in the native soil DNA indicated that those strains could be potential in situ phenanthrene degraders.Consistent with this assumption are the decrease of PAH and phenanthrene contents of Belgian soil B-BT and the isolation of phenanth-rene-degrading bacteria.From the fastest phenanthrene-degrading culture C B-BT ,representative strains were identified as Achromobacter xylosoxidans (100%),Methylobacterium sp.(99%),Rhizobium galegae (99%),Rhodococcus aetherovorans (100%),Ste-notrophomonas acidaminiphila (100%),Alcaligenes sp.(99%)and Aquamicrobium defluvium (100%).DGGE-profiles of culture C B-BT showed bands attributable to Rhodococcus ,Achromobacter ,Methylobacterium rhizobium ,Alcaligenes and Aquamicrobium .0045-6535/$-see front matter Ó2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.06.013*Corresponding author.Tel.:+39250316724;fax:+39250316694.E-mail address:vincenza.andreoni@unimi.it (V.Andreoni).Chemosphere 57(2004)401–412/locate/chemosphereThe isolation of Rhodococcus aetherovorans and Methylobacterium sp.can be consistent with the hypothesis that dif-ferent phenanthrene-degrading strategies,cell surface properties,or the presence of xenobiotic-specific membrane car-riers could play a role in the uptake/degradation of solid phenanthrene.Ó2004Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Soil chemical/enzymatic characteristics;DGGE;Bacterial diversity;Phenanthrene consumption;Batch liquid systems1.IntroductionPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)are wide-spread in nature(i.e.soil,water and sediments)because of several polluting anthropogenic activities(Samanta et al.,2002).They have been recognised as a potential health risk due to their intrinsic chemical stability,high recalcitrance to different types of degradation and high toxicity to living organisms(Alexander,1999).PAHs present in soil may exhibit a toxic activity to-wards different plants,microorganisms and inverte-brates.Microorganisms,being in intimate contact with the soil environment,are considered to be the best indi-cators of soil pollution.In general,they are very sensi-tive to low concentrations of contaminants and rapidly response to soil perturbation.An alteration of their activity and diversity may result,and in turn it will re-flect in a reduced soil quality(Schloter et al.,2003).Soil enzyme activities are the driving force behind all the bio-chemical transformations occurring in soil.Their evalu-ation may provide useful information on soil microbial activity and be helpful to establish effects of soil specific environmental conditions(Dick et al.,1996).Numerous research efforts are being dedicated to the search of proper remediation technologies to remove as much as possible contaminants from the environment or to transform them into less toxic compounds.Bioreme-diation appears to be an appealing technology to ap-proach the recovery of PAH-polluted sites(Harayama, 1997).Several microorganisms are capable to mineralise a large variety of PAHs and/or to break down them to their less-toxic metabolites(Cerniglia,1992).The very low water-solubility of PAHs and the slow mass-transfer rates from solid phase may limit their availability to microorganisms,thus hindering natural attenuation microbial processes.However,some bacteria degrade sorbed PHAs at different rates,indicating organism-spe-cific bioavailability(Grosser et al.,2000).Bioremediation of PAH contaminated sites rely either on the presence of autochthonous degrading bac-teria which capabilities might be stimulated in situ (Margesin and Schinner,1997),or on the inoculation of selected microorganisms with desired catabolic traits in bioaugmentation techniques(Straube et al.,1999). When microorganisms are added to speed up degrada-tion in contaminated environments,the duration assess-ment and biological process efficiency depend on the evolution of bacterial communities in terms of composi-tion and catabolic activity.Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis(DGGE)analysis of16S rRNA genes represents a powerful tool to study the bacterial commu-nity structures in complex environments as well as in enrichment cultures(Muyzer and Smalla,1998).How-ever,the combination of both culture-independent and culture-dependent techniques might provide useful and complementary information on the structure of micro-bial communities.Soils with different pollution history were preliminary characterized in terms of their chemical properties,enzy-matic activity and culturable heterotrophic bacteria.Site characterization is a pre-requisite when dealing with any remediation approach of a polluted site(Smith and Mason,1999).Indeed,chemical and biochemical proper-ties may assist in the analysis of the ability for the soil to be recovered(Margesin et al.,2000).Moreover,the enrichment and selection of bacterial phenanthrene-degrading cultures,capable of degrading solid phenanth-rene in batch liquid systems were performed.The kinetics of phenanthrene disappearance by enriched cultures,the comparison of their degradation rates and their species composition were also investigated,as assessed by DGGE analysis of PCR-amplified16S rDNA gene fragments. The enrichment of such cultures is a necessary step to obtain microorganisms with the desired catabolic traits, usable in the bioaugmentation of polluted soils.2.Materials and methods2.1.ChemicalsPhenanthrene was at>96%purity(Sigma Aldrich, Germany).Solvents at99.9%purity and all the other chemicals,reagent grade were supplied by Analar, BDH Ltd.,(Germany),unless otherwise stated.2.2.Soil description and samplingThree soils having a different pollution history were ly:(1)A German soil,G,polluted by a long-term exposi-tion(>50years)to alkanes and PAHs,leading to the formation of a typical light non-aqueous phase402V.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere57(2004)401–412liquid(LNAPL)contamination(Saccomandi and Gianfreda,2001).The soil is from Turingia(Ger-many)and its pollution is dated back to II World War.The site is still heavily contaminated because no remediation actions were implemented on it. (2)An Italian agricultural soil,I-BT,from the Northof Italy,with no or negligible presence of pol-lutants.(3)A Belgian soil,B-BT,from afluvial canal of Bruxe-lles(Belgium),characterised by a medium-term(<3 years)exposition to PAHs.The soil was subjected to an accidental pollution event that caused a spread distribution of PAHs on its surface.The soil was sampled after3years from the pollution event.Italian and Belgian soil samples were taken random by ram-drilling at a depth of5–15cm.German soil was drawn from within the LNAPL phase,immediately above the water table(at a depth ranging from5.5to7.6m below soil surface).Soil samples were packed on-site into sealed polythene bags,and transported to the labo-ratory,stored dark and cooled(4°C).Samples were homogenised,sieved to<0.2mm and stored at4°C until used.Investigations were performed also on Italian(I-AT) and Belgian(B-AT)soils after bioremediation pilot experiments.Soils were treated aerobically in a bioreac-tor for5months;the experimental procedure adopted and the obtained results are under a patent.Unfortu-nately,no further information was provided by the siteÕs owner.German soil was not treated because previous laboratory investigations demonstrated that any effort to bioremediate it was unsuccessful(Saccomandi and Gianfreda,2001).2.3.Determination of chemical and microbiological propertiesThe soils were characterized with respect to both phys-ical and chemical as well as microbiological properties.In particular,a set of enzyme activities(e.g.dehydrogenase,fluorescein diacetate hydrolase,arylsulphatase,phospha-tase and urease)and culturable heterotrophic bacterial cell number were determined.Molecular biodiversity of total bacterial populations was also analysed,according to methods described below(Section2.6).Chemical and physical analyses were performed on air-dried and sieved(<2mm)samples according to standard techniques(Methods of Soil Chemical Analy-sis,1996).Soil organic C was determined by the method of dichromate oxidation,pH was measured by glass electrode in1:2.5H2O suspensions,total N was meas-ured by the standard Kjeldahl method.Particle size dis-tribution was assessed by the pipette-method.Overall content of PAHs and alkanes of German soil was deter-mined according to Saccomandi and Gianfreda(2001).Heavy metals were determined by atomic adsorption spectroscopy(AAS)after acid digestion with HF/HNO3.Enzyme activities were determined on fresh moist soils sieved<2mm.The arylsulphatase(ARYL)and phosphatase(PHO)activities were determined according to Tabatabai and Bremner(1970)and Sannino and Gianfreda(2001),respectively.Specific substrates(p-nitrophenyl derivatives)and buffers were used for each enzyme.Urease(UR)activity was measured as described by Kandeler and Gerber(1988).Dehydrogenase(DH) assays were performed using soluble tetrazolium salt (TTC)as an artificial acceptor(Trevors,1984).The activ-ity offluorescein diacetate hydrolase(FDAH)was as-sessed as described by Adam and Duncan(2001).A unit(U)of ARYL,DH and PHO enzyme activity was defined as the micromoles of substrate transformed at 30°ChÀ1by1g of dried soil.The FDAH and UR activ-ities were expressed as micrograms of substrate hydro-lysed at30°ChÀ1by1g of dried soil.Control tests with autoclaved soils were carried out to evaluate the spontaneous or abiotic transformation of substrates.To enumerate culturable heterotrophic bacteria,10g of each soil sample were suspended in45ml sterilised Na4P2O7(0.2glÀ1in bidistilled water)in300ml glass bottles for1h on a shaker,in order to separate bacteria from soil particles.One millilitre of supernatant ob-tained after10min sedimentation was then10-fold serial diluted in NaCl9glÀ1solution.Appropriate dilutions were plated onto10%strength Tryptic Soy Agar med-ium for a total heterotrophic bacterial count;100l lmlÀ1 cycloheximide were added to the medium to inhibit the growth of eukaryotes.The plates were incubated at 28°C for8days and then counted.Unless otherwise specified,all results reported are averages of triplicate determinations.2.4.Enrichment and isolation of phenanthrene-degrading culturesFreshly prepared-phenanthrene stock solution in ace-tone(20mgmlÀ1)was added to500ml glass bottles.The acetone was allowed to evaporate before adding100ml of autoclaved M9mineral salt medium(Kunz and Chapman,1981)to have afinal concentration of 200mg lÀ1phenanthrene.Then10g of soil samples were added to a series of bottles.The bottles were teflon-stop-pered and incubated in the dark at25°C with agitation on a reciprocal shaker at96rpm for3weeks.Periodi-cally(3weeks)10ml aliquots of grown cultures were transferred into fresh medium under the same condi-tions.Different bacteria were isolated from the enrichment cultures.The isolates were grown on M9liquid medium containing100mglÀ1phenanthrene.Pure cultures were identified by16S rDNA gene nucleotide sequence ana-lysis according to the method below described.V.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere57(2004)401–4124032.5.Measurements of phenanthrene utilisation ratesThe mixed cultures were grown at25°C with shaking in500ml bottles containing100ml M9mineral medium supplemented with200mglÀ1phenanthrene.Four bot-tles for each culture were prepared.At each sampling time the concentration of phenanthrene was determined on duplicate sacrificial bottles and the other two bottles were utilised to perform protein content analysis(Brad-ford,1976)and to extract total DNA(see below).Two bottle-controls(without bacteria)were run in parallel to account for the abiotic loss of phenanthrene.The extraction and quantification of phenanthrene was determined as follows.Culture broths were ex-tracted three times with50ml CH2Cl2;the organic layers were collected,dried with Na2SO4,filtered and the sol-vent was removed under reduced pressure.The residue was solved in2ml of ethyl acetate and4ml of a solution of dodecanol in ethyl acetate(5mgmlÀ1)were added as internal standard for gas chromatographic analyses.The aqueous phase was acidified by conc.HCl(pH2)and ex-tracted three times with50ml ethyl acetate;the organic layers were collected and processed as before described.Gas-chromatographic analyses were carried out using a DANI1000Gas-chromatograph,equipped with a FID detector(hydrogen0.9bar,air1.0bar and nitro-gen1.0bar)and a fused silica capillary column WCOT-CP-SIL8CB Chrompack(25m·0.32mm ID),carrier helium(0.8bar),and injection temperature300°C, detection300°C,initial oven temperature140°C (3min),temperature increase10°C minÀ1,final iso-therm250°C,injection volume2l l.The dodecanol R t was6.9min and the phenanthrene R t was11.3min. Detector signal output was monitored by computer and all chromatograms and data were generated and processed by Dani Data Station version1.7software.2.6.Molecular methodsDNA was extracted from soil samples,enrichment cultures and isolated strains.Soil DNA and enrichment culture DNA were extracted by a bead-beating method (MOBIO,USA)and by BIO101method(Resnova, Italy),respectively,according to the manufacturer instructions.According to Cavalca et al.(2002),protein-ase K(1mgmlÀ1)was used to extract DNA from strains.PCR amplification of the16S rDNA was performed on the extracted DNA,by using eubacterial universal primers P27f and P1495r referred to E.coli nucleotide se-quence of16S rDNA gene(Cavalca et al.,2002).Nested PCR reaction for V3amplification was carried out according to Muyzer and Smalla(1998).V3PCR prod-ucts from soil,enrichment culture and bacterial isolates DNAs were characterized by a DGGE run on a vertical acrylamide gel in a DCODE Universal Mutation Detec-tion System(Biorad).DGGE was performed with8% (wt/vol)polyacrylamide gels in TAE buffer(20mM Tris acetate pH7.5,10mM sodium acetate,0.5mM Na2-EDTA)with a linear chemical gradient ranging from 35%to65%.Denaturant solutions were prepared by mix-ing the appropriate volumes of two0–100%denaturant stock solutions(7M urea,and40%vol/vol formamide (Amersham Biosciences,Swedan).Gels were run at a constant voltage of70V for16h at55°C.Gels were stained in a0.5mg lÀ1ethidium bromide solution and documented with GelDoc System(Biorad).Bands of interest were excised from DGGE using an UV transillu-minator.The excised bands were suspended into200l of PCR water,reamplified and sequenced.The nucleotide sequences of16S rDNA of the resulting amplicons and of isolates were determined according to the Perkin El-mer ABI Prism protocol(Applied Biosystems,USA). Primers used in the PCR reaction for sequencing prod-ucts were the same of those in normal16S rDNA PCR reactions.The forward and reverse samples were run on an Applied Biosystems310A sequence analyser.The sequences were compared with similar sequences of refer-ence organisms deposited in public domain databases.DGGE analyses were performed to compare the bac-terial community structures of soils and enrichment cul-tures.Although the technique could be associated with a variety of PCR biases(Wintzingerode et al.,1997;Fro-min et al.,2002),it provides comprehensive information on the global patterns of microbial diversity(Torsvik and Overas,2002).However,to minimize biases,DGGE analyses were performed on samples treated using iden-tical methods in which DNA extraction and amplifica-tion biases are supposed to occur homogeneously.Shannon index(H0)(Magurran,1988)was used to evaluate the biodiversity of both soils and enrichment cultures,and Sorensen index(S)(Magurran,1988)to evaluate the similarity within soils(native vs.treated soil)and within the deriving cultures.The Shannon index of soils was calculated on the ba-sis of the number and intensity of bands present on DGGE samples,run on the same gel,as follows: H0¼ÀPP i log P i,where P i is the importance probabil-ity of the bands in a gel lane.P i was calculated as fol-lows:P i=n i/N,where n i is the band intensity for each individual band and N is the sum of intensities of bands in a lane.Statistical comparison of different DGGE pro-files was done with the GelDoc software package.This latter assumes that the population size is proportional to the thickness of bands.Gel analysis included conver-sion of the scanned gel image and normalization in order to correct shift within or between gels,so that bands or peaks of the same molecular size have the same physical position relative to a standard.Once all banding profiles were in a standardized analysis format,each band could be described by its position on the gel and by its relative intensity.404V.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere57(2004)401–4123.Results and discussion3.1.Physico-chemical and microbiological properties ofsoilsThe chemical and physical properties of a soil as well as the evaluation of its pollution degree may help to esti-mate the impact of pollutants on the quality of soil un-der investigation,if they are complemented with the measurement of biological properties (Margesin et al.,2000).Tables 1and 2summarise the physical and chemical properties of investigated soils and the amounts of both organic and inorganic pollutants.The moderate-high amounts of carbonate and the pH values (measured in H 2O),ranging from 2.68to 5.36and from 6.73to 8.19,respectively,indicate a sub-to moder-ate-alkaline character of soils (Table 1).At the measured pH range soil microbial growth and its activity are usu-ally favoured.As discussed by Smith and Doran (1996),soil pH can provide valuable information on the availa-bility and toxicity of several elements,including Fe,Al,Mn,Cu,Cd and others to plants and microorganisms.German and Italian soils showed comparable amounts of clay,silt and sand fractions (Table 1)whereas Belgian soil had a very low amount of both clay ($7%)and silt ($8%)and a predominant presence of sand (>80%as total of coarse and fine fractions).According to USDA classification (Soil Survey Staff,1993),German and Italian soils can be classified sandy clay loam soils while Belgian is a typically loamy sand soil.In Belgian and mainly in German soil before treat-ment (B-BT and G)total organic C values,and conse-quently organic matter contents,were very high,being influenced by organic pollutant contamination.Thus,their values did not represent natural,endogenous soil organic matter levels,possibly present in the soil in the absence of any contamination.Considering the low amounts of N measured in both soils,the C/N ratios (11.5and 26.3for B-BT and Gsoils,respectively)were higher than those normally found in unpolluted soils.When hydrocarbon-polluted soils are considered,much higher C/N ratios,ranging from a minimum value of 9:1to a maximum of 200:1,are,however,needed to ob-tain a consistent microbial growth and resulting hydro-carbon degradation (Bewley,1996).The physical and chemical properties of Belgian and Italian soils were also measured after the bioremediation treatment (Table 1).As expected,no significant varia-tions of clay,silt and sand fractions were noted.The 2-fold higher amounts of both N and available K meas-ured in B-AT are likely the result of nutrient supply dur-ing the biological treatment.According to the current European Union regulation (Commission of the European Communities,1986)T a b l e 1P h y s i c a l –c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s t u d y s o i l sS o i lp H (H 2O )C a C O 3(%)M o i s t u r e (%)C l a y (%)S i l t (%)C o a r s e s a n d (%)F i n e s a n d (%)O .C .(g k g À1)O .M .(g k g À1)T o t a l N (g k g À1)C /NP -O l s e n (m g k g À1)A v a i l a b l e K (m g k g À1)B e f o r e t r e a t m e n t G e r m a n 6.73a *3.07a13.0a 24.7a 15.0a 22.0a 38.3a 11.1a 19.1a 0.422a 26.3a T r a c en d(G )(±0.23)a(±0.15)(±0.90)(±1.5)(±0.97)(±0.99)(±1.0)(±1.50)(±2.20)(±0.09)(±3.45)I t a l i a n 7.67b 3.93a 14.5a 22.5a 24.5b 19.5b 33.4b 7.70b 13.3b 2.20b 3.5b 33.7a 337b (I -B T )(±0.56)(±0.21)(±1.10)(±2.0)(±2.4)(±1.30)(±2.10)(±1.20)(±1.90)(±0.50)(±0.45)(±4.50)(±17.8)B e l g i a n 8.19b 2.93a 11.0a 6.94b 7.75c 40.0c 45.3c 8.2b 14.1b 0.71c 11.5c 15.0b 224c (B -B T )(±1.10)(±0.09)(±0.85)(±0.54)(±0.65)(±3.20)(±3.60)(±1.60)(±2.20)(±0.09)(±1.20)(±1.50)(±13.4)A f t e r t r e a t m e n t I t a l i a n 7.73b 5.36b 18.5b 21.6a 23.9b 18.9a 35.6b 7.9b 13.6b 2.85d 2.8b 30.5a 574d (I -A T )(±0.61)(±0.35)(±1.20)(±2.0)(±2.70)(±1.40)(±3.10)(±1.50)(±2.10)(+0.60)(±0.38)(±3.90)(±20.7)B e l g i a n 8.17b 2.68a 11.0a 6.90b 8.58c 38.6c 45.9c 8.20b 14.1b 1.40e 5.8d 20.2c 495e (B -A T )(±0.60)(±0.10)(±0.91)(±0.54)(±0.74)(±1.93)(±2.30)(±0.90)(±1.50)(±0.80)(±0.40)(±0.80)(±18.5)*F o r e a c h v a r i a b l e d i ffe r e n t l e t t e r s a l o n g s i d e c o l u m n s r e f e r t o s i g n i fic a n t d i ffe r e n c e s (P (0.05).a V a l u e s i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e p r e s e n t s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n .V.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere 57(2004)401–412405referring to agricultural soils,investigated soils showed levels of heavy metals all below the maximum permitted concentrations,except for copper in Italian soil that was about twice the safe limit(150mgkgÀ1soil).A different situation holds when organic pollutants are considered.German soil resulted heavily polluted by high concentrations of alkanes and PAHs.BTEX and phenols were also detected(data not shown),thus confirming the presence of a LNAPL widespread pollu-tion(Saccomandi and Gianfreda,2001).In contrast, these pollutants were not detected in Italian soils. Belgian soil presented a detectable amount of PAHs (30.8mgkgÀ1),being phenanthrene relatively the most abundant(Table2).The activities offive enzymes and the heterotrophic bacteria of the investigated soils are reported in Table3. Arylsulphatase and phosphatase release sulfate and phosphate,the main plant and microbial available S and P forms,from various organic sulfate and phos-phate esters(Nannipieri et al.,2002).Urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea to carbon dioxide and ammo-nium,and it is widely distributed in microorganisms, plants and animals(Nannipieri et al.,2002).Dehydro-genase activity typically occurs in all intact,viableTable2Amounts of inorganic and organic pollutants of study soilsInorganic(mgkgÀ1)Organic(mgkgÀ1)Soil Cu Zn Cr Ni Fe Alkanes PAH Phenanthrene Before treatmentGerman145a*88.0a14.0a39.0a 6.1a29094a14a(G)(±8.7)a(±9.4)(±2.7)(±8.2)(±3.6)(±10.1)(±6.4)(±2.6)Italian301b121b72.4b75.5b40.3b nd nd nd(I-BT)(±21.5)(±9.6)(±6.5)(±8.5)(±5.4)Belgian50.2c124b83.9c55.4c39.0b nd30.8b 4.7b(B-BT)(±5.3)(±7.5)(±5.3)(±6.5)(±5.6)(±3.2)(±0.7)After treatmentItalian290b265d70.8b85.7b25.9c nd nd nd(I-AT)(±19.3)(±12.1)(±5.8)(±9.1)(±3.2)Belgian52.9c329e67.4b65.6d33.4d nd8.9c0.7c(B-AT)(±8.5)(±17.5)(±6.4)(±7.6)(±2.4)(±0.87)(±0.6)*For each variable different letters alongside columns refer to significant differences(P(0.05).a Values in parentheses represent standard deviation.Table3Enzyme activities and microbial counts of study soilsSoil ARYL(l molgÀ1hÀ1)PHO(l molgÀ1hÀ1)UR(l ggÀ1hÀ1)DH(l ggÀ1hÀ1)FDAH(l ggÀ1hÀ1)TotalheterotrophsCFU(gÀ1)Before treatmentGerman nd 4.10a nd18.9a nd 3.9·105a (G)(±0.045)(±2.1)(±4.0·104) Italian0.388a* 2.20b18.4a0.748b186a 4.9·107b(I-BT)(±0.07)a(±0.31)(±1.7)(±0.03)(±6.45)(±4.0·106) Belgian0.014b0.35c nd nd8.52b 2.3·107c(B-BT)(±0.003)(±0.21)(±0.91)(±2.0·106) After treatmentItalian0.555c 3.84d18.8a 1.27c197c 3.9·108d(I-AT)(±0.09)(±0.40)(±1.6)(±0.08)(±6.51)(±5.0·107) Belgian0.265d 2.90b nd0.049d162d 5.8·108e(B-AT)(±0.02)(±0.1)(±0.01)(±5.56)(±6.0·107) nd=not detected.ARYL=arylsulphatase,PHO=phosphatase,UR=urease,DH=dehydrogenase,FDAH=fluorescein diacetate hydrolase.*For each variable different letters alongside columns refer to significant differences(P(0.05).a Values in parentheses represent standard deviation.406V.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere57(2004)401–412microbial cells.Thus,its measurement is usually related to the presence of viable microorganisms and their oxi-dative capability(Trevors,1984).Fluorescein diacetate hydrolase(FDAH)has been often used as a sensor and functional indicator of soil health(Adam and Dun-can,2001).Being thefluorogenic substrate uptaken by active cells and then transformed by a large arrays of hydrolytic enzymes,the enzyme has been considered a measure of the soil microorganism activity(Killham and Staddon,2002).Enzyme activities and total heterotrophs,mainly for Belgian and German soils,are in agreement with the re-sults obtained with soils contaminated by similar pollut-ants(Kiss et al.,1998;Margesin et al.,2000).The German soil was the most contaminated compared to Belgian and Italian soils,having the lowest number of heterotrophs(Table3).After the biological treatment an increase in CFU of only one order of magnitude was measured in both Bel-gian and Italian soils(Table3).As reported by Margesin et al.(2000)total number of heterotrophs of PAHs pol-luted soils did not greatly increase after biological reme-diation actions,whereas the relative amounts of specific pollutant-degrading bacteria increased to a detectable extent.Enzyme activities also confirmed that the Italian soil showed the highest microbiological activity.All the measured enzymes were present at moderate to high range levels,usually found in agricultural soils(Nannipi-eri et al.,2002).The relatively low dehydrogenase activ-ity measured in this soil(which seems to contradict the high values of both FDAH activity and total microor-ganisms)could be explained by the possible interference exerted by the high Cu content(Table2)on the analytic assay used.Indeed,Cu may reacts abiotically with the triphenylformazan,the end product of DH catalysis, thus resulting in a underestimation of the soil dehydro-genase activity(Chander and Brookes,1991).Although the influence of other factors deriving from natural and anthropogenic events cannot be ruled out (Gianfreda and Bollag,1996),the complete absence and/or the very low enzymatic activities of both German and Belgian soils could be also partly due to the presence of PAHs in soils.As extensively reviewed by Kiss et al. (1998),even moderate levels of hydrocarbon contamina-tion may cause a significant decline of several soil en-zyme activities,showing each enzyme a different sensitivity to the presence of pollutants.Although the interpretation of enzyme activities of soil is complex be-cause both extracellular and intracellular enzyme activi-ties contribute to the overall soil enzyme activity,some hypotheses might be advanced.In soil,non-polar organ-ic compounds,such as hydrocarbons,may likely exert different effects on microbiological properties.Hydro-carbons may be toxic to soil microorganisms which may reflect in a consistent reduced enzymatic activity;and/or they my cover both organic-mineral and cell sur-faces,thus hindering the interaction between enzyme ac-tive sites and soluble substrates with adverse effect on enzyme activity expression(Kiss et al.,1998).Moreover, a synergistic negative effect on soil enzyme activities ex-erted by the simultaneous presence of heavy metals can-not be ruled out.After bioremediation,enzyme activities of Italian and Belgian soils increased to a moderate and a more detect-able extent,respectively.3.2.Biodiversity of soilsIn our analysis,the number of DGGE bands was taken as an indication of species in each sample.The rel-ative surface intensity of each DGGE band and the sum of all the surfaces for all bands in a sample were used to estimate species abundance(Fromin et al.,2002;Sekig-uchi et al.,2002).DGGE profiles of soils are shown in Fig.1.Many DGGE bands were observed in the pro-files,thus indicating the presence of different bacterial populations and different relative abundance species in soils.As indicated by the values of Shannon indices, contamination of soils appeared to affect their genetic diversity:German soil and native Belgian soil B-BT showed the poorestðH0G¼0:85Þand the highestðH0BÀBT¼2:87Þbiodiversity,respectively.For the Italian agricultural soil I-BT,containing negligible amounts of organic pollutants but the highest Cu content,a Shan-non index=2.13was found.After treatment,a loss of bacterial species diversityoccurred in Belgian soil with a H0BÀBTequal to1.13.Fur-thermore,the bacterial community of the native soil B-BT showed a marked different pattern when compared with its treated B-AT counterpart.Indeed,the S index of similarity was equal to0.18.Only few bands(‘‘a’’and‘‘b’’in Fig.1)were in common between the two soils,indicating the survival of some predominant species.On the contrary,for Italian soils only negligible dif-ferences in DNA patterns(S=0.56)were evidenced be-tween the native I-BT and its treated I-AT counterpartðH0IÀAT¼2:14Þ,indicating that the bioremediation did not substantially change the community structure of the native one.3.3.Enrichment of phenanthrene-degrading mixed cul-tures and determination of degradation kineticsThe diversity encountered in the bacterial communi-ties of the study soils prompted us to perform enrich-ments on phenanthrene from all soil samples in order to obtain cultures with different potential strategies to degrade phenanthrene.Attempts to enrich phenanthrene degrading bacteria from the German soil were unsuccessful(SaccomandiV.Andreoni et al./Chemosphere57(2004)401–412407。
