Law Governed Interaction(LGI):
the Concept,its Implementation,and its Usage1
Naftaly Minsky
Department of Computer Science
Rutgers University
Email:minsky@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,
web:https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,/minsky/
November29,2004
1Work supported in part by NSF grant https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,R-04-10485,and by the NJ Commission on Science and Technology “Excellence Award”
Contents
1Preface5 2Introduction6
2.1Informal Examples of Interaction Laws (6)
2.1.1A Budgeted-Consumption(BC)Policy (7)
2.1.2Establishing Layered Architecture(LA) (7)
2.1.3A Flow Control(F C)Policy (7)
3Basics9
3.1LGI Agents,and Communities (9)
3.2LGI communities (10)
3.3The Concept of Law Under LGI,and its Structure (11)
3.3.1On the Structure of Laws: (11)
3.3.2The Control-State (11)
3.3.3Regulated Events (12)
3.3.4Primitive Operations (13)
3.4Languages for Writing Laws (13)
3.4.1The Prolog-Based and Java-Based Law Languages (13)
3.4.2On the Prolog-Based Law-Language (14)
3.5Examples (15)
3.5.1A Budgeted Consumption Law (15)
3.5.2A Law of Layered Architecture (16)
3.5.3A Flow Control Law (17)
3.6The Law-Enforcement Mechanism (19)
3.7On The Local Nature of Laws: (21)
3.8The Moses Middleware (21)
3.8.1The Controller (22)
3.8.2Controller-Server(C-Server,for short) (22)
3.8.3Actor-Controller Interfaces: (22)
3.8.4Law-Server(L-Server,for short): (22)
3.9Employing LGI (22)
3.9.1Engagement (23)
3.9.2Operation: (24)
3.9.3Temporary Disconnection Between an Actor and its Controller (25)
3.9.4The Death of an LGI-Agent (25)
3.9.5On the Formation and Operations of an LGI-Community (26)
4Advanced Features27
4.1The Concept of Enforced Obligation (27)
4.1.1An Example (28)
4.1.1.0.1The BC Law—Illustrating the Use of Obligations (28)
4.1.1.0.2Obligation in Deontic Logic (29)
4.1.1.0.3Further Details of Obligations (29)
4.2Exceptions (30)
4.3Regulated Use of Digital Certi?cates Under LGI (31)
4.3.1The Structure and Creation of LGI-Certi?cates (32)
4.3.2Specifying Acceptable Certifying Authorities: (32)
4.3.3Authenticating via Certi?cates (32)
4.3.4An Example (34)
4.3.5Dynamic Addition and Deletion of Authority Clauses (35)
4.4Interoperability Between LGI-Communities (35)
4.5Interoperability Between an LGI-Agents and Agents Not Regulated by LGI (37)
4.6FingerPrints (37)
4.7Re?exive Agents,and their Roles (38)
4.7.1On Becoming a Re?exive Agent by Disconnection (38)
4.7.2Connection to a Re?exive Agent: (38)
4.7.3example (39)
4.7.4The Creation of Re?exive Agents (39)
4.8Non-Primitive Features (40)
4.8.1Obligations on State Change (40)
4.8.2Multicast (40)
5The Java-Based Langauge for Writing Laws41
5.1The Base-Class Called Law (41)
5.2Law-Classes,and their Operation (42)
5.2.1Correspondance between events,and the event-methods they invoke (42)
5.2.2Accessing the State of an Agent (43)
5.3The Java Version of Law LA (43)
5.4Conventions (43)
5.5Security and Other Aspects (43)
6The Moses Middleware:the Infrastructure of LGI46
6.1Controllers,and their deployment (46)
6.2Actor-Controller Interfaces (47)
6.2.1Human-Controller Interfaces (47)
6.2.2Program-Controller Interface (47)
6.2.2.1The Member Class (47)
6.2.2.2The ExMember Class (49)
6.3Security-Related Tools (50)
6.3.1Key creation and handling (50)
6.3.2Certi?cate creation and handling (50)
6.4Miscellanious Tools (51)
6.4.1Computing the Hash of a Public key (52)
6.4.2Computing the Hash of a Law (52)
6.5Controller-Server (52)
6.6Law-Server (53)
6.6.1Accessing the Law Server (53)
6.6.2Starting the Law Server (53)
7Speci?cations55
7.1The Control-State (55)
7.1.1The Law-based Control-State(CS) (56)
7.1.2Distinguished Control-State(DCS) (56)
7.1.3The Context (56)
7.2Regulated Events (57)
7.2.1adopted (58)
7.2.3certified (59)
7.2.4created (59)
7.2.5disconnected (59)
7.2.6exception (59)
7.2.7obligationDue (60)
7.2.8reconnected (60)
7.2.9sent (60)
7.2.10stateChanged (60)
7.2.11submitted (61)
7.3Primitive Operations (61)
7.3.1Communication Operations (62)
7.3.1.1deliver (62)
7.3.1.2forward (62)
7.3.1.3multicast (63)
7.3.1.4release (63)
7.3.2Operations on the control state (64)
7.3.2.1add,delete&replace (64)
7.3.2.2incr&decr (64)
7.3.2.3replaceCS&addCS (65)
7.3.3Obligation Related Operations (65)
7.3.3.1imposeObligation (65)
7.3.3.2repealObligation (65)
7.3.3.3imposeStateObligation (66)
7.3.3.4repealStateObligation (66)
7.3.4Operations on the portal table and on the authority table (66)
7.3.4.1addPortal&delPortal (66)
7.3.4.2addAuthority&delAuthority (67)
7.3.5Misceleneous Operations (68)
7.3.5.1quit (68)
7.3.5.2createFingerPrint (68)
7.3.5.3setPassword (68)
7.3.5.4create (68)
7.3.6Operations Designed for the Interface with the Actor (69)
7.3.6.1show (69)
7.3.6.2discloseLaw&discloseCS (69)
7.3.6.3enterTest&exitTest (70)
7.4The Preamble of the Law (70)
A Apendices72
A.1Law Server (72)
A.1.1General Description (72)
A.1.2Usage (72)
A.1.2.1Web Interface (72)
A.1.3Administration interface (72)
A.1.3.0.1Background mode (73)
A.1.3.0.2Interactive mode (73)
A.2orphans (73)
A.2.1Controller-Controller Authentication Protocol (73)
A.3On the Performance of LGI (74)
A.3.1An Analysis of the Relative Overhead of LGI (75)
A.3.1.0.3Typical values: (75)
A.3.1.0.4On Congestion and Scalability: (75)
A.3.1.0.5The relative overhead of centralized coordination: (76)
A.3.2The Relative Overhead of LGI,Under Various Conditions (76)
A.3.2.1Using Local Controllers (76)
A.3.2.2Using Remote Controllers (76)
A.3.2.3Sharing Controllers (77)
A.3.2.4Bypassing a Controller (77)
A.3.3On the Performance of the Current Moses Toolkit (78)
A.3.3.0.1Experimental Results: (78)
A.4notes (79)
A.4.1Release Plan (79)
A.4.1.1questions and TODOs (79)
A.4.1.2organization (79)
A.4.1.3documentations (79)
A.4.1.4testing (79)
A.4.1.5performance (79)
A.4.1.6what is not covered here,and future development (79)
A.4.1.7design of website (80)
A.4.1.8distribution list (80)
A.4.2Journal (80)
A.4.3Future develpment (80)
A.4.4random comments (80)
A.4.5ideas (80)
Chapter1
Preface
[[The general characterization of LGI]]Law-Governed Interaction(LGI)is a mode of interaction between post distributed actors,which[[...]][[relation to policy and coordination mechnishm,as well as middleware, somewhat related to JMS and CORBA.Differences:light wait,less services but much reacher and more sopisticated regulative mechanism;and policy mechanisms.
Mention synch and asynch...]]
[[range of applications;give a URL]]post [[nature of this document(purpose and structure]][[This report is meant to be used as an introduction post to LGI,as well as a self contained manual for it.It combines(a)the speci?cation of all the features of LGI;(b)motivation for many of these features,along with some examples of their use;(c)description of
the implementation of LGI,the the“Moses”middleware,in suf?cient detail to allow the reader to deploy it himself or herself;and(d)references to papers that discuss a variaty of applications of LGI.
Also point out what is missing from it,and can be found elseware,or not at all for now]]
[[history]][[list everybody that contributed to LGI::Several people participated in the implementation post of LGI,and helped in re?ning its concepts,and in exploring its various applications,In particular,Junbiao Zhang implemented a prototype of LGI;Victoria Ungureanu implemented the?rst version of the Moses middleware,which provided complete support for LGI;Xuhui Ao,Takahiro Murata and Mihail Ionescu made
many important additions to Moses,including the concept of law-hierarchy,and that of intelligent human-interfaces;and Constantine Serban built a new and more ef?cient implementation of Moses,and added to it
the Java-based language for writing laws,and the support for synchronous communication.]] [[Acknowledgment:]]post Finally,I wish to thank all the mentioned above for helping to re?ne the LGI concept,and to implement
the Moses middleware;and I am particularly grateful to Constantine Serban,without whom this document
could not have been written.I also wish to thank Jerrold Leichter,Yaron Minsky and Thu Nguyen for many useful discussions that deepened my understanding of the subject matter.
Chapter2
Introduction
[[outline::]]<==n ?@the problem address here:heterogenous,distributes,gropu which may be very large and open;
whose members need to interact with each other,without knowing much about each other(??),for
various reasons...[[introduce“actor”]]
?@car example
?@other examples(this may actually be enough):trading;the comonents of a large distributed syst,
such as an enterprise,which is increasingly...a mass...;
?@in smal or homogeneous system one may build such agents to conform to a desired protoco.This
luxury we do not have here.Thus enforcement.
?@broad de?nition of LGI“interaction laws”(generalization of tradicional AC policie)
?@the term“law”
?@charactersitics:
?@@expressive power how it generalize AC
?@@commanality:not just server centric
?@@decentarization
?@@interoperability
?@@incrementality
?@outline of the paper
2.1Informal Examples of Interaction Laws
We introduce here three different policies that can be supported by LGI.They are not toy policies.They can
be applied to very large,heterogenous and distributed communities;they could provide real bene?ts,when enforced;and they are hard,or even impossible,to implement scalably via any of the conventional access-
control mechanism.In Section3.5we show how these policies can be formalization as LGI laws,which lend themselves to scalable enforcement.
It should be pointed out that the policies introduced below are somewhat simpli?ed,in particular in that
they are not fault tolerant.This and other limitations of some of these policies will be addressed in Section4,
while illustrating various additional features of LGI.
2.1.1A Budgeted-Consumption(BC)Policy
Consider a distributed community C of agents that provide services to each other—some of the members of C could be designated as servers,and the others as their clients,or,C might be a P2P community such as Gnutella[10],where every agent may acd as both a server and a client.Suppose that we would like to regulate the number of requests that any given member of C can send,and to record the number of requests that each member received.Such regulation can be accomplished via the following policy:
1.Every member x of this community maintains a budget B of requests it can make.That is:x would not
send any requests if its budget is zero,and when it does sends a request,it would decrement its budget by1.
2.Every member x of this community maintains a counter V of the requests it has received.
3.The budget of all members in C can be set by a distinguished agent called the regulator.And every
agent can report to the regulator the correct count V of visits to it.
If this—to be called budgeted consumption policy,or BC—is enforced,then it would have the following consequences:(a)the regulator would have control over the total number of request that any other member of C can make;and(b)the regulator can receive reliable reports about the number of visits that every member of C recieved.
2.1.2Establishing Layered Architecture(LA)
Layered architecture is one of the most celebrated organizational principles for software system.Under this architecture the various system components are organized into groups,called“layers,”labeled with succesive integers,starting with zero;and which are subject to the following global constraint:components can send messages to each other only if the sender resides at the layer of the target,or at the layer right above it.(The term“message”here is usually understood as a method call,or as a remote-procedure-call(RPC,or RMI). But with some minor modi?cations,layered architecture makes sense for asynchronous messages as well.) The concept of layered architecture was originally formulated,and used,for monolithic centralized sys-tems,where all system components are compiled together,and usually operate in a single address space. There is no great need for enforcement of LA in this context,although some enforcement techniques were developed:speci?caly for this architecture,by Ossher[24],and via a more general mechanism,by Minsky [16,19].But enforcement is necessary in the more open and dynamically changing context of distributed sys-tems.The following is a formulation of LA for such a distributed community C of agents.This formulation has two parts,which address:(1)the layered structure of the community,and(2)the constraint on message passing between its members.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,yered structure:Members of C are assigned a non-negative integer that identi?es their layer.This
assignment,to given agent x,can be done dynamically,by a distinguished agent called mgr,via a message setLevel(k)it sends to x.
2.Constraint on message passing:Messages can be transferred between members of community C only
if the sender resides at the layer of the target,or at the layer right above it.(This constraint does not apply to the setLevel messages,mentioned in point91)above).
Note that being in the same level is a problematic concept in a distributed context,where the levels of various agents can be changed dynamically.We will address this issue later,when this policy is formalized under LGI.
2.1.3A Flow Control(F C)Policy
We now consider a different techniques for regulating?ow of messages.We would like to provide each member of a community C of peers with the ability to control the?ow of messages to it,essentially via back pressure on the senders.This is somewhat analogous to the?ow-control provided by TCP/IP,but it is
formulated for the application level,is much more?exible,and unlike in the TCP/IP case,it can be enforced via LGI.
More sepci?cally,we employ the following policy,over all interactions between members of community C:
After a member x of this community received any message from another member y,x can send
to y a message setDelay(d),forcing y to observe a delay of d seconds between any pair of
messages its sends to x.
The enforcement of this policy should mean that after receiving the delay message from x,y should not be able to send to x more than one message in any time interval d,so that x would not have to cope with unwanted messages from y,dropping those it cannot handle.Therefore,the enforcement must be done mostly at the sender(client)side,contrary to the server-centric approach to access control.(We will see in Section3.5.3how this policy,called F C,for“?ow control,”is formulated and scalably enforced via LGI.)
Chapter3
The Basic Architecture of LGI,and its Usage
This section introduces the basic concepts of LGI,enough to support relatively simple applications,including
the examples introduced in Section2.[[preview]]<==n 3.1LGI Agents,and Communities
[[talk about LGI adress and about real name of some kind]]<==n An active entity whose interactions are regulated by an LGI law L is called an L-agent;or an LGI-agent,
when the speci?c law at hand needs not be speci?ed,or simply an agent,for short.
More speci?cally,an L-agent x is a pair A x,T x ,where A x—called the actor of this agent—is an autonomous computing process that attempts to interact with other LGI agents;and T x—called the controller
of agent x—mediates all such interactions,according to law L.The collection of all such L-agents is called
the L-community;or simply a community,when the law needs not be speci?ed.We will now discuss the various concepts introduced above in more details,illustrating them via Figure3.1.
Figure3.1:Overview
Actors:As far as LGI is concerned,an actor is a black box,viewed simply as sources of messages and targets for them,whose internal structure and behavior are unknown.So,an actor can be driven by a program,
written in an arbitrary programming language,or it may be a human,that interacts with other LGI-agents via some software interface.(Actors are represented by shaded circles in Figure3.1Whether programmed or unprogrammed,the entity that plays the role of an actor of an L-agent,can operate,concurrently,as the actor
of any number of LGI agents,possibly under different laws;it can also exchange non-LGI messages with other software entities.This is because LGI assumes exherts no control over the bahavior of actors—although
it does regulate the messages they exchange explicitly under LGI.
Controllers:These are trusted components of the LGI midleware—the distributed infrastructure that sup-ports LGI—that serve as mediators between actors interacting under LGI.For example,controller T x(see Figure3.1)mediates the interaction between actor A x and other LGI-agents.
Controller T x(“T,”for“trusted”)maintains,what we call,the control-state(or c-state,for short)of x,which is not directly accassible to actor A x.The semantics of the c-state of an agent,and its dynamic behavior,are de?ned by the law under which the agent in question operates.Typically,such a state represents
such things as the role that this agent is to play in the community,special privileges it has under this law, and various kinds of tokens it carries.We point out that although logically,each LGI-agent has its own
controller,in fact,a single physical controller can serve several agents.(For more about controllers see Section3.8.1.)@@@The LGI-address of an agent A x,T x (i.e.,its address for all LGI communication) is LN@IPA,where IPA is the IP address of the host of the controller T x,and LN is the name selected by
the actor A x when adopting this controller—which must be unique among all the agents handled by this controller1.Thus,for example,the LGI address of the regulator in our example law BC(see Section3.5.1) would be regulator@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,.The mechanism by which an actor adopts a controller, thus forming an agent is discussed in Section3.9.
We note here here an important distinction between an LGI-agent and the actor that animates it:while
the behavior of an actor A x is completely unpredictable,as far as LGI is concerned,since is assume no knowledge of it,the behavior of the L-agent x could be quite predictable,as it is forced to conform to law L.We will,nevertheless,occasinaly use the term“agent”to refer to either of them,expecting the precise meaning to be made clear by the context.
We?nally point out that an L-agent may have a null actor.This may happen,in particular,when the actor A x of agent x dies,or becomes disconnected from its controller T x.This controller can continue to operate, responding to messages it receives from other agents—re?exively,as it were,according to law L.Moreover, the original actor,or somebody familiar with its password,can reconnect to such a re?exive agent.For more about this the reader is referred to Section4.7.
3.2LGI communities
We de?ne an L-community,C L(or simply C),to be the set of all agents that operates under a given LGI law L.Consequently,there is just one such community,for any given law.Such a community is open,in the following respects.First,there is no central admission procedure into C L:anybody who knows the text of law L,or has access to it,can adopt it,thus becoming a member of this community(although the law may require some credentials,to be this adopted).Second,the membership of an L-community is indeterminate, in that it can change dynamically,and its full membership cannot,in general,be known.This situation is somewhat analogous to the community of all-French-speaking-people,because anybody who learns French, anywere,becomes the member of this community.Yet,the membership of an L community can be regulated by employing central regulators,as we have shown in[28].
Finally,note that members of different LGI communities may interoperate,subject to their respective laws;and that a member of a given L-community may interact with unregulated(non-LGI)computing pro-cesses,subject to law L(see Section4.4).Also,LGI-communities can be organized into hierarchies,as described in[1](such hierarchies are not being discussed in this version of the manual).
1As we shall see,a single physical controller can serve several agents.
3.3The Concept of Law Under LGI,and its Structure
Broadly speaking,an LGI law L governs the interactions of the members of the L-community with each
other,and(as we shall see in Section4.4)with members of other LGI-communities.A law can be sensitive to the control-state of the interacting parties,and to digital certi?cates presented by them.A law can also limit
the set of agents that can operate under it,based on the certi?cates presented by them.
The type of effects that a law may have on the community governed by it include:(a)blocking certain messages,or modifying and/or rerouting them;(b)mandating various side effects of the message-exchange,
such as modi?cation of the control-states of the sender and/or receiver of a message,and the emission of extra messages;and(c)causing agents to act sponaneously,when a previously imposed obligation comes due(see Section4.1),and without any explicit input from their actors.The general structure of such laws is discussed
in this section.
3.3.1On the Structure of Laws:
The law of a community C is de?ned over a certain types of events occurring at members of C,mandating
the effect that any such event should have—this mandate is called the ruling of the law for a given event.The events thus subject to LGI laws,called regulated events,include(among others):the sending and the arrival
of LGI-messages.
The ruling of the law for a given regulated event—which may depend on the control-state of the agent where the event occurred(called,the“home agent”)—is a sequence of what we call primitive operations.
These are operations that are carried out only if they are thus mandated by the law.The set of primitive operations of LGI include,among others,operations on the control-state of the home agent,and operations that cause messages to be forwarded and delivered.
Technically,the law of a community is a function that returns a ruling for any possible regulated event that might occur at any one of its members.The ruling returned by the law is a possibly empty sequence of
primitive operations,which is to be carried out at the home of the event in question.(By default,an empty ruling implies that the event in question has no consequences—such an event is effectively ignored.) More formally,an LGI law L is a function:
r=L(e,s),e∈E,s∈S,r∈R(3.1) where E is the set of all possible regulated events,S is the set of all possible c-states,and R is the set of all possible rulings(i.e.,all possible sequences of primitive operations).
This kind of function can be expressed in many languages.Our middleware currently provides two languages for expressing such law functions:they are somewhat restricted versions of Prolog[3],and of
Java.The Prolog-based language for writing laws is described in Section3.4.2,and is employed in most of this manual.The Java-based language is described in Section??.
3.3.2The Control-State
As we have already pointed out,the ruling of the law for an event that occurs at a given agent x may depend on what we call the control-state(or c-state,for short)of this agent,at the moment of occurance.This control state consists of three parts:
1:The CS,also called the“law-based control-state”,because its semantics(i.e.,its effect on the ruling of the law,and its dynamic behavior)is de?ned by the law at hand,having no prede?ned semantics by the LGI model itself.Structurally,the CS is a bag of Prolog like terms,each of which can be de?ned,recursively,
as follows:a term is either s or s(s1,...,s n),where s is an atomic symbol,and each s i is either an atomic symbol or a term(see[3]for more precise de?nion).
Here are some exam-ples of such terms:manager,role(manager),name(joe,smith),name(first(joe),last(smith)).As we have said,the semantics of such terms can be de?ned by the law at hand.For example,under law BC introduced in Section3.5.1we will see how the term budget(B)represent the value B of the budget of an agent,although the LGI model itself knows nothing about such terms,or about budgets,for that matter.
Finally,we point out that the CS is the most commonly used part of the c-state,and is,therfore sometimes carelessly called“control state”.
2:The DCS,also called the“distinguished control-state”.The semantics of the DCS is at least partially
pre-de?ned by the LGI model.The structure of terms in the DCS is the same as that of CS terms,but there
is a?xed,and small,set of such terms.All the terms of the DCS are listed in Section7.1.2,where their semantics is speci?ed.
3:The Context.This a set of variables available to the law,which provide information about the context
in which a given event occured.The most comminly used such variables are described below,the rest of them
are discussed in Section7.1.3.
?CS:This variable contain the current CS of the agent in question,represented as a list of terms(in
unspeci?ed order).
?DCS:This variable contain the current DCS of the agent in question,represented as a list of terms(in
unspeci?ed order).
?Msg:Contains the message being sent or received,available only during the evaluation of sent,
arrived and submitted events—where it it is meaningful.
?Peer:The peer for the current event:the recipient in the case of sent-event,and the sender in the
case of arrived event.
?Self:The name of the home agent.
?time(HH,MM,SS,MS):The local time at the home controller,HH is the hour,MM is the minute,SS
is the second and MS is the milli-second.
3.3.3Regulated Events
Every event regulated by LGI occurs at a single agent—or,more precisely,at the controller of an agent—
called the home of this event,and denoted below by h.We introduce here only three event-types,and only a
special form for each.We start with the very?rst event that occurs in the life of an agent.We then introduce
a pair of events that represent stages of the passing of an LGI-message.
A convention:Events have a name identifying them,as well as a sequence of zero or more parameters.
The symbols de?ning the parameters are of two types:(a)lower case symbols(like“par”below)would
appear as is in the event itself,and(b)capitalized symbol(like“InitArg”below)is a variable,whose
range of values is described for each event.
1.adopted(par(argList))—this is the very?rst event in the life of every agents,which occures
right after a controller has been adopted to operate on behalf of some actor,under a given law.Typi-
cally,this event is used by the law in question as an opportunity to perform some initializations.The
InitArgs parameter is a list of terms supplied by the adopting actor,to be interpreted by the adopted
controller,according to the law at hand.(The full?edged version of this event can also accept and
interpret certi?cates,as discussed in Section4.3.)[[would have to be changed a bit if we decide to go
on having just one possible signature]]<==n
2.sent(H,M,Y)—this event occures when a message M sent by the actor of agent H to agent Y arrives
at the controller T H.The sender H is the home of this event.
3.arrived(X,M,H)—this event occurs when an L-message M ostensibly sent by X,arrives at T H.The
receiver H is the home of this event.(We say“ostensibly”,since the actual sender of this message may
be other than X,as the law under LGI has the power to misrepresent the sender—which is useful in
some cases.)
3.3.4Primitive Operations
The operations that can be included in the ruling of a law for a given regulated event e—to be carried out
at the home of this event—are called primitive operations.The following is a partial list of such operations, grouped into two categories.(See Section7.3for the complete list).
1.Operations on the control-state:These operations update the CS of the home agent.They include:
?add(t),which adds the term t to the control state.(Under the Prolog-based law language this
operation has the alternative form+t.)
?remove(t),which removes a term2t,if any.(Under the Prolog-based law language this oper-
ation has the alternative form-t.)
?replace(t1,t2),which replaces term t1with term t2(it has no effect if t1does not exist).
?incr(t(v),d),which increments the value of the parameter v of a term t with quantity d(v
and d must be integers,for this operation to be valid.).
?dcr(t(v),d),which decrements the value v of a term t with some quantity d.
2.Operations that effect message exchange:
(a)forward(x,m,y)—this operation sends to controller T y an L-message m addressed to y—
where x identi?es the nominal sender of the message(“nominal”because x may have not been the
sender of this message,or may have sent a different one—recall that this operation is generated
by the law,which may be written intenionally to misrepresent reality).When a message thus
forwarded to y arrives at T y,it would trigger an arrived(x,m,y)event at it.This operations
has the following convenient abbreviation:
?forward:when this symbol appears in the ruling for a sent(x,m,y)event,it is taken as
an abbreviation for the operation forward(x,m,y).This is probably the most commonly
used format of the forward operation.
(b)deliver(x,m,y)—this operation delivers message m,ostensibly sent by x,to the actor of
agent y,which is the home of this operation.As a result of this operation,the actor of y will re-
ceive the following regular(non-LGI)message:arrived(x,m,y).The most common use of
this operation is in a ruling for event arrived(x,m,y),where operation deliver(x,m,y)
delivers the arriving message to the actor of the destination agent y.One can use the following
abbreviation in this case:
?deliver:when this symbol appears in the ruling for a arrived(x,m,y)event,it is
viewed as an abbreviation the operation deliver(x,m,y).
3.4Languages for Writing Laws
[[explain the noCare variable]]<==n [[need to explain the pros and cons of each of our languages]]As we have already pointed out,an LGI<==n law L is a function r=L(e,s)that computes a ruling r(a sequence of primitive operations)for any given
event e and control-state s.Such a function can be expressed in many languages.Our middleware currently provides two such law-languages,based on Prolog and on Java,respectively.(We sometimes refer to them simply,and inaccurately,as Prolog and Java.)
3.4.1The Prolog-Based and Java-Based Law Languages
The two law languages are functionally equivalent,and the language used for writing laws has no relation to
the language used by the actors governed by it,which can be anything.Yet,the nature of the law-language matters,for several reasons.First,although the same law,as de?ned by the function L above,can be written 2Note that a control-state is a bag of terms,so if there are two terms that match t,only one of them would be removed.Similar
“bag-semantics”applies to other operations in this community.
in either language,all members of a single community must employ the same language for their law3.Note, however,that two different communities can interoperate(see Section4.4)even if their laws are written in different languages.Second,Java yields much more ef?cient evaluation than Prolog(there is sometimes an
order of magnitute difference between the two),and it provides for more transportable controllers.[[I am looking for a different word here]]Third,the semi-declarative nature of prolog seems,to some,as more<==? suitable for writing laws than the strictly procedural Java—on the other hand,Java is familiar to many more people,which is a distinct advatage.
Prolog has been the original law-language of LGI,and in?uanced certain aspects of it,like the structure
of terms in the control-state.This law-language has been used in most past publications about LGI,and it is
being employed for most of our examples in this document as well.The Prolog law-language is described
later on in this section,the Java-based law-language is described in Section5.But we start with two common aspects of both law-languages:their preamble and their hash.
The Preamble of a Law:Each law,written in either language,consists of two parts:the preamble,which
is a set of declarations,and the body,which is a set of rules that constitute the algorithmic part of the law.
The preamble,under both languages,is a set of clauses whose structure is speci?ed in Section??.Of these,only the clause law(Name,language(L))is mandatory.The use of this,and of another type of clause is illustrated by the BC law later on.
The Hash of a Law:The LGI law-enforcement mechanism identi?es laws via the hash of their text—and
MD5hash,to be speci?c.This hash is taken of the text of the law,without its comments,and of the clauses
of the preamble,excluding the the portal clauses.(See Section??about these clauses.)
3.4.2On the Prolog-Based Law-Language
Under this language,the body of a law is de?ned by means of a Prolog-like program[3]L which,when presented with a goal e,representing a regulated-event at a given agent x,evaluates it in the context of the control-state of this agent.The program L is a sequence of rules(see Section3.5for examples)executed sequentially,top down,in an attempt to resolve a given goal e.This evaluation produces a list R of primitive-operations representing the ruling of the law for this event.(We assume that program L terminates,for every possible event.Since there are no automatic means to guarantee termination of Prolog programs,we do need
to rely on the designer of the law to ensure termination.)
We note here that we use the Bin Prolog engine to interpret our laws.And,although we allow the use
of most of built-in predicates of this Prolog,we do not allow the use of the following predicates:call, findall,assert,retract—which we consider too powerful for our need.
Now,a law can be written to examine the control-state of the home agent via the two context-variables
de?ned by the controller after the occurance of every regulated event,and just before the begining of the evaluation of the law for this event.In particular,the law can examine the context-variables CS and DCS initialized with the content of these two parts of the control-state(represented as lists of terms).This ex-amination is usually done via the built-in in?x operator’’@’’,as follows.Given any list of terms T,and
any single term t,the form t@T attempts to unify term t with each term in T.For example,under law BC,
to be introduced next,the execution of goal budget(B)@CS would match the budget term in the home control-state,binding variable B to the budget.
In addition to the standard types of Prolog goals,the body of the law may contain what we call do-goals
that have special roles to play in the interpretation of the law.A do-goal has the form do(p),where p is one
of the above primitive-operations of LGI.When this goal is executed it appends term p to the ruling of the
law.For example,the goal do(add(budget(100)))would add the speci?ed primitive to the ruling.
Now,the ruling of the law is computed as follows.The interpreter of the law maintains an auxiliary variable R that starts,at the beginning of the evaluation,as an empty list,and whose value at the conclusion
of the evaluation would become the ruling of law L for the given event e.The list R is constructed by means 3The reason for that is that the law is identi?ed by the hash of its text,and the same functional law written in different languages
would have different hashs.
of do-goals,as follows:a do-goal do(p)succeeds if the term”p”is bound to a valid form of a primitive-operation;if it succeeds then the term p is appended to the list R,as a tentative contribution of the ruling of the law(tentative,because this contribution is retractable upon backtracking.)
We will illustrate this language below via law BC displayed in Figure3.2.But before we get to the detailed discussion of this law we should point out that Figure3.2uses the publication format of laws,which differs from actual LGI laws in the following respects:(a)the publication format assigns labels,such as R1, to the various rules—no such labels exists in the actual law text;(b)the publication format has comments in italics—the actual laws has its comments within/?...?/brackets;and(c)the term“preamble”at the top of
a published law need not appear in the actual law,or can appear as a comment.
3.5Examples
We are now in a position to formalize the example policies introduced in Section2.1as enforceable LGI-laws—thus illustarting the nature and structure of laws.
3.5.1A Budgeted Consumption Law
We present in this section the formalization of policy BC,introduced in Section2.1.1,as an LGI-law BC displayed in Figure3.2,in its entirety.Under this law service requests be represented by messages of the form request(s),where s speci?es the request.The term budget(B)in the CS of an agent represents its budget B;and the term visits(V)in the CS of an agent represents represents the number V of requets sent to it.
The preamble of this particular law contains two clauses.The?rst is the clause law(bc,language(prolog)),which has two?elds:the?rst assigns the name‘‘bc’’to this law4;and the second?eld indicates that this particular law is written in Prolog.The second clause of the preamble de?nes#regulator to be an alias for‘‘regulator@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,’’,which we assume here to be the LGI-address of the distinguished agent that is to play the role of regulator under this law.
The body of this law(as of all laws written in Prolog)is a sequence of rules,constituing a Prolog program. In its published form,as in Figure4.3,each rule can be followed by a comment(in italic),which,together with the following discussion,should be understandable even for a reader not well versed in Prolog.(In the actual law such comments are written within/?...?/brackets.)Each rule deal with a speci?c type of event.
In particular,Rule R1deals with the adopted event—the?rst event in the life of every agent.The ruling computed by this rule for this event initialzes the CS of every newborn,under this law,with the terms budget(0)and visits(0),representing zero budget and zero visits,respecively.Note that this rule ignores any parameter which may have been supplied by the actor.
By Rules R2and Rule R3the distinguished regulator can add any value V to the budget of any agent y in this commuity,simply by sending it the message addToBudget(V).By Rule R2this message would be forwarded to its destination;and by Rule R3,when this message arrives at y it would cause the budget-term in the CS of y to be incremented by V.
Rules R4and R5deals with the exchange of requests.By Rule R4a request message would be forwarded to its destination only if the sender has a positive budget,and only after this budget is decremented by1.By Rule R5,the arrival of a request message at its destination y causses the visits term of Y to be decremented by1,and causes the request itself to be delivered to the actor of Y.
This pair of rules thus de?ne the semantics of the term budget(B)in the CS of an agent as providing a limit B on the number of requests that this agent can send;and the semantics of the term visits(V)in the CS of an agent,as the count of the number of requests that arrived at it.
By Rules R6and R7every agent in this community can send the message visitsReport(V)to the regulator,thus nullifying its own visits term.Clearly,the regulator can trust these reports of the number of visits of community members to be true,and perhaps?le them in some database.
Finally,we recall the convention of LGI that an event that produces an empty ruling produces no effect whatsoever.This,we believe,is a reasonable convention.But it produces the following undesirable effect: 4For an obscur technical reason,we use only non-capitalized symbols as names of laws.
P reamble:
law(bc,language(prolog)).
alias(#regulator,’regulator@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,’).
R1.adopted():-do(add(budget(0))),do(add(visits(0))).
The adopted event is the very?rst event in the life of every newly created LGI-agent.Here its only effect is to initializ the CS of every agent with the terms budget(0),and visits(0).
R2.sent(#regulator,addToBudget(D),Y):-do(forward).
An addToBudget(D)message sent by the regulator is forwarded to its destination without further ado.
R3.arrived(#regulator,addToBudget(D),Y):-do(incr(budget,D)),do(deliver).
When a message addToBudget(D),sent by regulator,arrives at Y,the budget of Y would be incre-mented by V;and the message itself is delivered to the actor of Y to inform it of the change.
R4.sent(X,request(),Y):-budget(B)@CS,B>0,
do(decr(budget,1)),do(forward).
A request()message is forwarded only if the sender has a positive balance in its budget,decreasing this
balance by one.The parametre of the request is ignored by this rules,and others in this law,but it is forwarded to its destination.
R5.arrived(X,request(),Y):-do(decr(visits,1)),do(deliver).
A request message arriving at the destination Y causs the visits term of Y to be decremented by1,and
causes the request itself to be delivered to the actor of Y.
R6.sent(X,visitsReport(V),#regulator):-visits(V)@CS,
do(decr(visits,V)),do(forward).
A visitsReport(V)message is forwarded only if the sender has a a term visits(V)in its CS,and after
this term is nulli?ed.
R7.arrived(X,visitsReport(V),#regulator):-do(deliver).
When a visitsReport(V)message arrives at the regulator it is delivered to its actor without farther ado.
R8.sent(X,M,Y):-do(deliver(Self,failedSending(M,Y))).
This rule catches all sent events that failed all other rules of this law,informing the sender that the sending has failed.Without this rule,such a sent event would be treated as noop,without giving the sender any feedback.
Figure3.2:The Budgeted Consumption Law BC
a message sent by an actor via its controller,which happen not to be satis?ed by any of the rules of the law,will be simply ignored,with no feedback to the sending actor.This could happen,for example,when the actor misspells a message,such as writing“reqast”instead of“request”.Rule R8is designed to alle-viate this problem.This rule will catch any sent-event not satis?ed by any previous rule,and will cause a failedSending(M,Y)message to be delivered back to the sending actor,where M was the sent message and Y was the target address.This is a convenient trick in many situations.
In summary,we note that the BC policy is enforced,and does not rely on the voluntary compliance of individual agents.Moreover,BC is enforced locally,at each agent,and is therefore quite scalable.But,as we have already pointed out,this law ia a bit simplistic,in a number of respects,and we will elaborate on it in Section4,while introducing various additional features of LGI.
3.5.2A Law of Layered Architecture
We present here the complete formalization of policy LA,introduced in Section2.1.2,as an LGI-law LA displayed in Figure4.3,in its entirety.The preamble of this particular law contains two clauses.The?rst is the clause law(lc),language(prolog)),which has two?elds:the?rst assigns the name‘‘lc’’to
this law5;and the second?eld indicates that this particular law is written in Prolog.The second clause of the preamble de?nes‘‘mgr to be an alias for‘‘mgr@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,’’,which we assume here to be the LGI-address of the of the distinguished agent that is to play the role of manager under this law.
In our discussion of this law we distinguish between:(a)its treatment of the assignment of agents to layeres,and(b)the constraint on communication between layers.The layered structure of the LA-community is de?ned by the term level(k)in the CS of an agent,which speci?es that this agent belongs to layer k. Now,according to Rule R2,which deals with the adopted event—the?rst event in the life of every agnet—the state of every agents in this community is initialized with the term level(0).This means that every agent in this community is placed initially in the zero layer.But,Rules R4and R5allow the manager(whose alias is“mgr”)to assign any agent to any layer k,by sending the message setLevel(k)to it.By rule R7, such a message,if sent by a mgr,would be forwarded to its destination.The arrival of such messages is governed by rule R5,which causes the unconditional change of the level of the destination agent to k.
P reamble:
law(la,language(prolog)).
alias(mgr,’mgr@https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,’).
R1.adopted(,):-do(add(level(0))).
This rules causes all newborn members of the LA-community to be initialized with the term level(0).
R2.sent(#mgr,setLevel(K),Y):-do(forward).
A message setLevel(K)sent by mgr is forwarded to its destination,without further ado.
R3.arrived(#mgr,setLevel(K),Y):-level(K1)@CS,
do(remove(level(K1)),do(add(level(K))),do(deliver).
The arrival of a message setLevel(K)at an agent would set its level to K,whatever it was before.Then,the message itself is delivered to the actor of Y,to inform it of this action.
R4.sent(X,M,Y):-level(K)@CS,do(forward(X,[K,M],Y)).
A list consisting of the level K of the sender and message M,is forwarded to Y.
R5.arrived(X,[K,M],Y):-level(K1)@CS,K2is K1+1,
K>=K1,K= The level of the sender,which arrives along with the message,is compared with the level K1of the receiver.The message M is delivered only if our layered condition is satis?ed. Figure3.3:The LA Law of Layered Arcitecture Second,the layered constraint,i.e.,point(2)of the LA policy de?ned in Section2.1.2,ie established by Rules R6and R7as follows:If an agent x sends a message m to some agent y,then,by rule R6,the message [k,m]would be forwarded to y,where k is the level of the sender.By rule R7,when this pair arrives at its y,a comparison will be made between k and the level of k1of y,and the original message m would be delivered to the actor of y only if the desired layered condition is satis?ed. Not that the layered constraint is handled here in its distributed https://www.doczj.com/doc/054318460.html,ly,it pertains to the level of the sender,at the moment of sending the message,and to the level of the destination agent,at the moment of arrival of the message.For example,suppose that agent x above is at level1,when sending its message to y. This message would be delivered to the actor of y if the level of y is1or0at the time of message arrival.It does not matter what was the level of y at the time the message has been sent,or what is the level of x at the time of its arrival. 3.5.3A Flow Control Law We present here the complete formalization of policy F C,introduced in Section??,as an LGI-law FC displayed in Figure3.4,in its entirety.Perhaps the most remarkable aspect of this law is that it provides every 5Following Prolog’s convention,we use capitalized symbols for variables only,while all constants starts with lower case letters. agent with the ability to control,from a distance,the ability of others to sent messages to it.Thus,an agent x does not have to drop messages sent to it at a higher frequency than it wants;it is the sender that is prevented from sending to x messages more frequently than speci?ed by x.The advantages of such?ow control are obvious. The preamble of this law consists only of the law clause,which speci?es the name of the law,and its language. P reamble:law(name(fc),language(prolog)). R1.sent(X,setDelay(D),Y):- msgFrom(Y)@CS,do(add(msgFrom(Y))),do(forward). An agent X that received some message from Y,as evidanced by the existance of a msgFrom(Y)term in its CS,can send to Y one setDelay(D)messages;only one because the msgFrom(Y)term is removed by this message. R2.arrived(X,setDelay(D),Y):- do(remove(delay(,X))do(add(delay(D,X)))), do(deliver). When a message setDelay(D)sent by X arrives at its destination Y,a term delay(D,X)is added to the control-state of Y(replacing an older such term,if any).Also,this message is delivered to the actor of this agent, as a noti?cation of the delay imposed on it. R3.sent(Y,M,X):- not delay(D,X)@CS,time(,,T,), do(remove(lastMsgTo(,X))),do(add(lastMsgTo(T,X))), do(forward). Messages sent by Y to X are forwarded to their destination if no delay had been imposed on Y over messages to X—but only after the current time T(in seconds)is recorded in term lastMsgTo(T,X),as the latest time a message has been sent by Y to X. R4.sent(Y,M,X):-delay(D,X)@CS,time(,,T,), lastMsgTo(Tlast,X)@CS, T>(Tlast+D), do(remove(lastMsgTo(,X))),do(add(lastMsgTo(T,X))), do(forward). If a delay is required for messages sent by Y to X,the a message from Y would be forwarded to X only if the delay condition is satis?ed;and the term lastMsgTo(T,X)will replace the previous such term. R5.arrived(Y,M,X):-do(add(msgFrom(Y))),do(deliver). Any message arriving at the destination(other than setDelay message whose arrival is handled by Rule R2) is delivered—after the term msgFrom(Y)is added to the CS of the reciever,thus allowing the reciever X to impose a new delay on Y,according to Rule R1above. Figure3.4:The Flow Control FC Law The body of this law consists of?ve rules,none of which?ts the adopted event;this means that nothing happens when this object is created,and that the initial CS of every agent in this community will be empty. We start our discussion of these rules with Rule R3,which allows any agent Y to send any message to any X,if Y does not have a term delay(D,X)in its CS—and initially nobody has such a term.The ruling of the law for the sending of such a message would be:(a)to add the term lastMsgT o(T,X)to the CS of the sender,representing the latest time T that a message has been sent by Y to X;and(b)to forward the message to its destination. The arrival of this,or any other message(other than setDelay message whose arrival is handled by Rule R2)at its destination is governed by Rule R5,whose ruling would be to(a)to add the term msgF rom(y)to the CS of the receiver,and(b)to deliver the arrived message to the actor of the receiver. Rules R1and R2deal with the sending and arrival of setDelay messages.By rule R1,any agent X can send a setDelay message to any agent Y,provided that it received some message from Y,as evidenced by the existence of a msgF rom(Y)term in its CS.And whenever a delay message is thus sent,the term msgF rom(y),which allowed it,is promptly removed,so that X would not be able to send any more delay messages to Y,until it gets another message from it.When the delay message arrives at Y it will,by rule R2, set up the term delay(D,X)in its CS,which would restrict,due to Rule R4,the frequency of messages that Y can send to X. The actual restriction of the frequency of sending messages is carried out by Rule R4,which deals with messages sent by Y to X,where the sender has the term delay(D,X)in its CS.This message would be blocked if less than D seconds passed since that last time that Y sent a message to X.If the message in question is forwarded to X,then the term lastMsgT o(T last,X)is updated with the current time.(Note that this rule deal with the sending of all but setDelay(D)messages—whose treatment by Rule R1has been discussed above.) Finally,we note that this law is somewhat simplistic,and thus a bit hard to use.The problem is that this law forces every agent to be aware aware of the existence of the various delay constraints imposed on them by their interlocutors.However,we have shown in[20]how to remove this drawback by having the controller buffer messages blocked by the delay,and then resend them at the?rst possible opportunity. 3.6The Law-Enforcement Mechanism [[talk here about the authentication of controllers,requiring a term”certi?edController”.in the cert]]<==n We start with two observations regarding the term“enforcement,”as used here.First,we do not propose to coerce anybody to exchange L-messages under any law L—such an exchange is purely voluntary.The role of enforcement here is merely to ensure that any exchange of L-messages,once undertaken,conforms to law L.Yet,an agent may be effectively compelled to exchange L-messages,and thus be subject to law L,if he/she/it wishes to use services provided only under this law. Our second observation has to do with the condition under which conformance to a law is to be ensured; or,more speci?cally,the kind of law violations that one needs to guard against.Broadly speaking,one can distinguish between two types of potential violations of a given law:(a)inadvertent violations,due to a bug in the code of an agent,say,or due to ignorance of the law—which is a typical software-engineering concern; and(b)malicious violations—which is a traditional security concern.LGI has been designed to deal with both kinds of violations,distinguishing between them only in the degree of protection one provides for the controllers that mediate all LGI interactions.We will return to this issue below. The rest of this section is organized as follows:we start by introducing controllers,which are our main enforcement tools,we then discuss the manner in which controllers mediate L-messages,and we conclude with a discussion of the assurances provided by LGI. The Controllers,and their Role:Broadly speaking,the law L of an L-community C is enforced by a set of trusted agents called controllers,that mediate the exchange of L-messages between members of the community.Every member x of C has a controller T x assigned to it,which maintains the control-state of its client x.And all these controllers,which are logically placed between the members of community C and the communications medium,carry the same law L(as illustrated in Figure3.5).This allows the controller T x assigned to x to compute the ruling of L for every event at x,and to carry out this ruling locally. Controllers are Ceneric,and can interpret and enforce any well formed law.A controller operates as an independent process,and it may be placed on the same machine as its client,or on some other machine, anywhere in the network.Under Moses(our current implementation of LGI)each controller can serve several agents,operating under possibly different laws.This facilitate various optimization techniques,discussed in Section A.3. The Moses toolkit includes a controller-server,which maintains a set of active controllers.This server can provides the address of an available controller to anybody who wishes to engage in LGI.Alternatively, an agent may use a controller on its own host,if available.[[point out that all communicating controllers must operate on the same port]]<==n 英美文学专业开题报告 引导语：各民族的文学中都有许多惊险、恐怖的故事,但似乎没有哪一种文学像英美文学那样不仅创作出数量众多、质量优秀的恐怖文学作品,而且还形成了一个持续发展、影响广泛的哥特传统。以下 是的为大家找到的英美文学专业开题报告。希望能够帮助到大家! 论文题目theApplicationandInnovation 一、选题的意义和研究现状 1.选题的目的、理论意义和现实意义长时期以来,人们视艾米莉?勃朗特为英国文学中的“斯芬克斯”。关于她本人和她的作品都有很多难解之谜,许多评论家从不同的角度、采用不同的方法去研究,得出了不同的结论,因而往往是旧谜刚解,新谜又出,解谜热潮似永无休止。 本文立足于欧美文学中的哥特传统研究《呼啸山庄》的创作源泉,指出艾米莉?勃朗特在主题、人物形象、环境刻画、意象及情节构造等方面都借鉴了哥特传统,同时凭借其超乎寻常的想象力,将现实 与超现实融为一体,给陈旧的形式注入了激烈情感、心理深度和新鲜 活力,达到了哥特形式与激情内容的完美统一,使《呼啸山庄》既超越了哥特体裁的“黑色浪漫主义”,又超越了维多利亚时代的“现实主义”,从而展现出独具一格、经久不衰的艺术魅力。 2.与选题相关的国内外研究和发展概况 各民族的文学中都有许多惊险、恐怖的故事,但似乎没有哪一种文学像英美文学那样不仅创作出数量众多、质量优秀的恐怖文学作品,而且还形成了一个持续发展、影响广泛的哥特传统 (Gothictradition)。哥特文学现在已经成为英美文学研究中的一个重要领域。对哥特文学的认真研究开始于20世纪二三十年代,到70年代以后,由于新的学术思潮和文学批评观念的影响,该研究出现了前所未有而且日趋高涨的热潮。 根据在国际互联网上的搜索,到2000年9月为止,英美等国的学者除发表了大量关于哥特文学的论文外,还至少出版专著达184部,其中1970年以后为126部,仅90年代就达59部,几乎占总数的三分之一。当然,近年来哥特文学研究的状况不仅在于研究成果迅速增加,更重要的是它在深度和广度方面都大为拓展,并且把哥特传统同英美乃至欧洲的历史、社会、文化和文学的总体发展结合起来。 二、研究方案 1.研究的基本内容及预期的结果(大纲)研究的基本内容:本文立足于欧美文学中的哥特传统研究《呼啸山庄》的创作源泉,指出艾米莉?勃朗特在主题、人物形象、环境刻画、意象及情节构造等方面都借鉴了哥特传统,同时凭借其超乎寻常的想象力,将现实与超现实融为一体,给陈旧的形式注入了激烈情感、心理深度和新鲜活力,达到了哥特形式与激情内容的完美统一,使《呼啸山庄》既超越了哥特体裁的“黑色浪漫主义”,又超越了维多利亚时代的“现实主义”,从而展现出独具一格、经久不衰的艺术魅力。 预期的结果(大纲): 1.ASurveyofGothic1.1DefinitionofGothic 1.2theOriginofGothicNovels 教育资料 《短歌行》 《短歌行》赏析(林庚) 曹操这一首《短歌行》是建安时代杰出的名作，它代表着人生的两面，一方面是人生的忧患，一方面是人生的欢乐。而所谓两面也就是人生的全面。整个的人生中自然含有一个生活的态度，这就具体地表现在成为《楚辞》与《诗经》传统的产儿。它一方面不失为《楚辞》中永恒的追求，一方面不失为一个平实的生活表现，因而也就为建安诗坛铺平了道路。 这首诗从“对酒当歌，人生几何”到“但为君故，沉吟至今”，充分表现着《楚辞》里的哀怨。一方面是人生的无常，一方面是永恒的渴望。而“呦呦鹿鸣”以下四句却是尽情的欢乐。你不晓得何以由哀怨这一端忽然会走到欢乐那一端去，转折得天衣无缝，仿佛本来就该是这么一回事似的。这才是真正的人生的感受。这一段如是，下一段也如是。“明明如月，何时可掇?忧从中来，不可断绝。越陌度阡，枉用相存。契阔谈宴，心念旧恩。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。绕树三匝，何枝可依。”缠绵的情调，把你又带回更深的哀怨中去。但“山不厌高，海不厌深”，终于走入“周公吐哺，天下归心”的结论。上下两段是一个章法，但是你并不觉得重复，你只觉得卷在悲哀与欢乐的旋涡中，不知道什么时候悲哀没有了，变成欢乐，也不知道什么时候欢乐没有了，又变成悲哀，这岂不是一个整个的人生吗?把整个的人生表现在一个刹那的感觉上，又都归于一个最实在的生活上。“我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙”，不正是当时的情景吗?“周公吐哺，天下归心”，不正是当时的信心吗? “青青子衿”到“鼓瑟吹笙”两段连贯之妙，古今无二。《诗经》中现成的句法一变而有了《楚辞》的精神，全在“沉吟至今”的点窜，那是“青青子衿”的更深的解释，《诗经》与《楚辞》因此才有了更深的默契，从《楚辞》又回到《诗经》，这样与《鹿鸣》之诗乃打成一片，这是一个完满的行程，也便是人生旅程的意义。“月明星稀”何以会变成“山不厌高，海不厌深”?几乎更不可解。莫非由于“明月出天山”，“海上生明月”吗?古辞说：“枯桑知天风，海水知天寒”，枯桑何以知天风，因为它高；海水何以知天寒，因为它深。唐人诗“一叶落知天下秋”，我们对于宇宙万有正应该有一个“知”字。然则既然是山，岂可不高?既然是海，岂可不深呢?“并刀如水，吴盐胜雪”，既是刀，就应该雪亮；既是盐，就应该雪白，那么就不必问山与海了。 山海之情，成为漫漫旅程的归宿，这不但是乌鹊南飞，且成为人生的思慕。山既尽其高，海既尽其深。人在其中乃有一颗赤子的心。孟子主尽性，因此养成他浩然之气。天下所以归心，我们乃不觉得是一个夸张。 . 英语选修7 黑体字单词abandon 遗弃，放弃abundant 丰富的 access 接近的方法通路可接近性 accompany 陪伴伴奏acknowledge 承认确认答谢adapt 使适应改编adapt to 适合 adequate 足够的充分的adjust 调整使适合 adjust to 适应调节alarm 使警觉使惊恐警报惊恐all in all 总而言之all the best（祝你）一切顺利ambition 雄心野心annoy使……不悦:烦恼 annoyed 颇为生气的annual 每年的年刊 the Antarctic 南极洲as far as one is concerned 就……而言 as well as 和，也 set aside 将……放在一边为……节省 aware意识到的 be/become aware of 对……知道明白意识到…… (be) dying to 极想渴望beneficial 有益的受益的 bound一定的密切相关的be bound to 一定做…… click （使）发出咔哒声comfort舒适，安慰 conduct 行为品行指挥contradict 反驳 day in and day out 日复一日declare 宣布声明表明 desire 渴望欲望渴求distribute 分配分发 divorce 离婚断绝关系donate 捐赠 draft 草稿drag 拖拉扯 dry out 使浸水之物完全变干dry up 干涸 favour 喜爱恩惠fit in 相适合相融合 govern 统治hear from 接到……的信 help(…)out 帮之某人摆脱困境或危难 in all 一共in many ways 在很多方面 in need 在困境中in other words换句话说 junior 较年幼的资历较浅的地位较低的 keep it up 保持成绩优秀继续干下去 leave … alone不管别惹让……一个人呆着和……单独在一起make fun of 取消meet with 遇到会晤经历 neat 好的整齐的匀称的never mind 不必担心obey 服从occupy 占用占领占据 otherwise 否则不然用别的方法 out of breath 上气不接下气 out of the question 不可能的不值得讨论 participate 参加参与pause 暂停终止recommend 推荐建议reflect 思考 relevant 有关的resign 辞去 ring up 给…..打电话scare 恐吓使恐吓 (be)scare to death 吓死了 settle in （迁入新居，更换工作后）安顿下来 2014 Final Exam Study Guide for American Literature Class Plan of Final Exam 1.Best Choice Question 10% 2.True or False Question 10% 3.Definition 10% 4.Give Brief Answers to Questions 30% 5.Critical Comments 40% American Literature Review Poe’s Poetic Ideas; Major Ideas in Emerson’s “Nature”; Whitman’s Style; Formal Features of Dickinson’s Poetry; Analysis of “Miniver Cheevy” by Edwin Arlington Robinson; Comment on “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost; Naturalistic reading of Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser; The Theme and Techniques in Eliot’s “The Waste Land”; Theme and Technique in The Great Gatsby by Fitzgerald; Comment on Hemingway’s style and theme in A Farewell to Arms; Analysis of “Dry September” by William Faulkner; Literary terms: Transcendentalism American Naturalism The Lost Generation The Jazz Age Free Verse The Iceberg Analogy 曹操《短歌行【对酒当歌】》原文、翻译、赏析译文 原文 面对美酒应该高歌，人生短促日月如梭。对酒当歌，人生几何？ 好比晨露转瞬即逝，失去的时日实在太多！譬如朝露，去日苦多。 席上歌声激昂慷慨，忧郁长久填满心窝。慨当以慷，忧思难忘。 靠什么来排解忧闷？唯有狂饮方可解脱。何以解忧？唯有杜康。 那穿着青领（周代学士的服装）的学子哟，你们令我朝夕思慕。青青子衿，悠悠我心。 正是因为你们的缘故，我一直低唱着《子衿》歌。但为君故，沉吟至今。 阳光下鹿群呦呦欢鸣，悠然自得啃食在绿坡。呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。 一旦四方贤才光临舍下，我将奏瑟吹笙宴请宾客。我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 当空悬挂的皓月哟，你运转着，永不停止；明明如月，何时可掇？ 我久蓄于怀的忧愤哟，突然喷涌而出汇成长河。忧从中来，不可断绝。 远方宾客踏着田间小路，一个个屈驾前来探望我。越陌度阡，枉用相存。 彼此久别重逢谈心宴饮，争着将往日的情谊诉说。契阔谈讌，心念旧恩。 明月升起，星星闪烁，一群寻巢乌鹊向南飞去。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。 绕树飞了三周却没敛绕树三匝，何枝 翅，哪里才有它们栖身之 所？ 可依？ 高山不辞土石才见巍 峨，大海不弃涓流才见壮阔。（比喻用人要“唯才是举”，多多益善。）山不厌高，水不厌深。 只有像周公那样礼待贤 才（周公见到贤才，吐出口 中正在咀嚼的食物，马上接 待。《史记》载周公自谓： “一沐三握发，一饭三吐哺， 犹恐失天下之贤。”），才 能使天下人心都归向我。 周公吐哺，天 赏析 曹操是汉末杰出的政治家、军事家和文学家，他雅好诗章，好作乐府歌辞，今存诗22首，全是乐府诗。曹操的乐府诗多描写他本人的政治主张和统一天下的雄心壮志。如他的《短歌行》，充分表达了诗人求贤若渴以及统一天下的壮志。 《短歌行》是政治性很强的诗作，主要是为曹操当时所实行的政治路线和政策策略服务的，但是作者将政治内容和意义完全熔铸在浓郁的抒情意境之中，全诗充分发挥了诗歌创作的特长，准确而巧妙地运用了比兴手法，寓理于情，以情感人。诗歌无论在思想内容还是在艺术上都取得了极高的成就，语言质朴，立意深远，气势充沛。这首带有建安时代"志深比长""梗概多气"的时代特色的《短歌行》，读后不觉思接千载，荡气回肠，受到强烈的感染。 对酒当歌，人生几何？ 譬如朝露，去日苦多。 慨当以慷，幽思难忘。 何以解忧，唯有杜康。 青青子衿，悠悠我心。 但为君故，沈吟至今。 呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。 我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 明明如月，何时可掇？ 忧从中来，不可断绝。 越陌度阡，枉用相存。 契阔谈，心念旧恩。 月明星稀，乌鹊南飞， 绕树三匝，何枝可依？ 山不厌高，海不厌深， 周公吐哺，天下归心。 《短歌行》是汉乐府的旧题，属于《相和歌?平调曲》。这就是说它本来是一个乐曲的名称，这种乐曲怎么唱法，现在当然是不知道了。但乐府《相和歌?平调曲》中除了《短歌行》还有《长歌行》，唐代吴兢《乐府古题要解》引证古诗“长歌正激烈”，魏文帝曹丕《燕歌行》“短歌微吟不能长”和晋代傅玄《艳歌行》“咄来长歌续短歌”等句，认为“长歌”、“短 外国文学名著鉴赏期末论文院—系：数学学院 科目：外国文学名著鉴赏（期末论文）班级： 08级数学与应用数学A班 姓名：沈铁 学号： 200805050149 上课时段：周五晚十、十一节课 奋斗了，才有出路 ——读《鲁宾逊漂游记》有感小说《鲁宾逊漂游记》一直深受人们的喜爱。读完这篇小说，使我对人生应该有自己的一个奋斗历程而受益匪浅。当一个人已经处于绝境的时候，还能够满怀信心的去面对和挑战生活，实在是一种可贵的精神。他使我认识到，人无论何时何地，不管遇到多大的困难，都不能被困难所吓倒，我们要勇敢的面对困难，克服困难，始终保持一种积极向上、乐观的心态去面对。在当今社会只有努力去奋斗，才会有自己的出路！ 其实现在的很多人都是那些遇到困难就退缩，不敢勇敢的去面对它。不仅如此，现在很多人都是独生子女，很多家长视子女为掌上明珠，不要说是冒险了，就连小小的家务活也不让孩子做，天天总是说：“我的小宝贝啊，你读好书就行了，其它的爸爸妈妈做就可以了。”读书固然重要，但生活中的小事也不能忽略。想一想，在荒无人烟的孤岛上，如果你连家务活都不会做，你能在那里生存吗？读完这部著作后，我不禁反问自己：“如果我像书中的鲁宾逊那样在大海遭到风暴，我能向他那样与风暴搏斗，最后逃离荒岛得救吗？恐怕我早已经被大海所淹没；如果我漂流到孤岛，能活几天？我又能干些什么？我会劈柴吗？会打猎做饭吗？我连洗洗自己的衣服还笨手笨脚的。”我们应该学习鲁宾逊这种不怕困难的精神，无论何时何地都有坚持地活下去，哪怕只有一线希望也要坚持到底，决不能放弃！我们要像鲁宾 逊那样有志气、有毅力、爱劳动，凭自己的双手创造财富，创造奇迹，取得最后的胜利。这样的例子在我们的生活中屡见不鲜。 《史记》的作者司马迁含冤入狱，可它依然在狱中完成《史记》一书，他之所以能完成此书，靠的也是他心中那顽强的毅力，永不放弃的不断努力的精神。著名作家爱迪生从小就生活在一个贫困的家庭中，可是他从小就表现出了科学方面的天赋。长大后爱迪生着力于电灯的发明与研究，他经过了九百多次的失败，可它依然没有放弃，不断努力，最后终于在第一千次实验中取得了成功。 鲁宾逊在岛上生活了二十八年，他面对了各种各样的困难和挫折，克服了许多常人无法想象的困难，自己动手，丰衣足食，以惊人的毅力，顽强的活了下来。他自从大船失事后，找了一些木材，在岛上盖了一间房屋，为防止野兽，还在房子周围打了木桩，来到荒岛，面对着的首要的就是吃的问题，船上的东西吃完以后，鲁宾逊开始打猎，有时可能会饿肚子，一是他决定播种，几年后他终于可以吃到自己的劳动成果，其实学习也是这样，也有这样一个循序渐进的过程，现在的社会，竞争无处不在，我们要懂得只有付出才会有收获，要勇于付出，在战胜困难的同时不断取得好成绩。要知道只有付出，才会有收获。鲁宾逊在失败后总结教训，终于成果；磨粮食没有石磨，他就用木头代替；没有筛子，就用围巾。鲁宾逊在荒岛上解决了自己的生存难题，面对人生挫折，鲁宾逊的所作所为充分显示了他坚毅的性格和顽强的精神。同样我们在学习上也可以做一些创新，养成一种创新精神，把鲁宾逊在荒岛，不畏艰险，不怕失败挫折，艰苦奋斗的精 Chapter III WEE QUESTION OF FORTUNE--FOUR-FIFTY A WEEK Once across the river and into the wholesale district, she glanced about her for some likely door at which to apply. As she contemplated the wide windows and imposing signs, she became conscious of being gazed upon and understood for what she was--a wage-seeker. She had never done this thing before, and lacked courage. To avoid a certain indefinable shame she felt at being caught spying about for a position, she quickened her steps and assumed an air of indifference supposedly common to one upon an errand. In this way she passed many manufacturing and wholesale houses without once glancing in. At last, after several blocks of walking, she felt that this would not do, and began to look about again, though without relaxing her pace. A little way on she saw a great door which, for some reason, attracted her attention. It was ornamented by a small brass sign, and seemed to be the entrance to a vast hive of six or seven floors. "Perhaps," she thought, "They may want some one," and crossed over to enter. When she came within a score of feet of the desired goal, she saw through the window a young man in a grey checked suit. That he had anything to do with the concern, she could not tell, but because he happened to be looking in her direction her weakening heart misgave her and she hurried by, too overcome with shame to enter. Over the way stood a great six- story structure, labelled Storm and King, which she viewed with rising hope. It was a wholesale dry goods concern and employed women. She could see them moving about now and then upon the upper floors. This place she decided to enter, no matter what. She crossed over and walked directly toward the entrance. As she did so, two men came out and paused in the door. A telegraph messenger in blue dashed past her and up the few steps that led to the entrance and disappeared. Several pedestrians out of the hurrying throng which filled the sidewalks passed about her as she paused, hesitating. She looked helplessly around, and then, seeing herself observed, retreated. It was too difficult a task. She could not go past them. So severe a defeat told sadly upon her nerves. Her feet carried her mechanically forward, every foot of her progress being a satisfactory portion of a flight which she gladly made. Block after block passed by. Upon streetlamps at the various corners she read names such as Madison, Monroe, La Salle, Clark, Dearborn, State, and still she went, her feet beginning to tire upon the broad stone flagging. She was pleased in part that the streets were bright and clean. The morning sun, shining down with steadily increasing warmth, made the shady side of the streets pleasantly cool. She looked at the blue sky overhead with more realisation of its charm than had ever come to her before. Her cowardice began to trouble her in a way. She turned back, resolving to hunt up Storm and King and enter. On the way, she encountered a great wholesale shoe company, through the broad plate windows of which she saw an enclosed executive 曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析 引导语：曹操(155—220)，字孟德，小名阿瞒，《短歌行 二首》 是曹操以乐府古题创作的两首诗， 第一首诗表达了作者求贤若渴的心 态，第二首诗主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心迹。 短歌行 其二 曹操 周西伯昌，怀此圣德。 三分天下，而有其二。 修奉贡献，臣节不隆。 崇侯谗之，是以拘系。 后见赦原，赐之斧钺，得使征伐。 为仲尼所称，达及德行， 犹奉事殷，论叙其美。 齐桓之功，为霸之首。 九合诸侯，一匡天下。 一匡天下，不以兵车。 正而不谲，其德传称。 孔子所叹，并称夷吾，民受其恩。 赐与庙胙，命无下拜。 小白不敢尔，天威在颜咫尺。 晋文亦霸，躬奉天王。 受赐圭瓒，钜鬯彤弓， 卢弓矢千，虎贲三百人。 威服诸侯，师之所尊。 八方闻之，名亚齐桓。 翻译 姬昌受封为西伯，具有神智和美德。殷朝土地为三份，他有其中两分。 整治贡品来进奉，不失臣子的职责。只因为崇侯进谗言，而受冤拘禁。 后因为送礼而赦免， 受赐斧钺征伐的权利。 他被孔丘称赞， 品德高尚地位显。 始终臣服殷朝帝王，美名后世流传遍。齐桓公拥周建立功业，存亡继绝为霸 首。 聚合诸侯捍卫中原，匡正天下功业千秋。号令诸侯以匡周室，主要靠的不是 武力。 行为磊落不欺诈，美德流传于身后。孔子赞美齐桓公，也称赞管仲。 百姓深受恩惠，天子赐肉与桓公，命其无拜来接受。桓公称小白不敢，天子 威严就在咫尺前。 晋文公继承来称霸，亲身尊奉周天王。周天子赏赐丰厚，仪式隆重。 接受玉器和美酒，弓矢武士三百名。晋文公声望镇诸侯，从其风者受尊重。 威名八方全传遍，名声仅次于齐桓公。佯称周王巡狩，招其天子到河阳，因 此大众议论纷纷。 赏析 《短歌行》 (“周西伯昌”)主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心 迹，当他翦灭群凶之际，功高震主之时，正所谓“君子终日乾乾，夕惕若 厉”者，但东吴孙权却瞅准时机竟上表大说天命而称臣，意在促曹操代汉 而使其失去“挟天子以令诸侯”之号召， 故曹操机敏地认识到“ 是儿欲据吾著炉上郁!”故曹操运筹谋略而赋此《短歌行 ·周西伯 昌》。 西伯姬昌在纣朝三分天下有其二的大好形势下， 犹能奉事殷纣， 故孔子盛称 “周之德， 其可谓至德也已矣。 ”但纣王亲信崇侯虎仍不免在纣王前 还要谗毁文王，并拘系于羑里。曹操举此史实，意在表明自己正在克心效法先圣 西伯姬昌，并肯定他的所作所为，谨慎惕惧，向来无愧于献帝之所赏。 并大谈西伯姬昌、齐桓公、晋文公皆曾受命“专使征伐”。而当 今天下时势与当年的西伯、齐桓、晋文之际颇相类似，天子如命他“专使 征伐”以讨不臣，乃英明之举。但他亦效西伯之德，重齐桓之功，戒晋文 之诈。然故作谦恭之辞耳，又谁知岂无更讨封赏之意乎 ?不然建安十八年(公元 213 年)五月献帝下诏曰《册魏公九锡文》，其文曰“朕闻先王并建明德， 胙之以土，分之以民，崇其宠章，备其礼物，所以藩卫王室、左右厥世也。其在 周成，管、蔡不静，惩难念功，乃使邵康公赐齐太公履，东至于海，西至于河， 南至于穆陵，北至于无棣，五侯九伯，实得征之。 世祚太师，以表东海。爰及襄王，亦有楚人不供王职，又命晋文登为侯伯， 锡以二辂、虎贲、斧钺、禾巨 鬯、弓矢，大启南阳，世作盟主。故周室之不坏， 系二国是赖。”又“今以冀州之河东、河内、魏郡、赵国、中山、常 山，巨鹿、安平、甘陵、平原凡十郡，封君为魏公。锡君玄土，苴以白茅，爰契 尔龟。”又“加君九锡，其敬听朕命。” 观汉献帝下诏《册魏公九锡文》全篇，尽叙其功，以为其功高于伊、周，而 其奖却低于齐、晋，故赐爵赐土，又加九锡，奖励空前。但曹操被奖愈高，心内 愈忧。故曹操在曾早在五十六岁写的《让县自明本志令》中谓“或者人见 孤强盛， 又性不信天命之事， 恐私心相评， 言有不逊之志， 妄相忖度， 每用耿耿。 （一）文学常识 一、古希腊罗马 1．（1）宙斯(罗马神话称为朱庇特)，希腊神话中最高的天神，掌管雷电云雨，是人和神的主宰。 （2）阿波罗，希腊神话中宙斯的儿子，主管光明、青春、音乐、诗歌等，常以手持弓箭的少年形象出现。 （3）雅典那，希腊神话中的智慧女神，雅典城邦的保护神。 （4）潘多拉，希腊神话中的第一个女人，貌美性诈。私自打开了宙斯送她的一只盒子，里面装的疾病、疯狂、罪恶、嫉妒等祸患，一齐飞出，只有希望留在盒底，人间因此充满灾难。“潘多拉的盒子”成为“祸灾的来源”的同义语。 （5）普罗米修斯，希腊神话中造福人间的神。盗取天火带到人间，并传授给人类多种手艺，触怒宙斯，被锁在高加索山崖，受神鹰啄食，是一个反抗强暴、不惜为人类牺牲一切的英雄。 （6）斯芬克司，希腊神话中的狮身女怪。常叫过路行人猜谜，猜不出即将行人杀害；后因谜底被俄底浦斯道破，即自杀。后常喻“谜”一样的人物。与埃及狮身人面像同名。 2．荷马，古希腊盲诗人。主要作品有《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被称为荷马史诗。《伊利亚特》叙述十年特洛伊战争。《奥德赛》写特洛伊战争结束后，希腊英雄奥德赛历险回乡的故事。马克思称赞它“显示出永久的魅力”。 3．埃斯库罗斯，古希腊悲剧之父，代表作《被缚的普罗米修斯》。6．阿里斯托芬，古希腊“喜剧之父”代表作《阿卡奈人》。 4．索福克勒斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《俄狄浦斯王》。5．欧里庇得斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《美狄亚》。 二、中世纪文学 但丁，意大利人，伟大诗人，文艺复兴的先驱。恩格斯称他是“中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。主要作品有叙事长诗《神曲》，由地狱、炼狱、天堂三部分组成。《神曲》以幻想形式，写但丁迷路，被人导引神游三界。在地狱中见到贪官污吏等受着惩罚，在净界中见到贪色贪财等较轻罪人，在天堂里见到殉道者等高贵的灵魂。 三、文艺复兴时期 1．薄迦丘意大利人短篇小说家，著有《十日谈》拉伯雷，法国人，著《巨人传》塞万提斯，西班牙人,著《堂?吉诃德》。 2．莎士比亚，16-17世纪文艺复兴时期英国伟大的剧作家和诗人，主要作品有四大悲剧——《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》《麦克白》、《李尔王》，另有悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等，喜剧有《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》等，历史剧有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》等。马克思称之为“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”。 四、17世纪古典主义 9．笛福，17-18世纪英国著名小说家，被誉为“英国和欧洲小说之父”，主要作品《鲁滨逊漂流记》，是英国第一部现实主义长篇小说。10．弥尔顿，17世纪英国诗人，代表作：长诗《失乐园》，《失乐园》，表现了资产阶级清教徒的革命理想和英雄气概。 25．拉伯雷，16世纪法国作家，代表作：长篇小说《巨人传》。 26．莫里哀，法国17世纪古典主义文学最重要的作家，法国古典主义喜剧的创建者，主要作品为《伪君子》《悭吝人》（主人公叫阿巴公）等喜剧。 五、18世纪启蒙运动 1）歌德，德国文学最高成就的代表者。主要作品有书信体小说《少年维特之烦恼》，诗剧《浮士德》。 11．斯威夫特，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《格列佛游记》，以荒诞的情节讽刺了英国现实。 12．亨利·菲尔丁，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《汤姆·琼斯》。 六、19世纪浪漫主义 （1拜伦， 19世纪初期英国伟大的浪漫主义诗人，代表作为诗体小说《唐璜》通过青年贵族唐璜的种种经历，抨击欧洲反动的封建势力。《恰尔德。哈洛尔游记》 （2雨果，伟大作家，欧洲19世纪浪漫主义文学最卓越的代表。主要作品有长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》、《悲惨世界》、《笑面人》、《九三年》等。《悲惨世界》写的是失业短工冉阿让因偷吃一片面包被抓进监狱，后改名换姓，当上企业主和市长，但终不能摆脱迫害的故事。《巴黎圣母院》 弃儿伽西莫多，在一个偶然的场合被副主教克洛德.孚罗洛收养为义子，长大后有让他当上了巴黎圣母院的敲钟人。他虽然十分丑陋而且有多种残疾，心灵却异常高尚纯洁。 长年流浪街头的波希米亚姑娘拉.爱斯梅拉达，能歌善舞，天真貌美而心地淳厚。青年贫诗人尔比埃尔.甘果瓦偶然同她相遇，并在一个更偶然的场合成了她名义上的丈夫。很有名望的副教主本来一向专心于"圣职"，忽然有一天欣赏到波希米亚姑娘的歌舞，忧千方百计要把她据为己有，对她进行了种种威胁甚至陷害，同时还为此不惜玩弄卑鄙手段，去欺骗利用他的义子伽西莫多和学生甘果瓦。眼看无论如何也实现不了占有爱斯梅拉达的罪恶企图，最后竟亲手把那可爱的少女送上了绞刑架。 另一方面，伽西莫多私下也爱慕着波希米亚姑娘。她遭到陷害，被伽西莫多巧计救出，在圣母院一间密室里避难，敲钟人用十分纯朴和真诚的感情去安慰她，保护她。当她再次处于危急中时，敲钟人为了援助她，表现出非凡的英勇和机智。而当他无意中发现自己的"义父"和"恩人"远望着高挂在绞刑架上的波希米亚姑娘而发出恶魔般的狞笑时，伽西莫多立即对那个伪善者下了最后的判决，亲手把克洛德.孚罗洛从高耸入云的钟塔上推下，使他摔的粉身碎骨。 （3司汤达，批判现实主义作家。代表作《红与黑》，写的是不满封建制度的平民青年于连，千方百计向上爬，最终被送上断头台的故事。“红”是将军服色，指“入军界”的道路；“黑”是主教服色，指当神父、主教的道路。 14．雪莱，19世纪积极浪漫主义诗人，欧洲文学史上最早歌颂空想社会主义的诗人之一，主要作品为诗剧《解放了的普罗米修斯》，抒情诗《西风颂》等。 15．托马斯·哈代，19世纪英国作家，代表作：长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》。 16．萨克雷，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《名利场》 17．盖斯凯尔夫人，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《玛丽·巴顿》。 18．夏洛蒂?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，代表作：长篇小说《简?爱》19艾米丽?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，夏洛蒂?勃朗特之妹，代表作：长篇小说《呼啸山庄》。 20．狄更斯，19世纪英国批判现实主义文学的重要代表，主要作品为长篇小说《大卫?科波菲尔》、《艰难时世》《双城记》《雾都孤儿》。21．柯南道尔，19世纪英国著名侦探小说家，代表作品侦探小说集《福尔摩斯探案》是世界上最著名的侦探小说。 七、19世纪现实主义 1、巴尔扎克，19世纪上半叶法国和欧洲批判现实主义文学的杰出代表。主要作品有《人间喜剧》，包括《高老头》、《欧也妮·葛朗台》、《贝姨》、《邦斯舅舅》等。《人间喜剧》是世界文学中规模最宏伟的创作之一，也是人类思维劳动最辉煌的成果之一。马克思称其“提供了一部法国社会特别是巴黎上流社会的卓越的现实主义历史”。 关于毕业设计说明书（论文）英文文献及中文翻译撰写格式 为提高我校毕业生毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）的撰写质量，做到毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）在内容和格式上的统一和规范，特规定如下: 一、装订顺序 论文（设计说明书）英文文献及中文翻译内容一般应由3个部分组成，严格按以下顺序装订。 1、封面 2、中文翻译 3、英文文献（原文） 二、书写格式要求 1、毕业设计（论文）英文文献及中文翻译分毕业设计说明书英文文献及中文翻译和毕业论文英文文献及中文翻译两种，所有出现相关字样之处请根据具体情况选择“毕业设计说明书” 或“毕业论文”字样。 2、毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）英文文献及中文翻译中的中文翻译用Word 软件编辑，英文文献用原文，一律打印在A4幅面白纸上，单面打印。 3、毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）英文文献及中文翻译的上边距:30mm；下边距:25mm；左边距:3Omm；右边距:2Omm；行间距1.5倍行距。 4、中文翻译页眉的文字为“中北大学2019届毕业设计说明书” 或“中北大学××××届毕业论文”，用小四号黑体字，页眉线的上边距为25mm；页脚的下边距为18mm。 5、中文翻译正文用小四号宋体，每章的大标题用小三号黑体，加粗，留出上下间距为：段前0.5行，段后0.5行；二级标题用小四号黑体，加粗；其余小标题用小四号黑体，不加粗。 6、文中的图、表、附注、公式一律采用阿拉伯数字分章编号。如图1.2，表2.3，附注3.2或式4.3。 7、图表应认真设计和绘制,不得徒手勾画。表格与插图中的文字一律用5号宋体。 每一插图和表格应有明确简短的图表名，图名置于图之下，表名置于表之上，图表号与图表名之间空一格。插图和表格应安排在正文中第一次提及该图表的文字的下方。当插图或表格不能安排在该页时，应安排在该页的下一页。 图表居中放置，表尽量采用三线表。每个表应尽量放在一页内，如有困难，要加“续表X.X”字样，并有标题栏。 图、表中若有附注时，附注各项的序号一律用阿拉伯数字加圆括号顺序排，如:注①。附注写在图、表的下方。 文中公式的编号用圆括号括起写在右边行末顶格，其间不加虚线。 8、文中所用的物理量和单位及符号一律采用国家标准，可参见国家标准《量和单位》(GB3100~3102-93)。 9、文中章节编号可参照《中华人民共和国国家标准文献著录总则》。 目的。笔者曾进行了这方面的一个实验；对乐理、视唱程度相当的Ａ、Ｂ两个班，在讲小调式时，Ａ班此时视唱只唱小调式作品，边唱边分析；Ｂ班只在乐理课上选一些典型作品作简单分析，而视唱课对小调作品概不介绍，结果发现Ａ班大部分同学对小调式的特点掌握清晰、分析作品透彻，而Ｂ班多数同学对小调式作品的分析仍感糊涂。 （二）乐理和视唱由同一老师任教，选用乐理与视唱进度相当、联系密切的教材。 两门课由同一老师任教，这样就使老师对两门课的进度有更好的把握，从而做到在教学内容上的衔接，使乐理教学与视唱教学融为一体。现在有些院校已开始了这方面的尝试，如河南的黄河科技学院，商丘师院等。据笔者了解，由同一个老师任教班级学生的乐理视唱学习效果明显好于非同一教师任教的班级。 教材的选择对教学影响极大，原来的视唱教材极少有乐理内容，而乐理教材中的谱例也不多。目前新的教材已改变了这种状况，现在视唱教材中有了很好的理论知识讲授，如许敬行、孙虹编著，高教出版社出版的《视唱练习》。乐理教材有了更多的谱例，如贾方爵编著、 西南师大出版社出版的《基本乐理》。选用此种联系密切的教材， 教师在教学的过程中更易做到理论联系实际，学生在自学时也更易理解。 （三）加强乐理、视唱教学与其他科目的横向联系 音乐中的许多课程，如欣赏、民族民间音乐、合唱、音乐史等的学习对学生综合专业素质的提高有很大帮助，对它们的学习与对乐理和视唱的学习又能达到互相促进的目的。在乐理学教学中，学生最易迷惑的就是调式调性的判断，而进行调式判断时首先要靠听觉分辨作品的五声性和西方性。但如何能够分辨其是五声性作品还是西方调式体系作品，靠的是学生对音乐的基本鉴赏力。这就要求学生平时在欣赏课上要认真去听、去辨别，而欣赏老师也应该对不同体裁的音乐作品进行详细的讲解，并引导学生去辨别。经过这样长期的训练，学生对于不同地域、不同风格的音乐作品都有了了解和掌握，辨别调式的问题自然迎刃而解。同样，民族民间课程的学习对于学生了解和掌握各民族的音乐风格、特点起重要作用。经过同学们对民歌、戏曲等曲型片断的实际训练，在视唱这些有特点的作品时，其音乐风格的把握就会更好一些，因律制原因产生的音准问题也会大大减少，学生对民族风格的视唱会唱得更有味，把握得更准确。在这方面，如果乐理和视唱课需要，可会同其他科目的教师对教学进度、教学内容作一些适当的调整，使之与乐理、视唱教学相适应。如有必要，也可请这方面的专家，就某一问题进行一次讲座，以加深同学们对某些问题的理解。教师亦可有目的地向学生介绍一些此方面的书籍，让学生去阅读；介绍一些音响资料，让学生有目的地听，从而拓宽学生的知识面，进而更好地学习和掌握乐理和视唱。 总之，视唱与乐理相结合并密切联系相关科目的教学方法，不仅可以使学生增加对音乐理论的感性认识，加强视唱时的理论指导，更增加了视唱课的趣味性，使乐理不再枯燥，视唱课不再单调。 当然，加强乐理、视唱与其他科目教学的联系并不是说这些课程什么地方都可以互融。有些乐理知识如音律很难让学生唱出来。但这并不能否认加强视唱、乐理与其他学科教学联系的必要性。 作者简介：刘建坤，商丘师范学院音乐系教师。 一、美国自然主义的产生 内战之后，美国处于一段相对和平的时期，资本主义经济蓬勃发展。然而，在经济发展的背后，人们却普遍产生了一种悲观情绪，传统的理想主义被抛弃，宇宙的在规律性和机械性中蕴涵的漠然性使其变成了人类的敌人，至少已经不是人类慈祥的朋友。斯蒂芬?克莱恩（Ｓｔｅｐｈｅｎ Ｃｒａｎｅ（１８７１－１９００））的一首小诗Ｇｏｄ ｉｓ ｃｏｌｄ［１］ 便生动地反映了这种状况： 一个人对宇宙说：／“阁下，我存在的！”／“不过，”传来宇宙的回答，／“你的存在虽是事实，却／并没有使我产生义务感。” 对这一思潮起决定性作用的是达尔文的进化论（Ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｏｆ Ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ）。达尔文认为：影响生物进化的因素有三种，即：自然选择、性的选择及个体有生之期获得特性的遗传。进化论的诞生，是对传统神学及理想主义神学的全盘否定，它取消了上帝设计师和创造者的地位，进而强调人类产生过程的机械性，以及人类进化过程的因果循环性。受其影响，悲观、忧郁的新自然哲学应运而生。新自然哲学指出，自然是一座对人类遭遇无动于衷的庞大机器，人类在自然中必然要为生存而相互竞争，而且，部分人的毁灭是人类进步中不可避免的现象。 悲观的新自然哲学在文学中的反映就是产生悲观宿命的自然主义文学。英国哲学家赫伯特?斯宾塞（ＨｅｒｂｅｒｔＳｐｅｎｃｅｒ）的“社会达尔文主义” （Ｓｏｃｉａｌ Ｄａｒｗｉｎｉｓｍ）以及美国内战后的社会状况，对自然主义在美国的产生和发展起了极大的作用。当时的主要作家往往把人置于庞大的自然和社会背景中，从而显示其渺小、脆弱以及无可奈何。 ＂生存＂是人类活动的最高目标，道德规范对于实际生活已经毫无意义。 在美国自然主义文学中，最为突出的代表是西奥多?德莱塞。 二、德莱塞在美国文学史上的地位 西奥多?德莱塞 ［Ｔｈｅｏｄｏｒｅ Ｄｒｅｉｓｅｒ （１８７１－１９４５）］是美国现代小说的先驱和代表作家，被认为是同海明威、福《嘉莉妹妹》是美国自然主义文学大师西奥多?德莱塞的处女作和成名作。自然主义在书中 主要表现为作者对失败者的深刻同情。 《嘉莉妹妹》中 自然主义赏析 文／姚晓鸣 编辑：冯彬彬 69 美与时代 ２００３．１１下 题目：浅析从简爱到女性的尊严和爱 学院工商学院 专业新闻学3 学号 姓名闫万里 学科外国文学名着赏析 [摘要] 十九世纪中期，英国伟大的女性存在主义先驱，着名作家夏洛蒂勃朗特创作出了她的代表作--《简爱》，当时轰动了整个文坛,它是一部具有浓厚浪漫主义色彩的现实主义小说，被认为是作者"诗意的生平"的写照。它在问世后的一百多年里，它始终保持着历史不败的艺术感染力。直到现在它的影响还继续存在。在作品的序幕、发展、高潮和结尾中，女主人公的叛逆、自由、平等、自尊、纯洁的个性都是各个重点章节的主旨，而这些主旨则在女主人公的爱情观中被展露的淋漓尽致，它们如同乌云上方的星汉，灼灼闪耀着光芒，照亮着后来的女性者们追求爱情的道路。? [关键词] 自尊个性独特新女性主义自由独立平等 《简爱》是一部带有自转色彩的长篇小说，它阐释了这样一个主题：人的价值=尊严+爱。从小就成长在一个充满暴力的环境中的简爱，经历了同龄人没有的遭遇。她要面对的是舅妈的毫无人性的虐待，表兄的凶暴专横和表姐的傲慢冷漠，尽管她尽力想“竭力赢得别人的好感”，但是事实告诉她这都是白费力气的，因此她发出了“不公平啊！--不公平！”的近乎绝望的呼喊。不公平的生长环境，使得简爱从小就向往平等、自由和爱，这些愿望在她后来的成长过程中表现无疑， 譬如在她的爱情观中的种种体现。? 1.桑菲尔德府? 谭波儿小姐因为出嫁，离开了洛伍德学校，同时也离开了简爱，这使简爱感觉到了“一种稳定的感觉，一切使我觉得洛伍德学校有点像我家的联想，全都随着她消失了”，她意识到：真正的世界是广阔的，一个充满希望和忧虑、激动和兴奋的变化纷呈的天地，正等待着敢于闯入、甘冒风险寻求人生真谛的人们。意识形态的转变促使着简爱走向更广阔的社会，接受社会的挑战，尽管她才只有十八岁。于是，简爱来到了桑菲尔德府，当了一名在当时地位不高的家庭教师。?桑菲尔德府使简爱感受到“这儿有想象中的完美无缺的家庭安乐气氛”，事实证明了她的预感的正确性，。从和简爱相见、相识到相爱的过程当中，简爱的那种叛逆精神、自强自尊的品质深深地征服了罗切斯特，而罗切斯特的优雅风度和渊博知识同样也征服了简爱。最初开始，简爱一直以为罗切斯特会娶高贵漂亮的英格拉姆为妻，她在和罗切斯特谈到婚姻时，曾经义正言辞的对罗切斯特说：“你以为因为我穷，低微，不美，矮小，就没有灵魂了吗？你想错了！我跟你一样有灵魂—也同样有一颗心！我现在不是凭着肉体凡胎跟你说话，而是我的心灵在和你的心灵说话，就好像我们都已经离开人世，两人平等地站在上帝面前—因为我们本来就是平等的。”这充分表现出简爱的叛逆，她这种维护妇女独立人格、主张婚姻独立自主以及男女平等的主张可以看成是他对整个人类社会自由平等的向往追求，罗切斯特正是爱上了她这样的独特个性，同时他也同样重复道：我们本来就是平等的。罗切斯特自始自终爱的是简爱的心灵—有着意志的力量，美德和纯洁的心灵，正是基于如此，简爱才真正的爱着罗切斯特。因为爱情是来不得半点虚假的，一方为另一方付出了真情的爱，假如得到对方的是虚情假意，那么这份爱英美文学专业开题报告
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