Unit 1. General Introduction to Professional Paper Writing
1. Classification of Professional Papers
A professional paper is a formal printed document in which professionals present their views and
research findings on any deliberately chosen topic.
1) Report Paper
The report paper summarizes and reports the findings of author(s) on a particular subject. The author(s) may not give his/their own opinion on the issue, nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them ins sensible sequence.
2)Research Paper
A research paper can be intelligent, well-informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions. It draws its material from many sources. Its aim is to assemble facts and ideas and by studying then to draw new conclusions as to facts or interpretations, or to present the material in the light of a new interest.
Research papers are or can be the most important and reliable sources for textbooks, monographs, and all other documentary works.
3) Course Paper
Different from the report paper and research paper, a course paper mainly refers to the paper written after a specific course is learned or at the end of the term. So its contents usually should be in line with the course requirements and under the instruction of the course instructor. Since this type of paper is always written and handed in at the end of the term , it is also called ―term paper‖.
4) Thesis Paper (Dissertation论述)
A thesis paper is usually written and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MA or MS (or Ph.D) in a specific discipline.Unlike a report paper, a thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that the writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. Writing a thesis paper requires the writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not.
2.General Characteristics of English Academic Writing Style
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions（扯开，离题）or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. Accordingly, academic writing is structured, formal and objective. Its language is often abstract and complex.
There are eight main features that are often discussed to represent the style of academic writing: complex, formal, objective, explicit, accurate, hedged, responsible and making reference to other writers’work. It uses language precisely and accurately.（详见讲义）
3. Ways of Preparing Professional Papers
1) Searching for good ideas 2) Finding Topics 3）Considering Audience Purpose
4) Moving from Brainstorming to Drafting 5) Editing and Refining
Unit 2. Title, Author/Affiliation and Keywords
2.1. Titles
2.1.1. General functions
A. Generalizing the Text
A title should summarize the central idea of the paper concisely and correctly. By glancing at the title, the reader will immediately know, incorporating with the abstract, what is mainly dealt with in the paper.
B. Attracting the Reader
If a title is accurate, concise and distinct, it will attract readers a lot（draw particular attention among professionals,）and stimulate readers to read the whole text.
C. Facilitating the Retrieval
A title usually provides leads for the international information retrieval organizations to choose the appropriate keywords contained in it when they organize index and secondary documents.
2.1.2 Linguistic Features
A. Using More Nouns, Noun Phrases and Gerunds（having the ability to sum up the whole text）
B. Using Incomplete Sentences
A title is just a label of appellation of the paper, reflecting the main idea of the content, A complete
declarative sentence usually makes a title containing determining implication. Meanwhile, it appears lacking brevity and clarity.
2.1.3 Writing Requirements
A. ABC Principles for Titles
Accuracy means that a title can appropriately express and fit in the reality of the paper. Brevity asks the writer to summarize the necessary content with the most limited words. Clarity means a title should clearly reflect the distinguishing features of the paper.
B. Being Brief and Concise
Generally, a title is composed of no more than twenty words. If a title is too long, it will be difficult for readers to catch the meaning of the content and remember it. If the writer fails to state his idea clearly in a few words, he can use a subtitle（副题）. Too short a title, sometimes, may bring about confusion.
C. Being Specific
In preparing the title of a paper, a general and abstract title should be avoided.
D. Avoiding Question Titles
A question title means a complete sentence in the question form. Such titles are usually not used in an academic paper (especially in natural sciences), because they always include some redundant（多余的）question words and marks What is worse, such a title creates inconvenience for information retrieval.
E. Being Unified
The parallel parts of a title should be grammatically symmetrical. That is to say, nouns should be matched with nouns, gerunds with gerunds, etc. In general, nouns and gerunds should not be mixed in a given title.
F. Being Standard
In general, nonstandard abbreviations and symbols and/or any terms or phraseology intelligible only to the specialist should be avoided, because the use of them could be very unfavorable to efficient information retrieval.
2. 3. Keywords
Keywords are the identification for science and technology research papers to be retrieved as documents. Keywords, the same with abstract, are a part of a research paper, but not the part of the main body of the paper.
2.2.1 General Functions
A. Easiness of Retrieval
B. Easiness of Highlighting
2.2.2 Linguistic Features
A. Nominalization
Keywords are usually used in the form of nouns, not verbs. For example, ―investigation‖ is used instead of ―investigate‖; ―educate‖ ought to be replaced by ―education.‖
B. Limited Number
The number of the keywords for a paper should be limited. Four to six keywords are the average. In general, there should be at least 2 and at most 8.
C. Designated Choice
2.2.3 Writing Requirements
A. Using Required Terms
B. Placing in Right Location
Though keywords can be either above or below the abstract of a paper, in most cases, placed below the abstract.
C. Spacing the Keywords
D. Adopting Standard Abbreviations, etc.（Standard abbreviations are preferred in the section of keywords. ）
Unit 3. Abstract
1. Definition of Abstract
An abstract is a brief and self-contained summary and an accurate representation of the contents of a document such as a research paper, a journal article, thesis, review, conference
proceeding, and other academic documents. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective
readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work of their projects.
2. When are abstracts used?
You may write abstracts for various purposes. There are many places where abstracts are used. People write abstracts when:
Submitting papers or articles to journals
Applying for research grants
Completing the Ph.D dissertation or M.A. thesis
Writing a proposal for conference paper
Indexing bibliographically as library reference tools
Writing a book proposal.
3. General Functions of an Abstract
The function of the abstract of a scientific paper is to provide an overview of the paper so that readers can understand the main ideas and identify the basic content of the work without reading the paper in its entirety. Since the abstract is the only part of larger work most readers will see, it should present the core of the paper also for the record in databases and secondary collections.
There are two most important purposes or functions the abstract should serve: selection and indexing.
3.1. Selection
The primary purpose of an abstract is to facilitate a selection of documents. Abstract enable readers who may be interested in the larger work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it .Readers can grasp the main story and the essential points of the document without reading the whole text of the document. Abstracts thus, together with index, speed up the process of selection and save time.
3.2. Indexing
Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Many online databases use abstracts to index larger works.
4. Classification of Abstracts (Types of Abstract)
4.1 Indicative (or descriptive abstracts) abstracts
This type of abstract simply describes the kinds of information in a document, but it does not provide the information itself in detail. It does not provide any material contents of the documents, such as results or conclusions of the research. Indicative abstracts are usually used in review articles, conference reports, government reports, library bibliographies, etc. They are usually very short----no more than 150 words.
4.2. Informative abstracts
An informative abstract summarizes as much as the essential elements of the document as possible, presenting and explaining all the main material contents in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes not only the information that can be found in an indicative abstract (purpose, scope, and methods), but also the important findings and conclusions of the research.The majority of abstracts are informative.
4.3. Indicative / informative abstracts (综合性)
It presents a summary of the essential arguments and findings of the original, whilst those aspects of the document that is of minor significance are treated indicatively.
4.4. Author abstracts 4.
5. Slanted abstract 4.
6. Telegraphic abstract
4.7 Mini-abstracts
A mini-abstract is just an extension of the title, brief and easy to write.
4.8 Mission-oriented abstract 4.9 Finding-oriented abstract
A finding-oriented abstract is also similar to a slanted abstract. However, their differences lie in the fact that the finding-oriented abstract focuses more on the investigation and results of the experiment, whereas the slanted abstract caters more for the special interest of a particular group of readers.
4.10 Highlight abstract
The purpose of this kind of abstract is to hook the reader’s attention on one particular article with some highlight of the work. A hight abstract does not appear alone elsewhere. It is always placed before the article and has to go together with the article.
5. Basic Components of the abstract:
Background: State briefly the topic and scope of the study
Purpose /Objective/ Aim: Define the research questions to be addressed（What I want to do?）Approach/Procedures /Methods/Design (How I did it?): Provide an overview of the research design, methods of data collection, and analysis.
Results / Findings: Summarize the key findings in the course of work
Conclusions/Implications:State the key conclusions and practical implications based the findings. (What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?).
Originality (What is new and original in this paper).
6. “5 Steps” for Abstract Writing
6.1 Underlining Key Words and Sentences
6.2 Listing Essential Points of the Paper
6.3Boiling down Each Section to a Sentence or Two
6.4Drafting the Abstract
6.5 Checking the Final Draft
2. ―5A Strategy‖
Q1: What is the general knowledge of your topic in the academic field?
Q2: What research topic is the paper to focus on?
Q3: What method or material do you use to support your main point of view?
Q4: What conclusion will you draw?
Q5: What is the main contribution of the paper?
Abstract = Al + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
7. Likely Mistakes/Common Errors
7.1 Mixed Writing Style
This type of writing, which is characterized by using written language, is different from writings in the colloquial style.
7.2 Over-simplified Statements
Though short and concise, an abstract should not be too simple. (too general and global)
7.3 Monotonous(adj. 单调的，无抑扬顿挫的；无变化的) Expression
In writing an abstract, variety in the form is desired: with passive and active voices, changing of verbs and phrases, and others. Lack of variety may lead to monotonous expression.
(above abstract are in passive form. The verb ―give‖ even appears twice in such a short passage. the reader may get misled by the author’s writing skills, no matter how professional t he subject matter is.),(no passive voice can be found at all)
7.4 Incomplete Contents
(Glancing at the above abstract, we may have an impression on it as follows:First, in accordance with the requirements of abstract writing, the content of an abstract should be integrated or unified. But this abstract does not inform the readers of any result of the research.Second, in terms of structure, the topic sentence of the abstract seems rather indistinctive, which creates difficulty for the reader to decide what the main objective of the paper is.Third, the verb forms and sentence patterns used in it seem to be monotonous. All the four sentences in the abstract are in passive form.Finally, some expressions in the abstract remain to be improved grammatically.
7.5 Displacement of Information
The above abstract can be regarded as a poor version. The whole abstract consists of five sentences, four of which are used to present merely background information and general professional knowledge. Thus the abstract does not provide any essential information or data that should be provided in an abstract. Only the last sentence seems meaningful for an abstract.
Unit 4. Introduction
1. General Functions of Introduction
1.1 Introducing the Subject
When retrieving information, a reader always first skims the title, the abstract and the introduction of a paper to determine whether or not the document is worth reading.
1.2 Limiting the Research Scope
Only when an introduction clearly defines the limits of the research scope can readers retrieve the information efficiently provided that the subject is introduced correctly.
1.3 Stating the General Purpose
Stating the general purpose is aimed at telling the reader why to where to start or where to guide.
1.4 Showing the Writing Arrangement
2. Structural Features of Introduction
2.1 Starting with the Research Background
The research background is usually given in the section of introduction accompanied by the recent development in this field. ―What have been done?‖ The best way to presen t this information depends on what the reader already knows. It may or may not be necessary to include historical background, definition of certain terms, data.( The previous work on... has indicated that... Over the past several decades.... )
2.2 Transiting to the Existing Problem
Authors usually transit to the main problems to be discussed or weak points remaining in the previous work to be further studied and/or improved. ―What have not been done?‖ The existing problems or weak points of such nature may be something that has not yet been found before, the methods that have not been adopted so far, materials that have not yet been discovered in the past, and/or the factors that were previously ignored, and so on.
●Great progress has been made in this field, but (however, nevertheless, etc.)...
● A part of the explanation could lie in... However ....
2.3 Focusing on the Present Research
On the basis of reviewing the previous research, especially unfolding or displaying the weak points of the previous work to be overcome or existing problems to be solved, the author may gradually and naturally turn the reader’s attention to the present research, by stating his primary research objectives, novel ideas, advanced methods, new materials, fresh factors, etc. That is to answer the question: ―What I am going to do?‖
●In this paper .... is investigated (studied, discussed, presented, etc.)
●On the basis of existing literature data, we carried out studies in an effort to...
Unit Five Literature Review
1. Integration and Case Building
1.1 the skills to do a thorough review
A variety of skills and knowledge are required to do a thorough review. First, you need knowledge about the structure and function of an integrative review. Next, critical thinking skills are required to not only simply review literature but also understand and discuss the literature. Finally, integrative writing skills are required to establish a cogent rationale to build a case for the importance of your unique study that builds on the previous literature in a logical way.
1.2 the definition of literature review
Review articles are critical evaluations of material that has already been published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published material, the author of a review article considers the progress of current research toward clarifying a problem. In a sense, a review article is tutorial in that the author (a) defines and clarifies the problem; (b) summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research; (c) identifies relations, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature; and (d) suggests the next step or steps in solving the problem.
2. Structural Elements In Writing A Literature Review
A literature-review chapter requires a number of structural elements, which help guide the
reader from one sentence and paragraph to the next in a logical and seamless fashion. The chapter starts with an introductory paragraph that focuses the reader on the topic that will be covered by the review. A road map should be included as an ―advanced organizer‖ of what will be included in the chapter as a whole. The chapter should be divided into sections and subsections, each (depending on its level of complexity) having its own mini-road maps to further guide the reader. Each paragraph should begin with a clear and explicit topic sentence that informs the readers what will comprise that particular paragraph. Each major section should close with a transition that leads the reader into the next topic that will be covered in the review. Finally a summary and concluding section should bring the review together at the end.
3. The Funnel(n. 漏斗；烟囱vt. 通过漏斗或烟囱等；使成漏斗形)
A literature review for a thesis or dissertation should also be constructed in the shape of a funnel--starting very broadly by introducing the topic; then moving into the focus of the review; continually narrowing the focus to a few selected variables and, toward the end, developing a rationale for your hypotheses; followed by the hypotheses themselves.
4. Introduction and Focus of the Topic
5. Road Maps
A very clear structure of what is to come in the review is required to orient the reader. Although this may seem obvious to you, for most readers this will be their first exposure to your review. In essence, explain to readers what you are going to discuss in the paper. Road maps, or overview statements, do just that; a road map presents a schema for the reader, a way of communicating what information will follow, and even how the rest of the paper is structured or divided into sections. A road map should be part of the introduction of your literature review. 6. Sections and Subsections: Mini-Road Maps
Typically, the review paper is lengthy and contains a great deal of information. The organization of the paper and how different aspects of the literature are related to each other are generally clear to the author but often not as clear to readers.
7. Explicit Topic Sentences
The first line of each paragraph should be a clear, concise topic sentence that introduces the reader to the topic of the paragraph and what is to follow in that paragraph. A reader looking only at the topic sentences of your review should get a very good picture of what your review is about.
8. Transitions
Well-worded transitions help the reader get from the last point to the subsequent point.
9. Summary and Conclusions
The summary provides the concluding remarks that capture the essential parts of what you want the reader to take away from the section. Common practice is to tell the reader what you are going to do (i.e., provide road maps), and tell them what you did (i.e., provide a good summary). Although the summary may seem very obvious to you, and even unnecessary, a good summary is very informative to readers, especially those who are less familiar with this topic than you are. 10.Describing,Analyzing and Synthesizing the Literature
Perhaps the easiest way to write a review paper is to simply report what each study examined and what was found.
Unit 6. Textual Development （1）
I. Types of Writing
With the characteristics of writing, there are four kinds of writing: narrations(n. 叙述，故事), descriptions, expositions(n. 博览会；阐述；展览会) and argumentations(n. 论证；争论；辩论). Briefly, narrations are the articles that tell stories, giving accounts of events, e.g. the time, place, hero, what has happened and the outcomes,etc.; descriptions are articles that give pictures
of something, e.g. a scenery, a psychological state.expositions are articles that explain what is difficult to understand, e.g. functions of machines, processes of carrying out plans, etc. argumentations are articles that argue, reason, prove, infer or persuade, etc.
In most cases, academic articles are descriptions and arguments though authors may make use of some other modes of writing.
II. Research description
There are two basic approaches to description: objective and subjective.
1. Objective Description
In most cases, when a professional author writes his research papers, he has to take an objective approach instead of a subjective one, because in his professional research, he has to focus on the object he is portraying(vt. 描绘；扮演) rather than
on his personal action to it. All the related situations require a precise description of the conditions or processes his research involves.
2.Subjective Description
In contrast to objective description is subjective.which shows the author’s impression of or responses to what they see. In such descriptions, the author does not only want to describe the object itself but also express directly or indirectly his impressions or opinions of what he is describing. And therefore, as a rule, a subjective or impressionist description aims not only at conveying the actual record of sights and sounds, but also the author’s attitudes and bias on what he is describing.
3. General Requirements for Research Description
(1)Presenting a picture of the object
A research description is intended to present a picture of the appearance of an object or the details or process of an investigation.
(2) Illustrating the object in artificial language
A research description is often accompanied by one or more figures, graphs, pictures or tables.
(3) Making necessary comparison
It is often possible to make the description clearer by means of comparing an object or a process, say, an experiment, with something that the reader is familiar with.
(4) Sizing the object specially
In describing size, an experienced professional writer usually tries to avoid such general words as ―large‖, ―small‖ or ―quite big‖. Instead, he prefers to say 3 cm2 squared, or 10 meters’ high. (5) Locating the object correctly
The positions of various parts of an object or a place must be indicated with care unless the figure or picture itself already shows the position of each part clearly.
(6) Generalizing/systematizing the observation carefully
A research description has also to indicate how the new observations and ideas bing advanced may require a change--- by further generalization or systematization --- in the conceptual strucutre of a given scientific field.
III. Common Logic Patterns in English Argumentation
Logic patterns are modes to develop ideas and to conclude conclusions. Generally speaking, there are 9 commonly used logic patterns of arguments. In academic writing: direct statement, induction(n. 感应；归纳法), deduction(n. 扣除，推论) analogy(n.类推), illustration（n. 说明；插图；例证）, quotation, comparison, disproof（n. 反证；反驳）, and cause and effect.
Analogy
Analogy is the logic pattern by which the author develops his ideas by drawing similarities between parallel cases (putting two cases together, finding one point on which two things are similar and reasoning other points on which two things are similar). Usually the author takes a case that is familiar to readers (audience) and has already been accepted to infer several conclusions about a case that is not familiar to them or difficult for them to understand.
Analogy is very common in arguments and very convincing.
（推论习题）No, she was frustrated and deeply unhappy. 'I came for justice,' she complained,
'but the magistrate never let me explain what happened.' In other words, although she liked the
outcome, she didn't like the process that had created it.
Unit 7 Textual Development
1.Typical Features of Papers of Experimental Nature
Compared with papers of theoretical nature, papers of experimental nature, as the name implies, mainly center around experiments, investigations or analyses of their results. To this end, the most important section of this paper is that of experimental description. The functions of experiment description are to (1) convince readers—experimental result should be reliable and convincing; (2) benefit reader--- the introduction of experimental and inspiration, and should facilitate further deliberations and research for the readers; and (3) allow readers to duplicate the experiment – the process and method of experiment should have reproducibility, and the described experiment should be duplicated by same others under the conditions.
The description of an experiment usually includes the experimental process undertaken,technology involved, materials used, equipment introduced, conditions provided, etc.
2.Process Undertaken in the Experiment
1)Starting with a Process Introduction
The introduction should contain necessary comments on the process as a whole.
2)Steps Taken to Complete the Experiment
Steps of an investigation or an experiment should be described or treated as a whole so as to give the readers an integrated or a general impression.
3) Detailed Approaches
4) Summing-up or Conclusive Ideas of the Process
The explanation of or introduction to a process may or may not call for a conclusion or a summary. The suitable kinds of conclusion materials might be a summary of what has preceded, or information about the significance or importance of the process.
3.Technology Involved in the Experiment
4.Materials Used in the Experiment
5.Equipment Introduced in the Experiment
6. Conditions Provided in the Experiment
Special Attention:
Let us analyze the length, structure and variety of the opening sentence.(P28习题)
Sentence length:
(1) short, 9w; (2) medium, 12 w; (3) medium, 11 w;
(4) short, 9; (5) medium, 14 w; (6) medium, 14 w;
(7) medium, 13 w; (8) medium, 10 w; (9) medium, 10 w;
Variety of sentence structure:
(1)Simple sentence; (2) compound sentence; (3) Simple sentence;
(4) Simple sentence; (5) Simple sentence; (6) subordinate sentence;
(7) Simple sentence; (8) Simple sentence; (9) Simple sentence;
Variety of sentence opining:
(1) n. phrase (computerized systems)
(2) n. phrase (opining mode)
(3) n. phrase (conventional batch processing)
(4) n. phrase (the exception)
(5) n. phrase (batch processing)
(6) n. phrase (remote batch processing)
(7) pron. (it)
(8) adv. (Unfortunately)
(9) pron. (it)
From the above analysis, it can be seen that an excessive number of sentences of medium length and simple sentences cause monotony and prime style. True, each of them may be clear, but the relationship consistency of the ideas to be expressed in the individual sentences is often hard to perceive. And the reader has to join his own imagination with the ideas that the author wants to convey thus, it does not necessarily result in clearness. Moreover, it necessitates the repetition of words and destroys conciseness, as will be shown later.
Unit 8. Result, Discussion and Conclusion
1. Section of Results
1) General Functions and Contents of Results
The value of a research lies in the value of its final results and the author’s interpretation of the results. If the preceding sections of a paper (Introduction, Investigations, Experiments, Calculations, etc.) are designed to explain how the author obtains the results, and the following sections of the paper (Analysis, Discussion, Summary or Conclusion, etc.) are to tell what the results should mean. Then, in the section of results, the author(s) should bring about a solid foundation on which the whole paper rests, by boiling down all the facts and data he has gained.
2) Writing Requirements for Results
In the section of result, the following two points should be kept in mind.
First, any data shown in this section must be meaningful.
Second, the presentation of results should be short without verbiage] and be of crystal clarity.
The following points are usually reported in the results section (although not every point must be included, depending on the content and nature of the thesis):
● a brief summary of what has been done in the experiment, reporting accomplishments
by highlighting major findings
● a description of the results providing key information if necessary
●further suggestions concerning the effects or plan of the experiment
●anticipation（n. 希望；预感）and potential criticism
2. Section of Discussion
1) General Functions and Main Elements of Discussion
(1) Analyzing the Data
(2) Pointing out Doubts
(3) Expounding Viewpoints
(4) Stating the Significance
(5) Arriving at a Conclusion
Provide the outcome and/or the end-results of the research, etc., as clearly as possible; and summarize your evidence for each conclusive statement.
All the above can be regarded not only as the functions but also as the essential contents of the section of discussion.
2) Writing Requirements for Discussion
Besides the functions and basic components of this section stated above, there are still some further requirements for writing it.
Firstly, you should sufficiently analyze the presented data and point out the factual relationships.
Secondly, since the purpose of the professional paper is to confirm the’ author’s research work, it is beneficial for him to fully review what he has done in his work.
Thirdly, the writer has to admit his weak points or failure frankly, if any. Fourthly, brief and forceful expressions should be used in the section of discussion. This means the writer will give the reader an impression of his academic capability.
Finally, keep in mind never to write more words than necessary.
3. Section of Conclusion
As the end-result of the whole paper, conclusion (also called summary) is the final viewpoint drawn by the author (s) after investigations, experiments, inferences, discussions and so on. The conclusion draws all arguments and findings together. It helps to organize them as short numbered paragraph, in the most-to-the-least important order. They should be short, concise statements of the inferences. All the conclusions should be directly related be the research question stated in the previous parts.
1) General Functions and Main Elements of Conclusion
Typical functions of the conclusion of a research paper may include: (1) summing up; (2) statement of conclusions; (3) statement of recommendations, and (4) graceful termination. For a particular paper, any one or any combination of these may be appropriate. Some papers do not need a separate concluding section, particularly if the conclusions or results have already been stated in the introduction.
2) Requirements for Writing a Conclusion
The following are the points for attention in preparing the section of conclusion:
(1) Be careful not to draw conclusions from data involving errors of observation, errors in arithmetic, compensating errors, systematic and personal errors.
(2) Do not use mathematical formulas without clearly understanding of their derivations and all the assumptions involved.
(3) Be cautious in comparing conclusions based upon experiments in which the influential conditions have been improperly controlled, and therefore not duplicated.
(4) Avoid confusing facts with opinions of influences, not only in the investigation itself but also in preparing results for publication.
(5) Do not draw a conclusion from too few data, or too broad a conclusion that is based on extrapolated curves.
(6) Guard against failing to qualify a conclusion, in order to show the limits within which it applies, or the variation which is to be expected.
(7) When you indulge in a speculation, be sure to remind your reader to know that it remains
a speculation.
Unit 9. Acknowledgments, References, Footnotes and Appendixes
9.1. Section of Acknowledgments
This section is the most informal part of your thesis. It allows you to thank everyone who has helped you during your research project.
9.1.1 General Functions
Acknowledgment(s) is mainly used to extend the author(s)’s indebtedness（n. 债务；受恩惠）to the helpful support or concern from his (their) colleagues (or institutions) in offering any useful material, specimen（n. 样品，样本）, technical know-how, suggestions, or any other kind of enlightenment, etc. to the author(s).
9.1.2 Linguistic Features
9.1.2.1 Patternized Contents
The content listed in the section of acknowledgments usually include two major parts: gratitudes to personal or institutional assistance, and gratitudes to financial support from different sources.
9.1.2.2 Formalized Expressions
9.1.3 Writing Requirements
9.1.3.1 Being Specific
9.1.3. 2Avoiding Under- or Over-Statements
9.1.3.3 Asking for Permission
In addition, various as the types of acknowledgments may be, it is recommended not to make the name list too long unless it is really in need.
9.2 Section of References
9.2.2 General Functions
9.2.2.1 Showing Respect to the Previous Works
9.2.2.2 Facilitating the Literature Search
9.2.2.3 Formats for Citations and References
9.2.3 Linguistic Features
9.2.3.1 Name and Year System
The Name and Year System, also called Harvard System, means the references or bibliography（n. 参考书目；文献目录）are alphabetically arranged and headed by the author’s name, the year of publication, the title of the publication, the publisher, the page number and so on.
For example:
Bartholomae, David 1980. ―The Study of Error.‖ College Composition an d Communication 31, 253-269
Disttefeno, Philip and Joellen Killion. 1984. ―Assessing Writing Skills through A Process Approach‖
Graves, Donalf H. 1983. Writing: Teachers and Children at Work. New Hampshire: Heiemann
Rosen, Lois Matz. 1983. ―Reponse to Stu dent Writing: Case Studies of Six High School English
Weaver, Constance.. 1985. ―Welcoming Errors as Signs of Growth.‖ Language Arts 59
438-444
9.2.3.2 Citation Order System
The so-called Citation Order System, as the name implies, means the references or bibliography are not arranged alphabetically but according to the order of appearance of the cited works. For example:
1. J. Nishizawa et al. Japanese Patent Filing, No. Sho-39-64040
2. K. C. Kao et al. Proc. IEE. 113 pp.1141-1158. 1966
3. F.P. Kapron et all., Appl. Phys. Lett. 17, p.423. 1970
4. D. B. Keck et al., U.S. Patent No. 3373292
5. J. B. MacChesney et al., Xth Int. Cong. Glass, 6, P.40,1974 ....
9.2.6 CSE Style: Examples for a List of References
9.2.6.1 BOOK WITH AUTHOR(S) (p. 528):
Note that in CSE style you use each author's last name and initials. "When there are 2 to 10 authors, list them all...; if there are more than 10 authors, list the first 10 followed by 'et al.'..." (p. 528)
The Form:
Author(s). Date. Title. Edition. Place of publication: publisher.
Schott J, Priest J. 2002. Leading antenatal classes: a practical guide. 2nd ed. Boston (MA): Books for Midwives.
9.2.6.2 BOOK WITH EDITOR(S) (p. 528):
"Follow the last-named editor by a comma and the word "editor" or "editors." (p. 528)
The Form:
Editor(s). Date. Title. Edition. Place of publication: publisher.
Leeper FJ, Vederas JC, editors. 2000. Biosynthesis: polyketides and vitamins. New York (NY): Springer.BOOK WITH EDITOR(S) & AUTHOR(S) (p. 529):"If both authors and editors are present, give the authors first and place the editors after the title and any edition statement." (p. 529)
The Form:
Author(s). Date. Title. Edition. Editor(s). Place of publication:publisher.An Example:
Martin EW. 1978. Hazards of medication. 2nd edition. Ruskin A, Napke E, Alexander SF, Kelsey FO, Farage DJ, Mills DH, Elkas RW, editors. Philadelphia (PA): J. B. Lippincott Company.
Unit 10 Plagiarism
1.1 the definition of plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s language or ideas without a cknowledgment. A serious act of dishonesty, it always carries a heavy penalty-failure of the paper, failure in the course, or even expulsion from school.
1.2 Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism: paraphrase, summary, and quotation
Perhaps the most frequent cause of unintentional plagiarism is the careless handling of borrowed material. If you are quoting, the words you record must match exactly the words in your source. If you are putting the ideas in your own words, then they must be your own words, not those of the source. If you combine your own words with those of the source, those of the source must be enclosed in quotation marks. You should follow these rules when you are taking notes and
when you are using those notes to write your paper. Doing so should reduce--if not eliminate entirely--the problem of accidental plagiarism.
In the following example, the writer has made legitimate use of information from this passage, mixing summary and clearly identified direct quotation:
J ohn P. Parker praised the ―conscience and courage‖ of the Abolitionists of Ripley, Ohio, who continued their work after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law (127).
Compare that with the following unsatisfactory example:
The Ripley Abolitionists’ work went on just the same, or more aggressively than ever, after the Fugitive Slave Law was passed (Parks 127).
This version uses language directly from the source without enclosing it in quotation marks. Thus, even though the writer includes a parenthetical citation for the book from which the information was taken, the writer has still committed plagiarism. The misspelling of Parker’s name represents the kind of sloppiness that often accompanies plagiarism. In this case, the writer’s carelessness looks especially suspicious, as if the writer is trying to hide the actual source being used.
一.关于本专业毕业论文地选题 二.英语专业本科生毕业论文选题可以在三个大地方向中进行，即英语文学，语言学和 翻译学.各个大方向中又可以选择小地方向，具体解释如下：.英语文学：选择英语文学地毕业论文选题可以从三个方向进行：国别文学研究、文学批评理论研究和比较文学研究. 在进行国别文学研究选题时，一般选取英国文学或美国文学中地某一经典作家（如海明威），某一经典作品（如《双城记》），某一写作手法（如象征手法地运用）或某一文学思潮（如浪漫主义运动）作深入研究.但在选择作家或作品时最好选择在文学史上作为经典地作家或作品.有个别流行作家或作品极富盛名，容易引起学生地兴趣，如《飘》或《荆棘鸟》，学生有强烈愿望选择它们作为研究对象.在不可避免上述情况时，应该尽可能地挖掘作品内在地深刻含义，不能流于肤浅地分析. 文学批评理论地选题一般不太适合英语专业本科生，因为该理论知识地学习在英语专业研究生阶段，本科生一般不具备文学批评理论地知识结构.这个方向地选题可以有关某一文学批评理论,一文学批评术语地阐释或某两种或以上地文学批评理论地比较. 比较文学研究就是将两个以上地作家或作品进行比较.这两个作品或作家可以是同一国别地（如“雪莱与拜伦地诗歌比较”），也可以是不同国别地（如《牡丹亭》与《罗密欧与朱丽叶》）.语言学：选择语言学地毕业论文选题可以在两个大地方向进行：普通语言学和应用语言学. 普通语言学地研究就是对于英语语言地任何一个方面地研究，如对一种词性、或一种时态、或拼写、语调等等方面地研究（如“一般现在时及其交际功能”）. 应用语言学包括教学法地研究和其它一些新兴地应用语言学分支地研究.师范专业或本身从事教师职业地学生选择教学法方向地较多.在这个方向选题，也要避免过大范围地选题，而应对一个具体问题进行研究，最重要地是要结合教学实践或实验.这个方向地好地选题有：“个性与英语教学”，“方言对英语学习地影响” 等. .翻译学：翻译学地选题一般可以在两个方向上进行：翻译理论以及翻译活动. 对翻译理论地研究就是探讨某一种翻译理论等等.相比之下，对翻译活动地研究更多一些，这些选题可以是对一种语言现象地翻译、或一种修辞格地翻译地研究（如“汉语成语地英译”）.应该注意地是，在对翻译活动作研究时，往往需要某种翻译理论支撑，总结规律，并对这一活动作出评价，要避免仅仅时例子地罗列. 二.英语专业毕业论文格式要求学位论文包括前置、主体、附录等三个部分. （一）前置．英文封面：由论文英文题目、解释、作者、指导老师姓名和职称、时间组成. ．目录：由论文地中、英文摘要、篇、章、条、款以及参考书目、附录等序号、题名和页码组成，排在英文封面之后另页. ．中、英文内容摘要：摘要是论文地内容不加注释和评论地简短陈述，宜以最简洁地语言介绍论文地概要、作者地突出论点、新见解或创造性成果以及实验方法、数据或结论，是一篇完整地短文，可以独立使用，中文摘要一般在字左右关键词：关键词是用以表示全文主题内容信息地单词或术语.为便于文献检索，学位论文应注明三至五个具有代表意义中、外文“关键词”，这些关键词就是论文地中心词，以显著地字符另起一行，分别排在中、外文摘要地左下方.各关键词之间用“分号”隔开.外文关键词应与中文关键词相对应. （二）主体部分主题部分包括引言（）、正文()、结论()、参考文献().主体部分必须由另页右页开始. ．引言：主要说明研究工作地目地、涉及范围、相关领域地前人研究成果和知识空白、研究设想、研究方法等方面地概述、理论意义和实用价值等. ．正文：论文地正文是核心部分，占主要篇幅.一般论文选题需要从几个方面来论述或论证.要求论据充分，论点明确.行文必须实事求是，客观真切，准确完备，合乎逻辑，层次分明，简练可读.正文部分要有分级标题，章、条、款、项地序号编码
英语论文写作课复习资料(仅供参考) Lecture 1 General introduction 1. The basic concept of academic research paper writing The concept: “Research ”---something new, something of significance, something that can promote scholarship, science and technology, productivity and human growth, for the betterment of the well-being of mankind. 2. Characteristics of academic paper A. Scientific--- based on scientific theories and objective data, and the problem is approached with a scientific attitude and methodology．The conclusion is backed up by reliable evidence, the analysis or exposition is logically sound. B. Scholarly --- more or less theoretical and concerned with academic matters．The subject under discussion or investigation and the conclusion to be drawn are academically significant. C. Original --- a new perspective or method, develops new arguments or conclusions，or even makes a breakthrough in a certain field． The graduation paper is a special form of academic paper characterized by being scholarly，scientific and original to the greatest extent possible． 3. The style of academic writing A. Formal because it is written in standard language and in formal style devoid of contractions，ellipses，slangy words，vulgarisms，etc. B. Substantial because it deals with academically important and serious issues and is of substance and length． C. Well-documented because it rigidly follows the rules of citation and documentation with all borrowed ideas or facts fully acknowledged in the notes and bibliography． 4. The requirements of an academic paper. 1) A scientific attitude，a rigorous study style, a creative mind, and a great courage to explore unknown academic areas, discovering or solving problems in the academic or scientific fields. 2)Basic knowledge of academic research--- its nature, value, and significance，essential features, techniques and methods，etc．To learn more about the academic circle and the society by searching through all sorts of reference materials originating in academic and social studies. 3) To know about scholarship, such as how to find subjects to investigate, how to collect and evaluate source materials, how to develop their own ideas. 5. Components parts of an academic paper 1) English title and Chinese title of your paper 2) Abstract both in English and in Chinese and key words 3) Key words in English and Chinese 4) Contents
英文论文格式要求 (2009-01-08 10:03:39) 转载▼ 分类：外文期刊知识 标签： 教育 论文发表 期刊投稿 学术论文 很多老师可能想发英文论文，但是不知格式如何调整，一般英文期刊格式都是国际上的APA 格式，鉴于以前曾在英文期刊工作过，所以在此贴出格式要求，这样老师们在投稿前整理妥当，通过率也高一些。要知道，您若是直接投到国外编辑部邮箱，他们是不会帮您整理的哦。其实无论是学术期刊投稿，还是其他生活类，时尚类等通俗期刊投稿，整齐的稿件格式，专业的排版，全角半角选择正确，没有词汇语法错误，都会让编辑们有赏心悦目的感觉，忍不住要多看一眼您的文章。编辑也是人啊，不要把稿件扔过去就完事了，编辑每天要干的事情非常多，你说你懒，编辑会说，对不起我更懒。 不多说废话，在此贴出格式： 英文论文APA格式 英文论文一些格式要求与国内期刊有所不同。从学术的角度讲，它更加严谨和科学，并且方便电子系统检索和存档。 版面格式
表格 表格的题目格式与正文相同，靠左边，位于表格的上部。题目前加Table后跟数字，表示此文的第几个表格。 表格主体居中，边框粗细采用0.5磅；表格内文字采用Times New Roman，10磅。
举例： Table 1. The capitals, assets and revenue in listed banks 图表和图片 图表和图片的题目格式与正文相同，位于图表和图片的下部。题目前加Figure后跟数字，表示此文的第几个图表。图表及题目都居中。只允许使用黑白图片和表格。 举例： Figure 1. The Trend of Economic Development 注：Figure与Table都不要缩写。 引用格式与参考文献 1. 在论文中的引用采取插入作者、年份和页数方式，如"Doe (2001, p.10) reported that …" or "This在论文中的引用采取作者和年份插入方式，如"Doe (2001, p.10) reported that …" or "This problem has been studied previously (Smith, 1958, pp.20-25)。文中插入的引用应该与文末参考文献相对应。 举例：Frankly speaking, it is just a simulating one made by the government, or a fake competition, directly speaking. (Gao, 2003, p.220). 2. 在文末参考文献中，姓前名后，姓与名之间以逗号分隔；如有两个作者，以and连接；如有三个或三个以上作者，前面的作者以逗号分隔，最后一个作者以and连接。 3. 参考文献中各项目以“点”分隔，最后以“点”结束。 4. 文末参考文献请按照以下格式：
我觉得写文章之前要先有思路，你怎么去写怎么写的和别人不同，有新意。这里面的文章很大，我也说不透，只是参透了一二，和大家分享，望大家不要耻笑。我毕竟是个硕士研究生。 我觉得论文写很简单，主要是能够发表出去。下面我简单讲下我的思路。有相同或不同见解的留下言，共同交流，一起进步。 文章的第一步要有图，也就是说首先把图做的漂漂亮亮的，不管是SEM，TEM，Uv-vis，FTIR，还是效果图。图片放到你的文章里就是你的思路，图片放好了你的思路就出来了，这是就关键的过程，放图的过程中你要考你怎么写，你的文章新的地方在哪?;图做好了也放好了，就是写文章了，写文章也很快了，因为思路有了你的文章也构思好了。我在这里给出我写文章时的程序。对于文章主体部分，我觉得先写Results and discussion，写完了根据其内容下个Conclusion，然后根据Conclusion写Abstract(因为它们俩有些许的类似)，而后补充Experimental。论文发表qq1813831290最后也是最难写的地方Introduction，这个让审稿人一看就能知道你的文章的水平，所以写好Introduction是关乎论文是否收录的关键所在。我和外国审稿人专家关于审稿交流过意见，他们也是这样认为，他们也认为Introduction是整个文章的脸面，这是他们主要审的地方，在这里能看到你的创新点，创新点不够直接refuse;Introduction写的还可以的话，就看Results and discussion，这部分其实主要看的是图，你的图的清晰度质量，以及性能图。我审过一篇Journal of Hazardous Materials上面的文章，我也是这样审的。当然是咱们国内某名牌大学的文章，做的是催化，我也是做这个的不知为什么编辑发来让我审，我也感觉很莫名。后来编辑告诉我和我的文章有些类似还称我是专家，教授…… 下面我引用了一些总结的写作经验，我觉得很有用。大家认真看看，在此先祝福大家论文高中，硕果累累不减当年勇时： 1.前言部分 1.1如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性 通常在叙述了前人成果之后，用However来引导不足，比如 However,little information... little attention has been devoted to… little work... little data/little research or few studies/investigations/few attempts have been don on… or none of these studies
初中英语议论文写作指导 英语议论文的结构一般较为固定，通常包括以下三部分： 1. 在导语部分提出需要议论的议题; 2. 在正文部分对所提出的问题进行议论; 3. 在结论部分对以上的讨论进行总结和归纳。 写议论文要考虑论点，考虑用什么作论据来证明，怎样来论证，然后得出结论。它可以是先提出一个总论点，然后分别进行论述，分析各个分论点，最后得出结论;或者先引述一个故事，一段对话，或描写一个场面，再一层一层地从事实中分析出道理，归纳引申出一个新的结论;也可以在文章开头先提出一个人们关心的问题，然后一一作答，逐层深入;还可以把两个不同事物以对立的方式提出来加以比较、对照，然后得出结论。在具体写作中要注意下列几点： 1. 议题的提出要开门见山，不要拖泥带水。 2. 议论时可以采用不同的方法。如：可以摆出正反两方面观点，进行对比;也可引经据典论证作者自己观点的正确性，从而使读者接受自己的观点;亦可提出一种错误的观点然后论证其错误，最终提出正确的观点。正文部分是写作的重点，论证方法可用归纳法、推理法、比较法等。 3. 在结论部分必须表明作者的观点，对讨论的问题做出总结。 4. 注意连接词和过渡词等词语的使用，以增强文章的条理性和逻辑性。常用的过渡词和连接词包括：first, second, third, finally, in addition, furthermore, besides, what was worse, more importantly, in contrast, because, since, now that, therefore，consequently，in that case, as a result/consequence, in conclusion, to sum up等等 感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
扉页（英文） CulturalFactorsinChinese&EnglishProverbs Translation （TimesNewRoman二号加粗居中） by LiHairong WangZhiyun,Tutor （TimesNewRoman小二居中） RegisteredNo.09 FacultyofForeignLanguages Shanghai Business School December,2011 （TimesNewRoman小二） 论文摘要（英文）及关键词 Abstract （TimesNewRoman二号，加粗，居中） Proverbsreflectcolorfulnationalculturein（TimesNewRoman四号）…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................... .....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… （空一行） Keywords:proverbs;translation;culture;differences（TimesNewRoman四号） 说明： 1．关键词3-5个，词与词之间用分号隔开，除专有名词外，其他单词首字母不大写，最后一个词后面无标点符号。 2．“摘要”下空一行写摘要内容，摘要内容与关键词之间空一行。
研究生英语论文写作指导 1．研究生英语论文评判标准 1）语体 论文应该采用正式语体。 相关知识链接：语体 通常，英语语体分为五个大类：超正式语体；正式语体；普通语体；随便语体，超随便语体。在科技文献（包括论文）中，一般采用正式语体。 正式语体的特点如下： a）人称特点：通常不采用第一或第二人称。 b）词汇特点：通常采用在正式场合使用的词汇，或在需要时采用专业技术用语，少用在日常用语中采用的通俗用语，尽量不用俚语。从以下例子中可以看出 正式语体与普通语体在选词方面的差异。Mr. John Smith delivered an interminable address at the conference.（正式）John Smith gave a very long speech at the meeting. （非正式）将两个例句在词汇方面进行比较，可以发现，前一个句子采用的词汇 （deliver, interminable, address, conference）比后一个句子采用的词汇（gave, long, speech, meeting）要正式得多。 c）结构特点：通常不用在日常用语中常见的简略表达形式，如:can’t, they’re，而应该用can not, they are。根据意义表达的需要，通常采用比较长的句式结构，
比较多的采用各种从句。而在非正式语体中，为了交流方便，常常采用比较简短的句式。 2）文体 论文应该采用议论文这样的文体。由于缺乏文体方面的知识，或忽视了文体区别，曾经有一些同学将在论文中错误地采用了说明文或分析劝导型文体。 相关知识链接：文体 记叙文（Narration）：记叙一系列的事件的发生。有时有一个主题陈述（thesis statement）。 说明文（Exposition）：说明一个事物或事理，主要目的是介绍信息（providing information, or informing somebody of something）。介绍事物的说明文通常在开篇部分对所说明的事物有一个总的概括介绍。一般采用写作中的描述手法（description）。描述总要循着某个规律，或从左到右，或由表及里，或由本质到现象，或由一般到具体，或由整体到部分，或进行比较对比（comparison or contrast），或进行因果分析（cause analysis）。说明事理的文章可有一个主题陈述。这个主题陈述虽然可能是有争议的，但是不能将这个文体与议论文混淆。作者并不去试图证明或反驳某个观点，只是通过陈述一些事实或事例来解释说明主题陈述。在罗列相关事实或事例时，作者不用遵循什么规律，只要能够达到说明主题陈述的目的就行。 议论文（Argumentation）：如同中文，议论文有论点，论据，结论。一般性的论文中，论点往往涉及一个常见话题（issue）。
英语教学论文的写作方法与步骤 1、确定选题 写论文，首先要有选题，这是论文写作成败与否的关键。题目是文章的眼睛，应该让读者一看题目就能洞察出文章的内容范围。感受深则写之顺，驾轻就熟，容易出成果。 （l）选题要新颖 创新是论文的生命线。尽量写别人未总结过的东西，要有创造性、新颖性，做到人无我有、人有我新，以爆“冷门”，增强发表的命中率。 （2）大题目的论文并非不能写，但题目过大，会不着边际，捉襟见肘，往往要说的东西太多，结果是什么也讲不深道不透，两、三千字无法包容其内涵。从小处着眼，把题域缩小一些，使题目变得具体、实在，有利于作者更集中、深入地搜集材料、出示论据，写起来得心应手，做到“小题大作”，从而给读者更多有益的东西。2．构思谋篇 论文写作十分辛苦，是一种复杂的脑力劳动，需要充分准备与精心构思。在写作过程中，必须要做到： （l）博采众长，兼收并蓄。（2）搜集整理资料，作读书笔记卡片。在平时教学和课外阅读中，我们要做有心人，善于观察，将英语教学实践中有益的感受记载下来，利用报刊图书，广阅博览，摘录有关资料、信息，制作成卡片，并分类归档，以备参考选用，做到厚积薄发。（3）草拟构架，自如运筹。撰写英语教学论文时拟定提纲恰似建筑施工之前的图纸设计，因为论文须有严密的逻辑性，支撑论点的大量零散材料应该组织得好，否则文章写起来就可能松散、缺乏力度。提纲通常包括论题、论点、目录、材料排列等。拟定好提纲后，可对资料卡片进行分析，重新排列组合，抽出拟撰写的论文需要的材料，为正式写作铺平道路。3．执笔行文 写英语教学论文不是将搜集到的材料进行简单的堆积，而必须注意融会贯通，把这些原材料有机地结合起来，变为自己的东西，用自己的语言阐明自己的观点。（l）初稿：写初稿时，不看卡片，根据提纲把自己的想法、体会、感受全部写出来，每段表达一个完整的意思，写好主题句。 （2）二稿：写好初稿后，我们即可借助卡片重塑初稿，将撰写初稿时可能遗漏的某些材料安插到文章的合适地方。写二稿时，要检查细节安排是否妥贴，语言是否准确，举例是否信当。 （3）定稿：写英语教学论文最好能“一气呵成”，以免打断思路，但修改时宜作“冷处理”。二稿完成后，可暂时放一段时间，因为随着时间的流逝，作者可能会有新的体验、新的发现。为了确保文章的科学性、客观性、创见性及应用性，应努力做到内容充实、材料丰富、见解新颖、论证精辟、概括恰当、用语贴切、行文流畅、逻辑严密和结构完整。还可以请行家审阅，吸取他人的见解，进而加工润色，以臻完善。 五、教育科学论文撰写的基本要求 1、论点要明确。 教育科学论文表述的是建立在前人研究的基础之上并与前人研究的观点不同的新观点、新结论。因此论文选题一定是作者有浓厚兴趣问题，大家都关注的问题，是当今教育科研的主攻方向，具有学术价值的选题。 2、论据要充分。
英文SCI论文写作时的语言表达技巧 1. Introduction： A. 如何指出当前研究的不足并有目的地引导出自己研究的重要性？ 在叙述前人成果之后，用However来引导不足，提出一种新方法或新方向。如：However, little information(little attention/little work/little data/little research……)(or few studies/few investigations/few researchers/few attempts……)(or no/none of these studies……)has(have)been done on(focused on/attempted to/conducted/investigated/studied(with respect to))。如：Previous research (studies, records) has (have) failed to consider/ ignored/ misinterpreted/ neglected to/overestimated, underestimated/misleaded. Thus, these previous results are inconclusive, misleading, unsatisfactory, questionable, controversial. Uncertainties (discrepancies) still exist…… 研究方法和方向与前人一样时，可通过以下方式强调自己工作：However, data is still scarce(rare, less accurate)or there is still dearth of……We need to(aim to, have to) provide more documents(data, records, studies, increase the dataset). Further studies are still necessary(essential)…… 强调自己研究的重要性，一般还要在However之前介绍与自己研究问题相反或相关的问题。比如：(1)时间问题；(2)研究手段问题；(3)研究区域问题；(4)不确定性；(5)提出自己的假设来验证。 如果你研究的问题在时间上比较新，你可大量提及时间较老问题的研究及重要性，然后(However)表明“对时间尺度比较新的问题研究不足”； 如果你的是一种新的研究手段或研究方向，你可提出当前流行的方法及其物质性质，然后(However)说对你所研究的方向方法研究甚少； 如果研究涉及区域问题，就先总结相邻区域或其它区域的研究，然后(However)强调这一区域的研究不足； 虽然前人对某一问题研究很多，但目前有两种或更多种观点，这种uncertainties或ambiguities值得进一步澄清； 如果自己的研究是全是新的，没有前人的工作可对比，你就可以自信地说“根据假设提出的过程，存在这种可能的结果，本文就是要证实这种结果”等等。We aim to test the feasibility (reliability) of the……It is hoped that the question will be resolved (fall away) with our proposed method (approach). B. 提出自己的观点：We aim to//This paper reports on//This paper provides results//This paper extends the method//This paper focus on……The purpose of this paper is to……Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, we will also discuss…… C. 圈定自己的研究范围：introduction的另一个作用就是告诉读者(包括reviewer)，你文章的主要研究内容。如果处理不好，reviewer会提出严厉的建议，比如你没有考虑某种可能性，某种研究手段等。为减少这种争论，在前言的结尾就必须明确提出本文研究的范围： (1)时间尺度； (2) 研究区域等。如涉及较长的时序，你可明确提出本文只关心某一特定时间范围的问题，We preliminarily focus on the older (younger)……如有两种时间尺度(long-term and short term)，你可说两者都重要，但是本文只涉及其中一种。研究区域的问题，和时间问题一样，也需明确提出你只关心某一特定区域！ D. 最后的原场：在前言的最后，还可以总结性地提出“这一研究对其它研究有什么帮助”；
英文科技论文写作是进行国际学术交流必需的技能。一般而言，发表在专业英语期刊上的科技论文在文章结构和文字表达上都有其特定的格式和规定，只有严格遵循国际标准和相应刊物的规定，才能提高所投稿件的录用率。 撰写英文科技论文的第一步就是推敲结构。最简单有效的方法即采用IMRaD形式(Introduction，Materials and Methods，Results，and Discussion)，这是英文科技论文最通用的一种结构方式。 IMRaD结构的逻辑体现在它能依次回答以下问题： Introduction（引言）：研究的是什么问题？ Materials and Methods（材料和方法）：怎样研究这个问题？ Results（结果）：发现了什么? Discussion（讨论）：这些发现意味着什么? 按照这个结构整体规划论文，有一个方法值得借鉴，即剑桥大学爱席比教授提出的“概念图”。首先在一张大纸上（A3或A4纸，横放）写下文章题目（事先定好题目很重要），然后根据IMRaD的结构确定基本的段落主题，把他们写在不同的方框内。你可以记录任何你脑海中闪现的可以包括在该部分的内容，诸如段落标题、图表、需要进一步阐述的观点等等，把它们写在方框附近的圈内，并用箭头标示它们的所属方框。画概念图的阶段也是自由思考的阶段，在此过程中不必拘泥于细节。哪些东西需要包括进文章？还需要做哪些工作，是找到某文献的原文，还是补画一张图表，或者需要再查找某个参考文献？当你发现自己需要再加进一个段落时就在概念图中添加一个新框。如果你发现原来的顺序需作调整，那就用箭头标示新的顺序。绘制概念图的过程看似儿童游戏，但其意义重大，它可以给你自由思考的空间，并通过图示的方式记录你思维发展的过程。这便是写论文的第一步：从整体考虑文章结构，思考各种组织文章的方法，准备好所需的资料，随时记录出现的新想法。采用这个方法，不论正式下笔时是从哪一部分写起，都能够能做到大局不乱。 英文科技论文的基本格式包括： Title-论文题目 Author(s)-作者姓名 Affiliation(s) and address(es)-联系方式 Abstract-摘要 Keywords-关键词 Body-正文 Acknowledgements-致谢，可空缺 References-参考文献 Appendix-附录，可空缺 Resume-作者简介，视刊物而定 其中正文为论文的主体部分，分为若干章节。一篇完整的科技论文的正文部分由以下内容构成： Introduction-引言/概述 Materials and Methods-材料和方法 Results-结果 Discussion-讨论 Conclusions-结论/总结 下面对科技论文主要构成部分的写法和注意事项进行详细介绍。
英文文章写作技巧 《英文文章写作技巧》是一篇好的范文，感觉很有用处， 篇一：英文论文写作技巧我并不是大牛，但也算是在外文期刊上发了几篇文章，现在我写文章天可以写成，一周可以完稿。 以前写的文章老是，现在大多都是，摸索写文章的路真的很艰辛，研二上学期我写的篇文章，结果改来改去的，整的快崩溃了，现在好了，写的文章能拿到左右的杂志上基本就了。 我觉得写文章之前要先有思路，你怎么去写怎么写的和别人不同，有新意。 这里面的文章很大，我也说不透，只是参透了一二，和大家分享，望大家不要耻笑。 我毕竟是个硕士研究生。 我觉得论文写很简单，主要是能够发表出去。 下面我简单讲下我的思路。 有相同或不同见解的留下言，共同交流，一起进步。 我是材料出身，搞的是催化，文章的第一步要有图，也就是说首先把图做的漂漂亮亮的，不管是，，-，，还是催化效果图。 、图片放到你的文章里就是你的思路，图片放好了你的思路就出来了，这是就关键的过程，放图的过程中你要考你怎么写，你的文章新的地方在哪？；图做好了也放好了，就是写文章了，写文章也很快了，因为思路有了你的文章也构思好了。
我在这里给出我写文章时的程序。 对于文章主体部分，我觉得先写，写完了根据其内容下个，然后根据写（因为它们俩有些许的类似），而后补充。 最后也是最难写的地方，这个让审稿人一看就能知道你的文章的水平，所以写好是关乎论文是否收录的关键所在。 思想汇报专题我和外国审稿人专家关于审稿交流过意见，他们也是这样认为，他们也认为是整个文章的脸面，这是他们主要审的地方，在这里能看到你的创新点，创新点不够直接；写的还可以的话，就看，这部分其实主要看的是图，你的图的清晰度质量，以及性能图。 我审过一篇上面的文章，我也是这样审的。 当然是咱们国内某名牌大学的文章，做的是催化，我也是做这个的不知为什么发来让我审，我也感觉很莫名。 后来告诉我和我的文章有些类似还称我是专家，教授……下面我引用了一些总结的写作经验，我觉得很有用。 大家认真看看，在此先祝福大家论文高中，硕果累累不减当年勇时：前言部分如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性通常在叙述了前人成果之后，用来引导不足，比如,…///…()////()',(,)(),,/…//()范文一定要注意绝对不能全面否定前人的成果，即使在你看来前人的结论完全不对。 这是前人工作最起码的尊重，英文叫做给别人的工作所以文章不要出现非常的评价，比如,,,可以婉转地提出：之后引导出一种新方法，
英语论文格式及写作规范 语言和内容是评判一篇英语论文质量高低的重要依据；但是,写作格式规范与否亦是一个不可忽略的衡量标准。因此,规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对我们从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。由于英语论文写作规范随学科不同而各有所异,本文拟就人文类学科英语论文的主要组成部分,概述美国教育界、学术界通行的人文类英语论文写作规范,以供读者参考、仿效。 一、英语论文的标题 一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。 就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期；各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。 二、英语论文提纲 英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母；处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。 三、英语论文正文 有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码；阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。 四、英语论文的文中引述 正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节；既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式（即英语论文参考文献）的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。 1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如: The divorce of Arnold's personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9). 这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名)；阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9)；作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号；句号应置于第二个圆括弧
如何撰写英语专业本科毕业论文 一般来讲，选题一下子是很难确定的。比较容易的做法是先选一个总的课题，然后围绕总题找材料阅读、思考，最后确定哪一个方面或哪些方面可以在论文中加以运用和发挥。比如，你对语音很有兴趣。若选“On English Phoics”，题目就太大了，不如选“On Teaching English Phoics in M iddle School”，因为这个题目范围小，直接与你从事的英语课堂语音教学联系起来，比较切合实际，写起来也比较顺手。同时师范院校的毕业生通过中学教学实习多少都有某些实践和体会，写起来就更容易一些。在选题方面，以下几点可供参考： (1) 题目要富有意义，要有严肃性。 论文写作是一项严肃的学术研究。你的分析要有一定深度和创见，其目的是要让读者从中思考并获得新的信息。题目没有意义和严肃性，其论文必然不会有多大学术价值。 (2) 要结合个人特长和研究能力。 比如，你对语言学和词汇学都有兴趣，但你更喜欢词汇学，并且平时阅读和积累这方面的材料也很多，可以说是你的专长; 那你最好选这方面的内容去写。因此，要根据个人的特长和能力选择符合个人实际的题目去写。
(3) 要结合个人手头的资料选题。 论文中所表达的观点和论点一般是以资料研究为基础的。如手头仅有一、两本书或几篇文章，就想从中得出令人信服的结论，这是不可能的; 即使得出结论，这样的论文也是没有多大说服力的，结论是站不住脚的，因为你手头的资料太少，不足为证。 (4) 要注意客观性。 题目的选择要竭力避免个人主观性。有些题目往往反映了作者的个人偏见。比如，这种题目：“Which Was the Creater Writer，Mark Twain or Hemingwei?”就不太合适了,因为你的结论不是“Mark Twain”，就是“Hemingwei”。这样容易产生个人主观臆断。我们不妨改为“A Comparison of Themes in Mark Twain’ s and Hemingwei’s Works”较妥。 (5) 要有利于得出合理的结论。 若选“On English Teach ing inM iddle School”是很难得出比较合理的结论。题目太大，无法深入研究，应设法限制课题范围，找到研究焦点。比如,“On the Teaching of English Phoics”，太
初中英语作文写作议论文写作技巧和范文 议论文是作者对某个问题或某件事进行分析、评论，表明自己的观点、立场、态度、看法和主张的一种文体。议论文有三要素，即论点、论据和论证。论点的基本要求是：观点正确，认真概括，有实际意义；论据的基本要求是：真实可靠，充分典型；论证的基本要求是：推理必须符合逻辑。 英语议论文的结构一般较为固定，通常包括以下三部分： 1. 在导语部分提出需要议论的议题； 2. 在正文部分对所提出的问题进行议论； 3. 在结论部分对以上的讨论进行总结和归纳。 写议论文要考虑论点，考虑用什么作论据来证明，怎样来论证，然后得出结论。它可以是先提出一个总论点，然后分别进行论述，分析各个分论点，最后得出结论；或者先引述一个故事，一段对话，或描写一个场面，再一层一层地从事实中分析出道理，归纳引申出一个新的结论；也可以在文章开头先提出一个人们关心的问题，然后一一作答，逐层深入；还可以把两个不同事物以对立的方式提出来加以比较、对照，然后得出结论。 在具体写作中要注意下列几点： 1. 议题的提出要开门见山，不要拖泥带水。 2. 议论时可以采用不同的方法。如：可以摆出正反两方面观点，进行对比；也可引经据典论证作者自己观点的正确性，从而使读者接受自己的观点；亦可提出一种错误的观点然后论证其错误，最终提出正确的观点。正文部分是写作的重点，论证方法可用归纳法、推理法、比较法等。 3. 在结论部分必须表明作者的观点，对讨论的问题做出总结。 4. 注意连接词和过渡词等词语的使用，以增强文章的条理性和逻辑性。常用的过渡词和连接词包括：first, second, third, finally, in addition, furthermore, besides, what was worse, more importantly, in contrast, because, since, now that, therefore，consequently，in that case, as a result/consequence, in conclusion, to sum up等等。 请看下面的范文： Shall we send children to study abroad?