A proposed DAQ system for a calorimeter at the International Linear Collider

全国2018年4月自学考试英语科技文选试题课程代码：00836PART A: VOCABULARYI. Directions: Add the affix to each word according to the given Chinese, making changes when necessary.(8%)1. artificial 人工制品 1. __________________2. fiction 虚构的 2. __________________3. coincide 巧合 3. __________________4. organic 无机的 4. __________________5. sphere 半球 5. __________________6. technology 生物技术 6. __________________7. formid 可怕的7. __________________8. harmony 和谐的8. __________________II. Directions: Fill in the blanks, each using one of the given words or phrases below in its proper form.(12%)stand for exposure to at work on the edge of short ofend up focus on a host of give off a sense ofin memory of comply with9. We were on a hill, right _________ the town.10. UNESCO _________ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.11. I am a bit _________ cash right now, so I can’t lend you anything.12. The milk must be bad, it’s _________ a nasty smell.13. The traveler took the wrong train and _________ at a country village.14. The material will corrode after prolonged _________ acidic gases.15. _________ problems may delay the opening of the conference.16. The congress opened with a minute’s silence _________ those who died in the struggle for the independence of their country.17. Tonight’s TV program _________ homelessness.18. He promised to _________ my request.19. Farmers are _________ in the fields planting.20. She doesn’t sleep enough, so she always has _________ of fatigue.III. Directions: Fill in each blank with a suitable word given below.(10%)birth to unmarried had premature among were between such past The more miscarriages or abortions a woman has，the greater are her chances of giving birth to a child that is underweight or premature in the future，the research shows．Low birthweight (under 2500g) and premature birth(less than 37 weeks)are two of the major contributors to deaths 21 newborn babies and infants. Rates of low birthweight and 22 birth were highest among mothers who 23 black, young or old, poorly educated, and 24 . But there was a strong association 25 miscarriage and abortion and an early or underweight 26 , even after adjusting for other influential factors, 27 as smoking, high blood pressure and heavy drinking. Women who had 28 one, two, or three or more miscarriages or abortions in the 29 were almost three, five, and nine times as likely to give birth130 an underweight child as those without previous miscarriages or abortions.21. _________ 22. _________ 23. _________ 24. _________ 25. _________26. _________ 27. _________ 28. _________ 29. _________ 30. _________PART B: TRANSLATIONIV. Directions: Translate the following sentences into English, each using one of the given words or phrases below. (10%)precede replete with specialize in incompatible with suffice for31.上甜食前,每个用餐者都已吃得很饱了。

中考英语经典科学实验与科学理论深度剖析阅读理解20题1<背景文章>Isaac Newton is one of the most famous scientists in history. He is known for his discovery of the law of universal gravitation. Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head. This event led him to think about why objects fall to the ground. He began to wonder if there was a force that acted on all objects.Newton spent many years studying and thinking about this problem. He realized that the force that causes apples to fall to the ground is the same force that keeps the moon in orbit around the earth. He called this force gravity.The discovery of the law of universal gravitation had a huge impact on science. It helped explain many phenomena that had previously been mysteries. For example, it explained why planets orbit the sun and why objects fall to the ground.1. Newton was sitting under a(n) ___ tree when he had the idea of gravity.A. orangeB. appleC. pearD. banana答案：B。

digestive system 相关英语词汇The digestive system is a complex network of organs and tissues responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that the body can absorb and use. It involves a series of physical and chemical processes that occur in the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs such as the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.Here are some key English vocabulary related to the digestive system:$$1. Mouth and Teeth:$$* **Mouth:** The entry point for food intake. * **Teeth (Teeth):** Hard, calcified structures used for chewing and grinding food. * **Tongue:** A muscular organ that moves food around in the mouth and helps in swallowing. ***Saliva:** A watery secretion that moistens food, begins the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates, and helps in swallowing.**2. Esophagus:*** **Esophagus:** A muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach. * **Peristalsis:** The rhythmic muscular contractions that propel food through the esophagus.**3. Stomach:*** **Stomach:** A hollow, muscular organ that stores food, secretes gastric juices, and mixes food with these juices to form a semisolid mass called chyme. * **Gastric Juice:** A mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucus secreted by the stomach. * **Hydrochloric Acid:** A strong acid that helps in the digestion of protein and creates an acidic environment that kills bacteria. * **Enzyme:** A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body, including the breakdown of food into nutrients. * **Mucus:** A slippery, viscous substance that coats the lining of the stomach, protecting it from the corrosive effects of gastric juice.**4. Small Intestine:*** **Small Intestine:** A long, coiled tube that continues from the stomach and is the primary site of digestion and absorption of nutrients. * **Duodenum:** Thefirst part of the small intestine, closest to the stomach. * **Jejunum:** The middle part of the small intestine. ***Ileum:** The final part of the small intestine, leading to the large intestine. * **Villi:** Tiny, finger-like projections on the inner lining of the small intestine that increase its surface area for absorption. * **Microvilli:** Minute projections on the surface of the villi that further enhance the absorption capacity of the small intestine.**5. Large Intestine:*** **Large Intestine:** A wider, shorter tube that absorbs water and forms feces. * **Colon:** The major part of the large intestine. * **Rectum:** The final, straight section of the large intestine, leading to the anus. ***Feces:** Solid waste product formed in the largeintestine and expelled from the body through the anus.**6. Accessory Organs:*** **Liver:** A large organ that produces bile, metabolizes fats, stores vitamins and minerals, and detoxifies the blood. * **Bile:** A yellowish fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It helps in the digestion of fats. * **Gallbladder:** A small,pear-shaped sac that stores bile until it is needed for digestion. * **Pancreas:** A gland that produces enzymes that break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, as well as hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.**7. Digestive Processes and Functions:*** **Digestion:** The process of breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body. ***Absorption:** The process of nutrients passing through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream. ***Metabolism:** The set of chemical reactions that occur in the body to convert food into energy and building blocksfor cells and tissues.These are just a few of the many terms related to the digestive system. The digestive system is a highly complex and interconnected network of organs and processes, and its efficient functioning is crucial for maintaining overall health and well-being. Disorders of the digestive system can lead to a range of symptoms and health issues, makingit important to maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle to promote optimal digestive health.。

where I is the moment of inertia of the NS, Ω is an angular velocity of rotation, ∆Ω is a jump of angular velocity, MNS is a mass of the NS, Mcrust is a mass of the crust. For the Vela pulsar E ∼ 1037 ergs. There are about 20 glitching pulsars, which had suffered a total of 45 glitches (Lyne 1996). The energy release in each of these glitches is similar to that of the Vela pulsar. If several percent of this energy goes into excitation of oscillations it would be possible to observe them. Another example how oscillations of NS could be observed in pulsars is by observations of microstructure in single pulses. Boriakoff (1976) proposed that vibrations of a neutron star may cause the periodicity of micropulses observed in some pulsars. A difficulty in this theory is that no effective mechanism has been proposed for excitation of oscillations (Hankins 1996). Oscillating neutron stars have been proposed as a source for Galactic Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) by Pachini & Ruderman (1974) and Tsygan (1975). This idea is further developed by Blaes et al. (1989), Smith & Epstein (1993), Fatuzzo & Melia (1993). Oscillation induced hard gamma radiation from NS was proposed by Bisnovatyi-Kogan (1995) and Cheng & Ding (1997) for explanation of the hard delayed emission observed from some GRBs (Hurley et al. 1994), even if the Gamma-Ray Burst itself is generated by a different mechanism (Bisnovatyi-Kogan et al. 1975). Recent GRBs observations make a Galactic origin of GRBs unlikely, but a Galactic model may not be excluded completely. At least for Soft Gamma Repeaters, which are believed to be neutron stars, oscillations of star can play an essential role (Duncan 1998). Eigenfrequencies and eigenfunctions of neutron star oscillations have been computed by many authors (McDermott et al. 1988; Carroll et al. 1986; Strohmayer 1991). These calculations have shown that typical periods of neutron star oscillations range from 0.1 up to several tens of milliseconds. On the other hand, observed pulsar radiation in different spectral regions is generated mostly in their magnetospheres (Tr¨ umper & Becker 1998). If we are looking for oscillation induced radiation from pulsars we should investigate processes in the magnetosphere. A complete solution for vacuum electromagnetic fields near an

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE AMERICAN LEGAL SYSTEMThe American legal system is a complex and multifaceted system that governs a wide range of laws and regulations. It is crucial to understand the different aspects of the legal system in order tonavigate it effectively, whether you are a legal professional or an ordinary citizen. In this guide, we will provide an overview of the American legal system and some practice questions to help you understand the key concepts.Overview of the American Legal SystemThe American legal system is based on the principle of federalism, which means that the federal government shares power with individual state governments. This means that laws can vary from state to state, which can sometimes lead to confusion and inconsistency.The ConstitutionThe Constitution is the supreme law of the land in the United States. It outlines the structure of the federal government and provides rights to individual citizens. The Constitution is made up of seven articlesand 27 amendments.The Legislative BranchThe legislative branch is responsible for creating the laws that govern the country. It is made up of two parts: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate has 100 members – two from each state –and the House of Representatives has 435 members, with the number of representatives from each state determined by its population.The Executive BranchThe executive branch is responsible for enforcing the laws that the legislative branch creates. It is headed by the President of the United States and also includes the Vice President, the Cabinet, and various government agencies.The Judicial BranchThe judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the laws and deciding cases that arise from them. It is made up of a system offederal and state courts. At the federal level, the Supreme Court is the highest court in the land and has the final say in all legal matters.Practice Questions1.What is federalism and how does it impact the American legalsystem? the three branches of government and briefly describetheir roles.3.What is the Supreme Court and what is its role in theAmerican legal system?4.What is the Constitution and why is it important to thelegal system?5.How are laws created in the American legal system?。

Final Concept PaperQ11: Q&As on Selection and Justification of Starting Materials for the Manufacture of DrugSubstancesFocus on chemical entity drug substancesdated 22 October 2014Endorsed by the ICH Steering Committee on 10 November 2014Type of Harmonisation Action ProposedAn Implementation Working Group (IWG) is proposed to prepare a Questions and Answers (Q&A) document for ICH’s Development and Manufacture of Drug Substances (Q11) Guideline to provide clarification on what information about the selection and justification of starting materials should be provided in marketing authorisation applications and/or Master Files.The IWG will provide clarification of the existing principles and will not re-open ICH Q11. As appropriate, references will be made to existing ICH Guidelines, e.g., ICH Q7, ICH Q9, ICH Q10, ICH Q11 and ICH M7, to ensure continuity across all ICH Quality Guidelines. The focus of the Q&A document will be on chemical entity drug substances as that is where most of the differences of opinion have been experienced.Statement of the Perceived ProblemEvaluation of information related to the manufacturing process and controls for drug substances is an important part of marketing authorisations. Decisions made about the proposed starting material(s) determine what expectations apply to the Quality-related information for both pre-market assessment and for post-market changes. The acceptability of the applicant's proposed starting material also has implications for Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), process validation requirements, and inspection-related activities (as outlined in ICH Q7). While it is recognised that ICH Q11 provided good scientific guidance when published in 2012, differences in the interpretation of that guidance are causing problems for industry and regulators.Issues to be ResolvedExamples of issues that a Q&A document might help resolve include, but are not limited to the following:Significant regional differences between regulatory authorities in terms of:o Which aspects contribute to the potential unsuitability of starting materials (e.g., number of distinct chemical steps separating starting material(s) from final drug substance, potentiallymutagenic impurities, stereochemistry);o The amount of regulatory attention given to steps prior to the proposed starting material(e.g., how much of the synthesis of the proposed starting material should be disclosed aspart of the justification for the starting material);o What information is necessary to support the justification of the starting material.International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use ICH Secretariat, Chemin Louis-Dunant 15, P.O. Box 195, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland∙Significant resources are frequently used to resolve differences of opinions (regulatory and industry);∙The information provided by industry can be inadequate for regulators to evaluate whether the proposed starting material, manufacturing process, and control strategy provide sufficient assurance of the quality of the drug substance (especially if the proposed starting material occurs late in the manufacturing process);∙Additional burden on industry associated with conservative approaches to defining starting material can include, for example:o Validating early steps before the proposed starting material;o Evaluating every step of the process for known and potential impurities with the same intensity as the final few steps;o Expecting steps prior to proposed starting material to be manufactured under GMP conditions.Background to the Proposal and IssuesQ11 provided guiding principles to be considered in the selection and justification of starting materials for the manufacture of drug substances. It has become apparent, based on public workshops, symposia, and industry experience with global submissions, that differences of opinion can arise between regulators and industry about how those principles should be applied in specific situations. While it is recognised that each dossier needs to be judged on its own merit, further clarification of the principles of Q11 through a Q&A document (including perhaps, case studies) could help address differences in understanding and interpretation.The Q&A should provide several benefits for industry, regulators, and patients:∙Improvement in global harmonisation regarding the selection and justification of starting materials used in the manufacture of drug substances for new and generic applications;∙Clarification regarding the relationship between the selection of appropriate starting material and GMP considerations, control strategy, length of synthetic process, and impact of manufacturing steps on DS quality. Clarification: ICHQ7 / GMP is not in scope and not for this IWG;∙Clarification on the type of information that industry should provide in submissions to justify starting material selection;∙Clarify expectations for lifecycle management of starting material .Type of Expert Working Group and ResourcesThe proposed Q&A document will provide clarification to complement ICH Quality Guidelines for chemical entity drug substances. In general, biotechnological/biological drug substances will not be within scope; however, the Q&A may clarify special cases. The working group should include representatives from the ICH official members (EU, EFPIA, FDA, PhRMA, MHLW, JPMA, Health Canada and Swissmedic). One member can also be nominated by WHO Observer, EDQM, WSMI, IGPA, and API industry as well as RHIs, DRAs/DoH (if requested).The primary mechanism for advancing the work of the IWG will be through teleconferences. However, one face-to-face meeting of the IWG may be requested to meet the tight timeline proposed. Given the time zone challenges for scheduling within business hours, the complex nature of this topic, and the anticipated challenges in reaching harmonisation, it will be difficult to complete the Q&A document within the compressed timeline using only teleconferencing and email. A single face-to-face meeting at an ICH meeting would approximately double the amount of time available for discussions between the full IWG. Additionally, face-to-face discussions are more effective than teleconferences especially for members who must participate using a second language.TimingApproval of Topic/Rapporteur & IWG Defined November 10, 2014 First IWG Meeting (teleconference) November 2014 Step 2a/b document to present to SC November 2015 Step 4 document sign-off TBD。

The problem is the heart of mathematics．(问题是数学的心脏。

)??哈尔莫斯He who seeks for methods without having a difinite problem in mind seeks for the most part in vain．(心中没有一定的问题而要寻找方法的人，多半都是徒劳无获的。

)?? 希尔伯特The problem solver may do creative work even if he does not succeed in solving his own problem；his effort may lead him to means applicable to other problems，Then the problem solver may be creative indirectly be leaving a good unsolved problem which eventually leads others to discovering fertile means．(即使在解某一道题时，解题者未获成功，他也可能做了有独创性的工作；他的努力可能使他得到适用于解决其他问题的工具。

此外，他可能留下一个很好的未解决问题，这个问题最终能使其他人发现更有成效的解题手段。

这样，他间接地作出了独创性的贡献。

)??波利亚One of the virtues of a good problem is that it generates other good problems．(一道好题的价值之一在于它能产生其他一些好题。

)??波利亚Each problem that I solved became a rule which served afterwards to solve other problems．(我解决过的每一个问题都成为日后用以解决其他问题的法则。

ORIGINAL PAPER -PRODUCTION ENGINEERINGEffect of viscosity and interfacial tension of surfactant–polymer flooding on oil recovery in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirsZhiwei Wu •Xiang’an Yue •Tao Cheng •Jie Yu •Heng YangReceived:22April 2013/Accepted:28August 2013/Published online:8September 2013ÓThe Author(s)2013.This article is published with open access at Abstract This study aims to analyze the influence of viscosity and interfacial tension (IFT)on oil displacement efficiency in heterogeneous reservoirs.Measurement of changes in polymer viscosity and IFT indicates that vis-cosity is influenced by brine salinity and shearing of pore media and that IFT is influenced by salinity and the interaction between the polymer and surfactant.High concentrations (2,500and 3,000mg/L)of polymer GLP-85are utilized to reduce the effect of salinity and maintain high viscosity (24mPa s)in formation water.After shearing of pore media,polymer viscosity is still high (17mPa Ás).The same polymer viscosity (17mPa Ás)is utilized to displace oil,whose viscosity is 68mPa Ás,at high temperature and high pressure.The IFTs between surfac-tant DWS of 0.2%in the reservoir water of different salinities and crude oil droplet are all below 10-2mN/m,with only a slight difference.Surfactant DWS exhibits good salt tolerance.In the surfactant–polymer (SP)system,the polymer solution prolongs the time to reach ultra-low IFT.However,the surfactant only has a slight effect on the viscosity of the SP system.SP slugs are injected after waterflooding in the heterogeneous core flooding experiments.Recovery is improved by 4.93–21.02%of the original oil in place.Furthermore,the core flooding experiments show that the pole of lowering the mobility ratio is more sig-nificant than decreasing the IFT of the displacing agent;both of them must be optimized by considering the injec-tivity of the polymer molecular,emulsification of oil,and the economic cost.This study provides technical support in selecting and optimizing SP systems for chemical flooding.Keywords Chemical flooding ÁViscosity ÁInterfacial tension ÁOil displacement efficiency ÁSalinityAbbreviations IFT Interfacial tension,mN/mGLP-85The polymer,modified polyacrylamides,whoserelative molecular mass is 1.759107OOIP Original oil in place EOR Enhanced oil recovery SP Surfactant–polymer ASP Alkali–surfactant–polymer DWS The surfactant,an anionic sulfate,whoseaverage relative molecular weight is 560to 600PV Injection pore volume CMC Critical micelle concentrationIntroductionPolymer flooding has been employed successfully in Daqing Oilfield in China for decades;it contributed to the oil recovery of more than 10%of original oil in place (OOIP)after water flooding (Wang et al.2009).This Project (2011ZX05009-004)was supported by National NaturalScience Foundation of China.Z.Wu (&)ÁX.Yue ÁJ.Yu ÁH.YangMOE Key Laboratory of Petroleum Engineering in China University of Petroleum,Beijing 102249,China e-mail:wuzhiwei1987@Z.Wu ÁX.Yue ÁJ.Yu ÁH.YangPetroleum Engineering Faculty,China University of Petroleum,Beijing 102249,ChinaT.ChengShell China Exploration and Production Co.Ltd,Beijing 100000,ChinaJ Petrol Explor Prod Technol (2014)4:9–16DOI 10.1007/s13202-013-0078-6Alkaline–surfactant–polymer(ASP)flooding can effec-tively reduce oil residual saturation to reduce interfacial tension(IFT)and the mobility ratio between the water phase and oil phase(Clark et al.1988;Meyers et al.1992; Vargo et al.1999).Alkali is added in ASPflooding to decrease the quantity of the surfactant through competitive adsorption with the surfactant and reaction with petroleum acids in crude oil to generate a new surfactant(Pope2007; Rivas et al.1997).However,the use of alkali has intro-duced problems in the injection of the ASP solution These problems include the deposition of alkali scales in the reservoir and bottom hole(Hou et al.2005;Bataweel and Nasr-El-Din2011;Jing et al.2013),difficulty of treating the produced water(Deng et al.2002),and reduction of the viscosity of the combined ASP slug(Wang et al.2006; Nasr–El–Din H.A.et al.Nasr-El-Din et al.1992).Many methods were introduced to solve these problems.Elraies (2012)proposed a new polymeric surfactant and conducted a series of experiments to evaluate this surfactant in the absence and presence of alkali.Some studies(Maolei and Yunhong2012;Flaaten et al.2008;Berger and Lee2006 replaced strong alkalis with weak alkalis,such as sodium carbonate,sodium metaborate,and organic alkaline,to reduce their effect on the viscosity of the ASP slug.Alkali-free SPflooding avoids the drawbacks associated with alkali.Surfactants with concentrations higher than the critical micelle concentration(CMC)can achieve ultra-low IFT.However,such surfactants are expensive.The use of a hydrophilic surfactant mixed with a relatively lipophilic surfactant or a new surfactant was also investigated(Rosen et al.2005;Aoudia et al.2006;Cui et al.2012).However, studies on SPflooding only focused on the screening and evaluation of the polymer and surfactant and their inter-action.Reduction in mobility ratio and IFT is influenced by reservoir brine salinity,reservoir temperature,concentra-tion of chemical ingredients and oil components,and others (Gaonkar1992;Ferdous et al.2012;Liu et al.2008;Gong et al.2009;Cao et al.2012;Zhang et al.2012).Dis-placement performance is affected by the interaction of the physical properties of the reservoir and those of thefluid. The primary influencing factors must be identified.SP flooding can enhance recovery because of its capability to control viscousfingering and reduce IFT.In formulas involving the capillary number,ultra-low IFT between the binary system and oil drop in a homogenous core yields the lowest residual oil saturation and the highest oil recovery. In a heterogeneous core with high permeability,sweep efficiency has a larger influence on oil recovery than dis-placement efficiency.Highest oil recovery can be achieved under optimum IFT and not under the lowest IFT of the binary system.However,this concept(Wang et al.2010)is based on light oil reservoir with high permeability and low temperature.Dagang Oilfield is a reservoir with medium–low permeability characterized by high temperature,sig-nificant heterogeneity,and high brine salinity.These rough conditions bring about a significant challenge in SP flooding and demand different IFTs and viscosities of the SP system.Based on the reservoir condition of Dagang Oilfield, static experiments were conducted to study the influence of loss parameters of viscosity and IFT on the SP system. Combined with coreflooding,the respective effect of viscosity and IFT in the binary system on displacement efficiency was investigated.The results of this study pro-vide insights into chemical screening,slug optimization, and injection methods in thefield.Equipment and materialsEquipmentThe main equipment for the experimentalflow is shown in Fig.1.The heterogeneous core holder is30cm long.The coreflooding model is30cm long, 4.5cm wide,and 4.5cm thick.Each layer of the model is1.5cm thick. Other equipment include a RheoStress6,000rheometer from HAAKE,a Brookfield DV-II?viscosimeter,several high-pressure intermediate containers,an automatic mea-suring cylinder,a thermostat oven,a pressure collection system,and a constantflow pump.Water was pumped into high-pressure intermediate containers at a certain speed, and formation water and crude oil were forced into the core with a certain difference in pressure.A30cm long core holder was utilized to hold the core with external pressure that is1–2MPa more than the inlet pressure.The pressure was determined by a pressure collection system.An oven was utilized to maintain stable experimental temperature. The product was gathered and measured by a product acquisition system.MaterialsThe brine(experimental water)was composed of simulated pure water,formation water,and simulated formation water.The ion concentrations of these components are listed in Table1.A three-layer artificial heterogeneous sandstone core was created.The core has an average per-meability ranging from55.38910-3to106.009 10-3l m2and a porosity percentage of24.2%.All other parameters of the core are shown in Table2.Modified polyacrylamide GLP-85was utilized as the polymer.This polymer,whose relative molecular mass is 1.759107,has a high tolerance for salinity.The viscosity of the polymer was measured with HAAKE Rotational Rheometer-6000at78°C.The main active material of surfactant DWS is an anionic sulfonate component,of which 50wt %is active content,16.8wt %is unsulfonated oil,31.2wt %is vol-atile content,and 2.0wt %is inorganic salt.The average relative molecular weight ranges from 560to 600.The polymer (2,000and 2,500mg/L)and the surfactant (0.08–0.3wt %)were mixed with formation water to form the SP system (binary system).Ground dehydration degassed oil and kerosene were mixed at a volume ratio of 5–1to maintain consistent viscosity between the simulated oil and the crude oil in the reservoir.The viscosity of oil is 68mPa Ás at 78°C.A constant reservoir temperature of 78°C was maintained throughout the experiment.Table 3shows the reservoir condition and the basic characteristics of the pore fluid.Viscosity and IFT measurementThe viscosities of the SP solutions were determined at a shear rate of 7.34s -1with HAAKE Rotational Rheometer-6000at 78°C.The IFTs between the surfactant solutions and oil were measured at 78°C with a spinning drop ten-sion meter (Model Texas-500).The spinning oil droplet was stretched in the chemical agent solution until the oil/water phase reached equilibrium at a rotation speed of 6,000r/min.The images were stored at regular intervals.InFig.1Main experimental setupTable 1Ion concentration of simulated injection water and formation water (mg/L)Water typeNa ??K ?Ca 2?Mg 2?Cl -HCO 3-Total salinity Simulation injection water 38185553285452Formation water9,423404309,48562320,001Simulated formation water10,9935256317,73960529,952Table 2Core parameters and oil displacement efficiency of chemical flooding Core Number Porosity/%Permeability/10-3l m 20.3PV chemical system Reduction in water cut/%Water drive/%OOIP Increase inrecovery/%OOIP Total recovery/%OOIP DG-F418.5155.380.2%DWS4.4147.76 4.9352.69DG-F1527.4267.772,000mg/L GLP-85?0.08%DWS29.5849.6310.4860.12DG-F1327.2665.242,000mg/L GLP-85?0.2%DWS19.6748.0418.6966.72DG-F1426.7881.072,000mg/L GLP-85?0.3%DWS39.1854.3114.7169.01DG-F1125.8677.252,500mg/L GLP-85?0.2%DWS5849.8121.0270.83DG-F1627.8296.112,500mg/L GLP-85?0.2%DWS after shearing4.7850.213.5753.78When the water cut was 98%,water flooding was ceased and the SP system was injected.The increase in recovery was observed in the stage of injecting SP system and subsequent water flooding.Total recovery includes the recovery of water flooding and the increase in recoverythe images,the height of the spinning oil drop was mea-sured to calculate the IFT when the ratio of the length to the height of oil drop was more than4.However,length and height should be measured only when the ratio of the length to the height of the oil drop is between1and4.The IFTs of the different concentrations of the surfactant were obtained with the abovementioned surfactants or their mixtures with a polymer.Coreflooding experiments1.The heterogeneous core was vacuumized and saturatedwith formation water.Pore volume was then measured.2.The model was saturated with crude oil at an injectionrate of0.2mL/min.Original oil saturation and irreducible water saturation were then calculated.3.Formation water was injected at a rate of1.2mL/minuntil the water cut reached98%.The produced oil and water and pressure change in the inlet were monitored.4.An SP system solution of0.3PV was injected at a rateof1.2mL/min.Waterflooding was performed at the same rate until the water cut reached98%.Ultimate recovery was then calculated.Results and discussionInfluencing factors of binary system’s performance PolymerThe polymer solutions were generally fabricated with pure water in chemicalflooding,thereby reducing the influence of salinity on the polymer mother solution.The solution was diluted with reservoir water to guarantee that the chemical system matched the formation water with high salinity.Polymer viscosity was measured in high salinity under constant temperature because salinity affects the viscosity and IFT of the binary system.The viscosity of the polymer solution must be determined to displace the crude oil with high viscosity.Therefore,the polymer solution with a high concentration was utilized.Polymer solutions of different concentrations were fabricated with a forma-tion brine of different salinities at78°C.The results of viscosity changes are shown in Table4.As shown in Table4,the viscosity of the polymer solu-tion decreased sharply with the increase in salinity when the polymer concentration was determined.When the polymer concentration was1,500mg/L,the viscosity of the polymer solution decreased from29to8mPaÁs,and the viscosity retention rate was27.59%.However,when the polymer concentration was3,000mg/L,the viscosity of the polymer solution decreased from172to25mPaÁs,and the viscosity retention rate was14.53%.The viscosity retention rate decreased and the loss of polymer solution increased with the increase in polymer concentration.With the increase in salinity,the polymer molecular chain became compressed that it could not interweave with another polymer molecular chain.In addition,a small molecular group was formed.The viscous force among the polymer molecules was reduced after the group was formed,resulting in the loss of viscosity of the polymer solution.However,viscosity increased in each style of formation water with the increase in polymer solution.High concentration of the polymer solution was necessary to maintain high velocity.Thus,2,500mg/L was determined based on the polymer’s injectivity,economic cost,and the demand of viscosity.The polymer solution had toflow through pumps,pipes, valves,perforated holes,and so on at a high speed before it was injected.To simulate the effect of mechanical shearing on viscosity,2,500and3,000mg/L of the polymer solution were dissolved with formation water and simulated forma-tion water and sheared in a Waring device at a speed of 3,000r/min for20s.The viscosities were measured before and after shearing at78°C.The results are shown in Table5.As shown in Table5,the viscosity retention rates at 2,500and3,000mg/L of the polymer solution were70.83 and66.67%in formation water,respectively,and86.67 and76%in simulated formation water,respectively,after shearing.Therefore,this type of polymer solution dissolved with high salinity of brine has a strong ability to resist shearing.Thisfinding indicates that the solution can be applied in the reservoir.SurfactantThe mixture of surfactant and polymer solution injected into the formation is affected by many factors,such as temperature,salinity,shearing,retention,adsorption,and dilution of formation brine.Therefore,surfactant DWS wasTable3Reservoir condition and crude oil propertiesItem Permeability/10-3l m2Porosity/%Variation coefficient of permeability Reservoir temperature/°CReservoir condition55.38–106.0024.20.678Item Reservoir depth(m)Formation water type Crude oil viscosity/(mPaÁs)Crude oil density/(g/cm3) Reservoir condition2,100–2,300MgCl268(at78°C)0.922–0.968(on the ground)utilized to create solutions of different concentrations at reservoir temperature.The IFTs were measured,and the results are shown in Fig.1.As shown in Fig.2,IFT between the oil droplet and the solution decreased gradually when the surfactant concen-tration increased from0.05to0.4%.IFT reached an ultra-low level when the concentration was0.3%.With the increase in surfactant concentration,the surfactant mole-cules were adsorbed onto the oil/water interface constantly with the hydrophilic in the water phase and lipophilic in the oil phase.When the concentration was more than0.3%, the adsorption on the oil/water interface reached saturation, and IFT remained stable.Thus,the concentration of0.3% was the CMC.Surfactant concentration of0.2–0.3% should be selected because of its economic cost and loss in the pore media.The process of dissolving the surfactant with pure water and diluting it with formation water would seriously influ-ence the activity of the surfactant.Given that the salinity of the injected water was lower than that of the original for-mation water,the salinity of the areas washed for long-term waterflooding was reduced,whereas that of the unwashed areas remained high.In SP systemflooding,the mobility control of the polymer solution causes the chemical system toflow toward the area unwashed with water.As a result,the chemicals are placed in contact with the original for-mation water and are affected by salinity.Therefore, studying the influence of salinity on IFT is essential.Fig-ure3shows the influence of different salinities on IFT between the DWS of0.2%and the crude oil droplet.With increasing salinity,the IFTs of all types of brine can reach an ultra-low level.However,the prolonged time of reaching ultra-low IFT would affect the time of chemicalflooding in the marine oilfield.With constant time,the increase in salinity can increase IFT.The reason for such is that the surfactant molecules adsorbed on the oil/water interface desorbed constantly and entered into the oil phase with the increase in salinity,especially from several hundred to 30,000mg/L.However,ultra-low IFTs were reached with different salinities,indicating that0.2%surfactant can adapt to the reservoir with different salinities.The compatibility between the polymer and surfactant in the SP system had an interaction problem.We analyzed the interaction by studying how the addition of surfactant DWS influences the viscosity of polymer and how the addition of a polymer solution affects the IFT of the sur-factant.Table6shows the effect of the addition of sur-factant on polymer viscosity.Table7shows the effect of the addition of polymer solution on the IFT of the surfac-tant.Tables6and7show that ultra-low IFT can be reached by0.2%DWS surfactant with the increase in the con-centration of the polymer solution.However,longer time was required.The velocity of the surfactant molecules to the oil/water phase decreased because of the long organic chains of polymer molecules.Therefore,more migration time was required.The SP system can reach ultra-low IFT with longer interfacial contacting time,which matches the SP systemflooding.Theflowing velocity of the SP system in the reservoir was much slower because the mobility of the SP system was smaller than that of a single surfactant solution.Therefore,contact time with crude oil was longer, thereby reducing oil–water IFT and enhancing oil dis-placement efficiency.However,the surfactant did notTable4Viscosity change in polymer GLP-85with different salini-ties of waterPolymer concentration (mg/L)Simulation purewater(salinityof452mg/L)Formationwater(salinityof20,000mg/L)Simulatedformation water(salinity of29,952mg/L) Viscosity/(mPaÁs)Viscosity/(mPaÁs)Viscosity/(mPaÁs)4,000––733,500––503,00017248252,5007924152,0005017131,5002998Table5Viscosity change in polymer GLP-85before and after shearingPolymer concentration/ (mg/L)Viscosity/(mPaÁs)Formation water(salinity of20,000mg/L)Simulated formation water(salinity of29,952mg/L) BeforeshearingAftershearingBeforeshearingAftershearing2,50024171513 3,00048322519significantly affect the viscosity of the SP system;it merely affected dilution.Therefore,the SP solution has the same tackifying property as that of the polymer solution at the same concentration.It also allowed for the reduction of IFT with prolonged contact time.Surfactant concentration should be increased and polymer concentration should be decreased to reduce IFT instantly and achieve instant emulsification,given that a certain relationship exists between emulsification and IFT reduction.However,such procedures are expensive and lead to less activity of tackifying and poor ability of the SP system to control mobility ratio.The surfactant and polymer can be mixed to prolong contact time with the crude oil;such would be a significant contribution to the study of injection patterns in chemicalflooding after waterflooding.Effect of viscosity on oil displacementTable2shows the results of core displacement of various chemical pared with the oil displacement results of DG-F4,DG-F13,and DG-F11,the viscosity of the SP system increased gradually and the recovery of flooding was enhanced on the condition of similar oil recovery of waterflooding at a certain surfactant concen-tration and with increasing polymer concentration.Based on the change in pressure curve and water cut curve,the increase in the system’s viscosity increased theflowing resistance of the water phase in the high-permeable layer. As a result,the pressure on the entry side increased grad-ually.The SP systemflowed into the middle-and low-permeable layers where residual oil was abundant,and the water cut significantly decreased.When the system vis-cosity increased from1to15mPaÁs,oil recovery increased by13.76%.When the viscosity increased from15to 22.5mPaÁs,enhanced recovery increased only by2.33%. However,the pressure gradient on the entry side increased from11.05to15.23MPa/m,indicating that viscosity contributed73.62%to the increase in oil recovery and that the proportion declined with the increase in viscosity. Thus,oil recovery did not increase when viscosity increased(Fig.4).The SP system(2,500mg/L GLP-85?0.2%DWS) was sheared in the Waring device and then utilized to displace residual oil in heterogeneous cores.Figure5 shows the dynamic change in recovery before and after shearing.The displacement results of core DG-F11and DG-F16showed that viscosity changed greatly after shearing and that recovery declined sharply correspond-ingly.Recovery after shearing was53.78%OOIP and only increased by3.57%OOIP after waterflooding.The water cut was reduced only by4.78%.However,recovery before shearing was70.83%OOIP and increased by21.02% OOIP after waterflooding.The water cut was reduced by 58%before shearing.The pole of lowering the mobility ratio was obvious in the heterogeneous cores.Table6Changes in SP system viscosity with surfactant concentration Polymer concentration/(mg/L)Viscosity/(mPaÁs)0%DWS?GLP-8 50.1%DWS?GLP-850.2%DWS?GLP-850.3%DWS?GLP-852,0001716.515142,500242322.521Table7IFT of the SP system changes with polymer concentrationSurfactant concentration/%DWS2,000mg/L GLP-85?DWS2,500mg/L GLP-85?DWSt/min r/(10-3mN/m)t/min r/(10-3mN/m)t/min r/(10-3mN/m) 0.23 5.31 6.59.231212.15Influence of IFT on oil recoverySurfactants of different concentrations were added to the polymer with a concentration of2,000mg/L.Core dis-placement experiments were conducted with the mixtures. Compared with core DG-F13,DG-F14,and DG-F15,IFT decreased from5.6910-2to1.5910-3mN/m when the surfactant concentration increased from0.08to0.3% under constant system viscosity(Table2).Recovery increased from10.4to14.71%OOIP after waterflooding. Errors in the oil displacement experiment of core DG-F14 might have caused the different results.However,we can still consider the contribution of IFT to the recovery of heterogeneous cores,ranging from4to8%OOIP,which only accounts for approximately30%;this percentage is less than the pole of lowering the mobility ratio,which is nearly70%.Therefore,control of mobility between oil and water in the heterogeneous cores and increase in the displacement resistance of high-permeable layers should be consideredfirst.The increase in the recovery of reducing IFT was much less than that of increasing viscosity.Fig-ure6shows the relationship between IFT and recovery as well as that between IFT and the pressure gradient.With the decrease in IFT,recovery initially increased and then decreased.Therefore,other principles could have increased recovery other than the decrease in IFT.By changing pressure,oil–water emulsification was strengthened because of the decrease in IFT from 5.6910-2to 9.23910-3mN/m.Moreover,the emulsified oil exhib-ited coalescence,which increased the displacement resis-tance,formed an oil block,and significantly increased the pressure gradient.The low IFT of1.5910-3mN/m made oil-in-water emulsion stable.Thus,the oil block was not formed easily.ConclusionsPolymer viscosity was seriously affected by salinity.The effect of shearing on polymer viscosity and oil recovery was significant.Thus,high concentration of polymer was utilized to maintain high viscosity.The CMC of DWS was 0.3%;this CMC value was employed to maintain low IFT. The IFTs with the brine at all salinity levels could be ultra low,indicating that salinity only had a slight effect on the activity of0.2%DWS.The time of reaching ultra-low IFT between the oil droplet and SP system was longer than that of a single surfactant because of the polymer’s existence. The injection pattern of the surfactant and polymer mixture was used to maintain low IFT in the binary system.In the core whose permeability contrast was4and average permeability ranged from55.38910-3to106.009 10-3l m2,viscosity and IFT contributed approximately70 and30%to the increase in oil recovery,respectively.In the heterogeneous,heavy oil reservoirs whose permeability contrast was4and temperature was78°C,increasingdisplacement resistance in the high-permeable layers and displacing the residual oil caused by microheterogeneity are important to improve oil recovery.When screening the properties of agents in chemicalflooding,viscoelasticity is thefirst thing that should be considered.The second is how to reach ultra-low IFT between oil and water.Viscosity and IFT must be optimized to maximize oil recovery in the heterogeneous cores on the condition that the injectivity and emulsification of the SP system are considered.When viscosity is high,injectivity becomes a problem.When IFT reaches an ultra-low level,oil-in-water emulsion remains stable,and the coalescence of emulsified oil droplet would not easily occur.Finally,an oil block would be formed. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their appre-ciation for thefinancial support received from National Natural Sci-ence Foundation of China(2011ZX05009-004)and China University of Petroleum,for permission to publish this paper.Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use,dis-tribution,and reproduction in any medium,provided the original author(s)and the source are credited.ReferencesAoudia M,Al-Shibli MN,Al-Kasimi LH,Al-Maamari R,Al-Bemani A(2006)Novel surfactants for ultralow interfacial tension in a wide range of surfactant concentration and temperature.J Sur-factants Deterg9:287–293Bataweel MA,Nasr-El-Din HA(2011)Minimizing scale precipitation in carbonate cores caused by alkalis in ASPflooding in high salinity/high temperature applications,SPE14151presented at the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry held in The Woodlands.Texas,USA,pp11–13Berger PD,Lee CH(2006)Improve ASP process using organic alkali.SPE99581presented at the SPE/DOE symposium on improved oil recovery,Tulsa,Oklahoma22–26April2006Cao Y,Zhao R,Zhang L,Xu Z,Jin Z,Luo L,Zhang L,Zhao S(2012) Effect of electrolyte and temperature on interfacial tensions of alkylbenzene sulfonate solutions.Energy Fuels26:2175–2181 Clark SR,Pitts MJ,Smith SM(1988)Design and application of an alkaline-surfactant-polymer recovery system for the West Kiehl field.Paper SPE17538presented at the SPE rocky mountain regional meeting,Casper,WYCui Z,DU X,Pei X,Jiang J,Wang F(2012)Synthesis of didodecylmethylcarboxyl betaine and its application in surfac-tant–polymerflooding.J Surfactants Deterg15:685–694Deng S,Bai R,Chen JP,Yu G,Jiang Z,Zhou F(2002)Effects of alkaline/surfactant/polymer on stability of oil droplets in produced water from ASPflooding.Colloids Surf A Physico-chem Eng Asp211:275–284Elraies KA(2012)An experimental study on ASP process using a new polymeric surfactant.J Petrol Explor Prod Technol 2:223–227Ferdous S,Ioannidis MA,Henneke DE(2012)Effects of temperature, pH,and ionic strength on the adsorption of nanoparticles at liquid–liquid interfaces.J Nanopart Res14:850Flaaten AK,Nguyen QP,Pope GA,Zhang J(2008)A systematic laboratory approach to low-cost,high-performance chemical flooding.SPE113469presented at the SPE/DOE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium.Tulsa,Oklahoma,19-23April2008 Gaonkar AG(1992)Effects of salt,temperature,and surfactants on the interfacial tension behavior of a vegetable oil/water system.J Colloid Interface Sci149(1):256–260Gong H,Guiying X,Zhu Y,Wang Y,Dan W,Niu M,Wang L,Guo H,Wang H(2009)Influencing factors on the properties of complex systems consisting of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/triton x-100/cetyl trimethylammonium bromide:viscosity and dynamic interfacial tension studies.Energy Fuels23:300–305Hou JR,Liu ZC,Zhang SF,Yue XA,Yang JZ(2005)The role of viscoelasticity of alkali/surfactant/polymer solutions in enhanced oil recovery.J Petrol Sci Eng47:219–235Jing G,Tang S,Li X,Yu T,Gai Y(2013)The scaling conditions for ASPflooding oilfield in the fourth Plant of Daqing oilfield.J Petrol Explor Prod Technol3:175–178Liu L,Hou J,Yue XA,Zhao J(2008)Effect of active species in crude oil on the interfacial tension behavior of alkali/synthetic surfactants/crude oil systems.Petrol Sci5:353–358Maolei C,Yunhong D(2012)Study of interfacial tension between a weakly alkaline three-componentflooding system and crude oil, and evaluation of oil displacement efficiency.Chem Technol Fuels Oils48(1):33–38Meyers JJ,Pitss MJ,Wyatt K(1992)Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymer flood of the west kiehl,minnelusa unit.SPE24144presented at the SPE/DOE8th symposium on enhanced oil recovery,Tulsa, Oklahoma,April22–24Nasr-El-Din HA,Hawkins BF,Green KA(1992)Recovery of residual oil using the alkaline/surfactant/polymer process:effect of alkali concentration.J Petrol Sci Eng6:381Pope GA(2007)Overview of chemical EOR.Presentation:casper eor workshopRivas H,Gutierrez X,Zirrit JL,Anto0n,RE,Salager JL(1997) Industrial applications of microemulsions.305–329Rosen MJ,Wang H,Shen P,Zhu Y(2005)Ultralow interfacial tension for enhanced oil recovery at very low surfactant ngmuir21:3749–3756Vargo J,Turner J,Vergnani B,Pitts M,Wyatt K,Surkalo H,Patterson D(1999)Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymerflooding of the cambridge minnelusafield.SPE55633presented at SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting held in Gillette,Wyoming,15–18May1999 Wang D,Han P,Shao Z,Chen J,Serigh RS(2006)Sweep improvement options for Daqing oilfield.SPE99441presented at SPE/DOE symposium on improved oil recovery,Tulsa, Oklahoma22–26April2006Wang D,Dong H,Lv C,Fu X,Nie J(2009)Review of practical experience by polymerflooding at Daqing.SPE Reserv Eval Eng 12(3):470–476Wang Y,Zhao F,Bai B,Zhang J,Xiang W,Li X,Zhou W(2010) Optimized surfactantfit and polymer viscosity for surfactant-polymerflooding in heterogeneous formations.SPE127391 presented at SPE improved oil recovery symposium held in Tulsa,Oklahoma,USA,24–28April2010Zhang H,Dong M,Zhao S(2012)Experimental study of the interaction between NaOH,surfactant,and polymer in reducing court heavy oil/brine interfacial tension.Energy Fuels26:3644–3650。

The evolution of emergency management and the advancement towards a profession in theUnited States and FloridaJennifer Wilson a,*,Arthur Oyola-Yemaiel baFlorida Division of Emergency Management,2555Shumard Oak Blvd.,Tallahassee,FL32399,USA b Department of Sociology and Anthropology,Florida International University,Miami,FL33199,USA AbstractThe occupation of ‘‘emergency management’’is the official organizational structure estab-lished by governments (federal,state,county,and city)to manage the social repercussions of natural and/or technological emergencies.This field has evolved quite extensively from its Cold War-civil defense origins and some have stated that the field is ‘‘professionalizing’’.We examine the process of professionalization in the United States and Florida.Our research explores how emergency management organizations are modifying in order to develop the capacity to prepare for,respond to,recover from,and mitigate against disaster events more effectively.#2001Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Emergency management;Professionalization;Accreditation;Certification;Florida1.IntroductionThroughout time societies have dealt with natural and/or man-made disastrous events and calamities.For example,the Greco–Roman cities of Pompeii,Hercula-neum and Stabiae were covered with and instantly preserved by volcanic ash up to 65feet deep that resulted from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79(Maiuri,1970;Parslow,1995).The great fire of London in 1666destroyed a large part of the city over 4days including most of the civic buildings,a cathedral,87parish churches and about 13,000homes (Bell,1971).The Indonesian island of Krakatoa was an underwater volcano that erupted and exploded in 1883to completely destroy the island,cover 300,000square miles with ash and pumice,and cause greattsunamis,Safety Science 39(2001)117–131/locate/ssci0925-7535/01/$-see front matter #2001Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.P I I:S 0925-7535(01)00031-5*Corresponding author.E-mail addresses:jennifer.wilson@dca.state.fl.us (J.Wilson),omaielson@(A.Oyola-Yemaiel).118J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131which took36,000lives(Thornton,1996).These and other events caused natural disruption as well as social and human losses.Doubtlessly,few would argue that these disruptions are disasters.2.Defining disasterBut,what exactly is a disaster?Is disaster the disruption of natural ecosystems?Is it the destruction of property?Is it the loss of human life?Is it the loss of vital human resources?Or a combination of these things?Furthermore,is disaster a societal phenomenon or is it a local phenomenon?Although there is no argument that catastrophic events occur to individuals and to small social groups such as the family,we classify disaster in this study as a catastrophic event that affects a large portion of a community.We concur with Fritz (1961)who defines disaster as:an event,concentrated in time and space,in which a society,or a relatively self-sufficient subdivision of a society,undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfillment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented.Fritz’s(1961)definition encompasses the human responses and adaptations to events that have been defined as disasters.It also illustrates how this behavior differs from that occurring in the crises of everyday life and in ordinary accidents such as traffic accidents.This contrasts disasters from somewhat more routine public issues like crime,unemployment,and poverty.Although a consensus on the proper academic definition of‘‘disaster’’has not been reached,it is certain that disasters affect whole communities in many significant ways.Indeed,the potential for highly destructive events is increasing as the world’s population increases,as certain potentially dangerous technologies become more widespread,and as populations become more concentrated in urban areas(Hoet-mer,1991,p.xxii).3.Defining emergency managementIn view of the social calamity that past disasters have produced and in order to reduce catastrophic events,societies in the modern era have established structures to attempt to‘‘manage’’natural and technological hazards and their impacts on life and property.The delineation of‘‘emergency management’’as a separate and specific body of knowledge is a fairly recent innovation,codifying the discipline of managing disasters and emergencies(Marshall,1987).Emergency management is the discipline and profession of applying science,technology,planning,and management to deal with extreme events that can injure or kill large numbers of people,do extensiveJ.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131119 damage to property,and disrupt community life(Hoetmer,1991,p.xvii).In other words,emergency management is the management of risk so that societies can live with environmental and technological hazards and deal with the disasters that they cause(Waugh,2000).In the United States,emergency management generally has been conceptualized as a problem and legal responsibility of government—local,state,and federal(Lindell and Perry,1992).Indeed,elected officials have an inherent or a statutory duty to protect lives and property with co-ordinated response to disasters(Daines,1991,p. 161).Although,historically,emergency management was considered only a function of law enforcement andfire departments,(Petak,1985),today,the function of emergency management requires a permanent,full-time program to co-ordinate a variety of resources,techniques,and skills to reduce the probability and impact of extreme events—and,should a disaster occur,to bring about a quick restoration of routine.Throughout this century,each United States presidential administration has been concerned for its citizen’s safety from calamity—natural or man-made.Since Franklin D.Roosevelt’sfirst administration permanent government agencies con-cerned with domestic and defense emergencies have been in place(Lindell and Perry, 1992).For example,drought and wind erosion that caused the Dust Bowl in the 1930s was gradually halted with federal aid in which windbreaks were planted and grassland was restored from overgrazing(Hurt,1981).The Flood Control Act of 1936provided for a wide variety of projects,many of which were completed under the authority granted to the US Army Corp of Engineers under which hundreds of dams,dikes,and levees were erected to reduce vulnerability tofloods(Drabek, 1991,p.7).Thus,because the land was considered tamed and vulnerability to natural hazards seemingly reduced,by the1950s the primary threat of disaster to the general popu-lation was considered by the federal government to be from an outside source in the manifestation of nuclear attack.Growing concerns about potential uses of nuclear weapons resulted in the creation of an independent federal agency through the enactment of the Federal Civil Defense Act of1950(Drabek,1987).Throughout the 1950s and1960s especially and until the conclusion of the Cold War,this country’s federal emergency management program focused upon civil defense.But,continued population growth in high-risk areas such as barrier islands,along fault lines and inflood plains,fueled growing vulnerability to natural disasters in the United States.With diminishing threat of nuclear attack at the closing stages of the Cold War and ever-increasing impacts of major natural hazards such as hurri-canes,earthquakes,andfloods,federal emergency management began to split its focus between both types of threat—war and natural disasters.By the early1970s, specific emphasis was placed on peacetime as well as wartime emergencies(Drabek, 1987).The Carter administration created the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)in1979in response to administrative and structural difficulties,as well as to concern that the scope of the functions performed as part of emergency management were too narrow and that too many resources were devoted to‘‘after-the-fact’’120J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131disaster response and too few to the issues of prevention and control(Lindell and Perry,1992).This reorganization pulled together programs and personnel scattered throughout the federal bureaucracy and gave increasing legitimacy to comprehen-sive emergency management(Drabek,1991,p.17–18).In line with the comprehensive emergency management concept,FEMA has emphasized an all-hazards approach since the mid-1980s.The basis of this approach acknowledges that for many disaster management needs and problems,the con-sequences are often the same regardless of the particular type of disaster(natural or technological),i.e.displaced people need to be fed and sheltered,damaged infra-structure needs to be repaired,etc.(Kreps,1991,p.37).According to FEMA,if one looks across the range of threats we face,fromfire,to hurricanes,to tornados,to earthquakes,to war,one willfind there are common preparedness measures that we deal with in trying to prepare for those threats.These common preparedness elements include evacuation,shelter,communications,direction and control,con-tinuity of government,resource management,and law and order(FEMA,1983).It is the establishment of common preparedness measures that then becomes a foun-dation for all threats in addition to the unique preparedness aspects relevant to each individual threat(Thomas,1982,p.8as cited in Vale,1987,p.84).Thus,many emergency management functions are appropriate to a range of hazards.Oper-ationally,emergency management capabilities are now based on these functions,i.e. warning,shelter,public safety,evacuation,and so forth,that are required for all hazards(Hoetmer,1991).4.Emergency management levelsSince the comprehensive consolidation effort of federal emergency management programs into FEMA there has been subsequent development of state and local emergency management programs along similar lines.While some emergency responsibilities and functions are common to all three levels of government,each also has its own unique responsibilities(Table1).The basic role of the state emergency management office is to support local gov-ernment in all aspects of disaster mitigation,preparedness,response,and recovery (Durham and Suiter,1991,p.111).States directly engage in emergency management of hazards with scopes of impact that may encompass multiple localities.Some threats require states to co-ordinate the emergency management actions of local jurisdictions as well as commit their own resources(Lindell and Perry,1992,p.8). In addition,state government serves as the pivot in the intergovernmental system between the local and federal levels.The state emergency management office has the responsibility for administering federal funds(primarily from FEMA)to assist local government in developing and maintaining an all-hazard emergency management system.In its pivotal role,the state is in a position to determine the emergency management needs and capabilities of its political subdivisions and to channel state and federal resources to local government,including training and technical assis-tance,as well as operational support in an emergency(Durham and Suiter,1991,J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131121 Table1State agency emergency management role in support of local government(adapted from Drabek and Hoetmer,1991,p.109)Emergency management role Principal state agenciesDirection and control in emergency State emergency management(through governor) Warning and notification State emergency management Communications State emergency management Public safety Public information Governor’s office State emergency management Shelter and mass care American Red Cross Human services Evacuation State emergency management National Guard Law enforcement Public safety National GuardDamage assessmentPublic buildings General servicesElectric power Public service commissionUnemployment Employment securityHousing Human servicesFarms AgricultureWater supply Environmental protectionRoads and bridges TransportationState agency coordination for damage assessment State emergency managementHazardous materialsIdentification and assessment Environmental protectionEmergency response State emergency managementCleanup Environmental protectionRadiological monitoring Environmental protectionp.101).In this capacity,the state office has a unique relationship with local gov-ernment governed by two related objectives:(1)to ensure that federal dollars are used in a manner consistent with federal policy,and(2)to provide direct support to local governments as they develop emergency management capability(Durham and Suiter,1991,p.107).It has been argued that disasters,whether natural or technological,are local events.It is the local community that experiences the impact of disasters and it is incumbent on the locality to undertake some positive action(Lindell and Perry, 1992).Local government has traditionally had thefirst line of official public responsibility forfirst response to a disaster(Clary,1985).Therefore,local govern-ments have to develop and maintain a program of emergency management to meet their responsibilities to provide for the protection and safety of the public (McLoughlin,1985).County and municipal offices tend to get much less exposure and have much less availability of resources compared with the federal and state levels.Although the locality is the component closest to the disaster,it is the one with the smallest resource base and with the least access to resources through its constituency. Financial resources and technical capacity can be provided by state and federal122J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131agencies to augment local capacities,but local officials typically are required to manage disasters until help arrives.What is done during thosefirst hours or days may well determine the success or failure of the response and the costs of recovery (Waugh,1994).For state and local emergency managers,disaster response and mitigation responsibilities have increased dramatically over the past decade.There have been a number of catastrophic natural disasters since1989that have raised the conscious-ness of average citizens and public administrators.Hurricane Hugo in the Carolinas and Virgin Islands,and the Loma Prieta(San Francisco Bay area)earthquake,both in1989,Hurricane Andrew in1992,plus the Midwestfloods of1993were cata-strophes that focused public attention not only on disaster,but on the adequacy of the response to each event and on the need for better disaster mitigation and recovery(Grant,1996).In spite of the fact that tremendous effort has been placed on reduction of risk to natural and technological hazards,it is evident that the overall social consequences of disasters have increased over the past few decades(Blaikie et al.,1994;Peacock et al.,1997;Mileti,1999).There is now more pressure for organizations and civil society to cope with disasters.Consequently,major shifts in the practice of emer-gency management have taken place in the United States.Better emergency response systems and functional co-ordination between federal,state,and local levels of government has evolved into a greater degree of expertise in thefield of emergency management.5.Professionalization of emergency managementIndeed,there has been acceptance of the notion among researchers and practi-tioners that the occupation of emergency management is professionalizing(e.g. Drabek,1987,1989,1994;Drabek and Hoetmer,1991;Lindell and Perry,1992; Sylves and Waugh,1996).Drabek(1994)maintains that the entire nation has experienced a major redirection in disaster preparedness since the1960s that reflects the rapid emergence of a new profession.Increasingly,local government officials have recognized the need for improved co-ordination within the emergency response system.Increasingly this function has been explicitly assigned to an agency directed by a professional with specialized training and job title.For Drabek(1994),the new era of emergency management is indicated by four major areas of change:(1) developments in preparedness theory,(2)new training opportunities,(3)technolo-gical innovations,and(4)increased linkages between research and practitioner communities.But are these areas of change real indicators of occupational(emergency man-agement)professionalization?First,defining exactly what is a‘‘profession’’is not simple.The word‘‘profession’’can be used in quite different ways in everyday lan-guage(Selander,1990).Sociological theory identifies professions as occupations enjoying,or seeking to enjoy,a unique position in the labor force of industrial-ized countries(Collins,1979;Rothman,1987).In this context,professions areJ.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131123 occupations that have been able to establish exclusive jurisdiction over certain kinds of services and to negotiate freedom from external intervention and control over the conditions and content of their work(Freidson,1977).In other words,the core characteristics of a profession are autonomy and monopoly(Rothman,1987).Pro-fessionalization then is the movement of an occupation towards the acquisition of autonomy and monopoly.One substantive indicator that emergency management as afield is indeed pro-fessionalizing results from the institution of the Federal Response Plan in1992.The importance of the Federal Response Plan with its Emergency Support Functions to emergency management professionalization is that it implicitly lays the foundation for standardization of emergency management knowledge,skills,and abilities.A wide number of federal agencies and the American Red Cross must work together incorporating an assumption of co-ordination and communication.Thus,the Fed-eral Response Plan recognizes that many agencies and organizations are part of a disaster response—as opposed to onlyfirst responders such as police and firefighters—highlighting the need for more trained and educated specialists in a variety offields.According to Petak(1985,p.6),emergency managers must have the conceptual skill to understand:(1)the total system,(2)the uses to which the pro-ducts of the efforts of various professionals will be put,(3)the potential linkages between the activities of various professional specialists,and(4)the specifications for output formats and language which are compatible with the needs and under-standings of others within the total system.Professionalization occurs through sponsoring,development,and execution of training by organizations in order to certify individuals as professional emergency managers.The increasing availability of specialized degree programs in disaster management and the certification program for professionals in thefield are indica-tive of monopolization of emergency management.A system of professional licens-ing or certification ensures that practitioners can perform their duties with a certain degree of expertise(Barnhart,1997;Green,1999).Through certification,offered by the International Association of Emergency Managers(IAEM),thefield is able to ensure that future entrants have passed through an appropriate system of selection, training,and socialization,and turned out in a standardized professional mold (MacDonald,1995).The basis of emergency management certification is training.FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute(EMI)provides extensive training that is also available through states.Training is an attempt to build a specialized body of knowledge leading to authority of expertise(Haskell,1984;Beckman,1990).Emergency man-agers are endeavoring to control the educational input in order to develop,define, and monopolize professional knowledge and ensure that practitioners pass through an appropriate system of training and socialization(Larson,1978).Moreover,a national effort of state emergency management directors[National Emergency Management Association(NEMA)]with support from FEMA,is developing a process by which states can receive professional accreditation for their emergency management programs.Accreditation is basically a rigorous,compre-hensive evaluation process to assess an agency or a program against a set of standards124J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131(National Committee for Quality Assurance,1999).Accreditation is a form of self-regulation,which implies less regulation from outsiders and thus greater autonomy for the emergency management practitioners.This process includes complying with a standard of performance where the state must meet certain requirements in the practice of emergency management such as debris management,sheltering and feeding,and damage assessment.NEMA’s(1998,p.29)report defines state emer-gency management accreditation in the following way.Emergency management accreditation is a voluntary national program of excellence dedicated to ensuring disaster-resistant communities through national standards,demonstrated emergency management capabilities and performance,partnerships,and continuous self-improvement.Emergency managers at the federal,state,and local levels of government have not always shared the same idea of what a‘‘professional emergency manager’’or even the‘‘emergency management profession’’entails.But this has been changing and may continue to change rapidly with increased co-ordination among all levels of government through the accreditation and certification processes.If so,the emer-gency management profession will have a greater degree of intergovernmental consistency.6.The process of emergency management professionalization:the case of Florida Florida is an important and interesting state within which to study the changing field of emergency management.First,Florida is the state geographically and his-torically most vulnerable to hurricanes.Between1900and1997Florida has been directly hit by a little more than one-third of the hurricanes that struck the United States(57of159).This is far more than that experienced by any other state (Lecomte and Gahagan,1998,Williams and Duedall,1997).Table2displays a comparison of hurricane landfall between United States coastal states during most of the twentieth century.Fig.1illustrates the tropical storms and hurricanes that have crossed Florida between1992and1999.Second,Florida is one of the fastest-growing states in terms of population. Throughout the twentieth century Florida’s population has grown at a rate con-siderably faster than the rate of growth for the nation as a whole—usually two, three,or four times as rapidly.In1998,the state’s population reached15million, growing15.9%since the1990census of12.9million,which is more rapid than the nation as a whole(8.3%).The current population of Florida is approximately 14,650,000—the4th most populous in the nation(United States Bureau of the Census,1998).By2025,the United States Bureau of the Census(1995)projects Florida will surpass New York to become the third most populous state in the nation with20.7million people.Table3represents Florida’s tremendous growth rate. Moreover,Florida’s coastal population(Fig.2)has grown from just under7.7 million in1980to over10.5million by the mid-1990s,an increase of37%(LecomteTable2United States mainland hurricane strikes by state,1900–1996(National Hurricane Center,1997)Area Category number All Major123451,2,3,4,53,4,5 United States(Texas to Maine)58364715215864 Texas1299603615 Louisiana858312512 Mississippi1150186 Alabama41500105 Florida171617615724 Georgia1400050 South Carolina64220144 North Carolina104101a02511 Virginia211a0041a Maryland01a0001a0 Delaware0000000 New Jersey1a00001a0 New York31a5a0095a Connecticut23a3a0083a Rhode Island02a3a005a3a Massachusetts22a2a0062a New Hampshire1a1a0002a0 Maine5a00005a0a Indicates all hurricanes in this group were moving faster than30mph.State totals will not necessarilyequal United States totals,and Texas or Florida totals will not necessarily equal sum of sectionaltotals.Fig. ndfalling storms in Florida,1992–1999(provided by Florida Department of Community Affairs,1999).J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel/Safety Science39(2001)117–131125and Gahagan,1998).According to Florida Department of Community Affairs (1999),more than 9million Floridians live within 10miles of the coast in 1998,more than 62%of the state’s total population.Due to such high coastal population there are more people at risk in Florida from hurricanes than in any other state in the nation.With people comes property;Florida also has the most coastal property exposed to wind storms.From 1980to the mid-1990s,the value of insured residential prop-erty increased by 135%from $178billion to $418billion and insured commercial property increased by 192%from $155billion to $453billion (IIPLR and IRC,1995).Table 4portrays the increase in the value of insured residential and com-mercial property in Florida.According to the Insurance Services Office (2000),Florida had the most insured losses in the country in the period from 1990to 1999with $19.3billion.California was second with $17.5billion and Texas was third with $6.6billion in insured losses.Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s,several legislative attempts to overhaul the emergency management system in Florida were made with little success.But Hurri-cane Andrew demonstrated decidedly that the state lacked sufficient expertise and Table 3Population Growth in Florida (inmillions)Fig.2.Florida’s coastal population (provided by Florida Department of Community Affairs,1999).126J.Wilson,A.Oyola-Yemaiel /Safety Science 39(2001)117–131resources to co-ordinate an operation to handle a major disaster (FEMA,1993).Florida response was uncoordinated,confused,and often inadequate.In response,Governor Lawton Chiles issued an executive order (92–242)establishing the Gov-ernor’s Disaster Planning and Response Review Committee to evaluate current state and local statutes,plans and programs for natural and man-made disasters,and to make recommendations to the Governor and the State Legislature before the 1993legislative session.The 1993Florida legislature acted on most of the committee’s recommendations,including its call for the creation of the Emergency Management Preparedness and Assistance Trust Fund (EMPATF).House Bill 911created the EMPATF through a $2surcharge levied on all private insurance policies,and a $4surcharge on com-mercial policies (Koutnik,1996).Florida Governor Chiles set up the Division of Emergency Management under the Department of Community Affairs,and appointed Joseph Myers to lead the emer-gency program,as per FEMA guidelines (Kory,1998).The specific powers and authorities of the emergency management division are set forth in Chapter 252,part 1of the Florida Statutes,entitled the ‘‘State Emergency Management Act’’(Mittler,1997).This act amended the Florida Statutes in 1995to provide broad powers for the governor to order evacuations and to demand mutual aid agreements between counties,municipalities,and the state.Each local government must also prepare an emergency operations pliance,co-operation,and co-ordination are man-dated by the state (Kory,1998).Thus,the state of Florida is committed to acquiring the needed proficiency to reduce disaster impacts,and therefore Florida Division of Emergency Management (DEM)is seeking to become accredited through the NEMA accreditation process.But,in order for the state to meet this standard of performance each county must also match this standard since the state only assists counties in responding to,recovering from,preparing for and mitigating against local disasters within the state.The DEM is currently conducting focus groups with local emergency managers in order to determine the tasks that local emergency management programs should be able to perform.The determination of these tasks will then be used by the state as part of its standards of performance.Therefore,the state’s attempt to Table 4Increase in value of insured residential and commercial property in Florida (in millions ofdollars)。

3d meeting of the Vicious Circle Society14october2005,Haus der Universit¨a t,BernProgramme09.30Welcome in the Haus09.45T.Studer(Bern):Probabilistic Description Logic10.15L.Keiff(Lille):Logical dynamics10.45F.Schang(Nancy):Philosophy of a philosophical Logic(From epistemiclogic to epistemo-logic)11.15Coffe time in the Haus11.30F.Correia(Barcelona/Tarragona):Modality,quantification,and manyVlach operators12.00M.Kretz(Bern):A proof-theoretical result about the modal mu-calculus 12.30Lunch in the Haus14.00J.-Y.B´e ziau(Neuchˆa tel):Absolute maximality14.30A.Moretti(Nice):Expressing inside n-Opposition Theory the forkings andisolated points of the modal graphs15.00S.Salaet(Barcelona):An abstract algebraic logic view on Nelson’s para-consistent logic N415.30Coffee time in the Haus15.45K.Br¨u nnler(Bern):Is there a proof theory of temporal logic?16.15A.Costa-Leite(Neuchˆa tel):Paraconsistentization of logics-the generaltheory of paraconsistent logics16.45L.Kwuida(Bern)-to be confirmed-17.15Searching for a metalogical-ap´e ro1AbstractsT.Studer(Bern):Probabilistic Description LogicMost probabilistic extensions of description logics focus on the terminologi-cal apparatus.While some allow for expressing probabilistic knowledge about concept assertions,systems which can express probabilistic knowledge about role assertions have received no attention as yet.We present a system PALC which allows us to express degress of belief in concpet and role assertions for individuals.We introduce syntax and semantics for PALC and we define the corresponding reasoning problem.An independence assumption regarding the assertions for different individuals yields additional constraints on the possi-ble interpretations.This considerably reduces the solution space of the PALC reasoning problem.L.Keiff(Lille):Logical dynamicsIn the context of legal reasoning,several dialectical models have been proposed in order to capture1.the procedural nature of this kind of reasoning;2.the defeasible character of its inferences;3.the layered organization of the institution of justice,where distinct fea-tures of an initial court decision can be brought into debate and subject to revision.Making use of the work of logicians such as Toulmin,Rescher,Prakken,Sartor or Loui,we will make some remarks on the concept of logic which underlies this approach,how it sheds light much farther than its initial domain,and how it connects with dialogical pragmatic epistemology.We will emphasise on the dynamic relation between the processes of the formation of judgment on the one hand,and of its critical discussion on the other hand.F.Schang(Nancy):Philosophy of a philosophical Logic (From epistemic logic to epistemo-logic)Epistemic logic will be assessed as an enlightening subspecies towards a state-of-the-art philosophy of logic.It will be assumed that Logic as a whole is an em-pirical modeling of conceptual structures within some feed-back process.Given philosophical logic as any interpreted system from pure algebras to natural lan-guages,Logic will be reviewed in its current practice and presented as a general theory of streamlining conceptual thought.From this,the usual tripartition in philosophy of logic between monism,pluralism and instrumentalism will be con-flated into just one theoretical activity,that is:to organize various conceptual inputs(pluralism)into a set of structural sequences(instrumentalism)aiming at unity(monism).For this purpose,epistemic logic will appear as a conspicuous2case in point in displaying our phenomenalist and idoneist view of Logic:Logic as an open and historically-rooted activity.F.Correia(Barcelona/Tarragona):Modality,quantifica-tion,and many Vlach operatorsActualist quantifiers are definable in terms of possibilist quantifiers,the ex-istence predicate,and truth-functional connectives:there is(in the actualist sense)an x such that P iffthere is(in the possibilist sense)an x which exists and is such that P.In order to define possibilist quantifiers in terms of actual-ist quantifiers,more is needed that just truth-functional connectives and other standard pieces of vocabulary.As shown in G.Forbes The Language of Pos-sibility,one way of doing so is to make use of the possibility operator and of a pair of sentential operators called Vlach operators.In my presentation I will study the effect of introducing infinitely many pairs of such operators to certain quantified modal languages,and examine some philosophical consequences for the debate between actualism and possibilism.M.Kretz(Bern):A proof-theoretical result about the modal mu-calculus(Based on joint work with Gerhard J¨a ger and Thomas Studer)In order to overcome certain limitations of expressivity modal logic may be extended by variables taken to range over sets of worlds.A formula A[X]which is positive in the variable X may then be interpreted as a monotone operator, that is as a function which maps sets of worlds to sets of worlds and which respects set inclusion.It is well–known that such operators always possess a least and a greatestfixed point,that is given a Kripke structure K there is a minimal set S and a maximal set T such that A[X] K[X:=S]=S and A[X] K[X:=T]=T.Taking our modal language enriched with second order variables we may thus further add symbolsµandνfor least and greatestfixed points respectively where µX.A[X] K=S and νX.A[X] K=T.The logic obtained in this manner is known as the modalµ–calculus and it is in a sense the most general modal logic withfixed point extensions.Notable fragments of the modalµ–calculus include Logic of Common Knowledge,PDL,CTL and CTL∗.When comparing different fragments of the modalµ–calculus a great deal is known about their relative expressivity in terms of the definability of certain properties of Kripke structures.Prime examples of this are the strictness results by Bradfield[1]with respect to the alternation hierarchy and Berwanger,Gr¨a del and Lenzi[2]with respect to the variable hierarchy.In both cases the argument centers aroundfinding a formula at a certain level of the respective hierarchy which expresses a property of Kripke structures not expressible at any lower level.Such a notion of expressivity is not suitable when talking about valid formulae,i.e.formulae which are true and thus satisfied in every world of every Kripke structure.In this case a different measure of expressivity is nevertheless3conceivable,namely the maximum number of iterations of the corresponding operator needed in order to establish the truth of a anyfixed point formula defined in the logic under consideration.With respect to this alternative concept of expressivity only limitative results are known at present.The Logic of Common Knowledge is known to be capable of expressing only operators which close atωmany iterations,whereωrefers to the least infinite ordinal.On the other hand Lenzi has produced a valid formula of the full modalµ–calculus which does not close atω.In this presentation we prove a conjecture by Lenzi[3]stating that all validfixed point formulae of the modalµ–calculus restricted to leastfixed points close atω.Our proof proceeds by providing a sound and complete axiomatization for the modalµ–calculus which is cut–free and in which the length of the proof of a validfixed point formula can be seen to correspond to the number of iterations needed for closure.We willfirst sketch the completeness proof for our axiomatization before using proof–theoretic reasoning to show the conjecture. References[1]Julian Bradfield,The modal mu-calculus alternation hierarchy is strict,Theoretical Computer Science,vol.195(1998),133-153[2]Dietmar Berwanger and Erich Gr¨a del and Giacomo Lenzi,On the vari-able hierarchy of the modalµ–calculus,CSL’02:Proceedings of the16th International Workshop and11th Annual Conference of the EACSL on Computer Science Logic,Springer(2002),352-366[3]Giacomo Lenzi,Personal communication,june,2004.J.-Y.B´e ziau(Neuchˆa tel):Absolute maximality (Forthcoming joint work with A.Facchini)In this talk I will present a new concept of maximality for logics which extends the previous one(according to which for example,due to a famous theorem of Post,classical propositional logic is maximal.A.Moretti(Nice):Expressing inside n-Opposition Theory the forkings and isolated points of the modal graphs (Joint work with R.Pellissier)The previous recent work spread on the emerging field of”n-opposition theory”(a generalised theory of opposition,both geomet-rical and modal logical,generalising strongly the logical square and hexagon of oppositions)has been developed,for reasonable pragmatic reasons,under the assumption of the linearity of the so-called”modal graphs”or”modal n(m)-graphs”(the modal graph of a system expresses the implications and contra-dictions between the”basic modalities”of this system).This has lead to deep elegant theoretical results concerning the general abstract frame of n-opposition4theory,establishing among others the notions of”logical bi-simplexes”(orα-structures),of(n-1)-dimensional”modal n(m)-graphs”,the logical series of n-dimensional”hyper-flowers”and”hyper-tetraicosahedra”(orβ-structures)and the powerful”setting method of modal decoration”.In order to be able to for-malise geometrically(i.e.n-oppositionally)the existing systems of modal logic (i.e.in order to show and explore the concrete use and utility of abstract n-opposition theory as applied to any particular system of modal logic,normal or non-normal)we need to go beyond this commitment to graph linearity(for clarity,if the modal graph of S5is linear,the one of S4has two nested fork-ings).We do it in the present study,where we show how to interpret,inside n-opposition theory,forkings and isolated points(or isolated basic modalities)of classical and non-classical modal graphs by means of the set-theoretic decoration method newly adapted.S.Salaet(Barcelona):An abstract algebraic logic view on Nelson’s paraconsistent logic N4The N4logic is the paraconsistent version of the N3logic.N3logic was devel-oped by Nelson in the forties to solve a problem of the negation in Intuitionistic logic.The so-called problem of the strong negation:in the later logic we cant derive the negation ofϕorψfrom the negation ofϕ∧ψ.In the last years, Odintsov makes a sistematically study of the variety VN4which gives complet-ness for N4.He also characterizes it with help of the socalled twist-structures over implicative lattices.We make in relation these results with the theory of algebraic abstrac logic.In particular we show VN4gives an algebraic equivalent semantics to N4and we also show it is exactly Mod*S,the class of reduced mod-els of S.This proves N4is strongly axiomatizable.We also develop an example which proves N4is paraconsistent and not regularly axiomatizable.Finally we show specialfilters,as defined by Odintsov,are all thefilters for every A in VN4.K.Br¨u nnler(Bern):Is there a proof theory of temporal logic?Currently known sequent systems for temporal logics such as propositional lin-ear time temporal logic(PLTL)either include a cut rule in some form or an infinitary rule,which is a rule with infinitely many premises.Both kinds of systems are unsatisfactory for automated deduction and for studying cut elim-ination.I will discuss the question of whether there is a satisfactoryfinitary cut-free sequent system and what satisfactory means in thefirst place.A.Costa-Leite(Neuchˆa tel):Paraconsistentization of log-ics-the general theory of paraconsistent logicsGiven a logic,how to obtain its paraconsistent counterpart?Given a paracon-sistent logic,how to obtain the non-paraconsistent counterpart of this logic?5Many systems of paraconsistent logics were already proposed using different methods and techniques.Although this fact,there is not a singular way to generate paraconsistent logics.I propose an unification of all these ways to create paraconsistent logics from logics which are non-paraconsistent by means of what I call paraconsistentization of logics-the general theory of paracon-sistent logics.I examine the plurality of ways which can be used to create a paraconsistent logic:defining paraconsistent negations in the language(Beziau’s argument showing how to generate paraconsistent logics from modal logics and vice-versa),by restrictions in the axioms(the example of some modal para-consistent logics),fibring a given logic with a paraconsistent one and changing valuations(many-valued logics).An unrealist logic is presented as an example of paraconsistentization at the semantical level.I also examine how to paracon-sistentizate classical propositional logic and how this method should preserve soundness and completeness.6。

2022年考研考博-考博英语-南开大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题An important property of scientific theory is its ability to （）further research and further thinking about a particular topic.问题1选项A.stimulateB.renovateC.arouseD.advocate【答案】A【解析】动词词义辨析。

stimulate刺激，鼓舞；renovate革新，修复；arouse引起，唤醒；advocate 主张，拥护。

句意：科学理论的一个重要特性是它能够激发对特定主题的进一步研究和思考。

选项A符合句意。

2.单选题In general, our society is becoming one of giant enterprises directed by a bureaucratic management in which man becomes a small, well-oiled cog in the machinery. The oiling is done with higher wages, well-ventilated factories and piped music, and by psychologists and “human-relations” experts; yet all this oiling does not alter the tact that man has become powerless, that he does not wholeheartedly participate in his work and that he is bored with it. In fact, the blue-collar and the white-collar workers have become economic puppets who dance to the tune of automated machines and bureaucratic management.The worker and employee are anxious, not only because they might find themselves out of a job; they are anxious also because they are unable to acquire any real satisfaction or interest in life. They live and die without ever having confronted the fundamental realities of human existence as emotionally and intellectually independent and productive human beings. Those higher up on the social ladder are no less anxious. Their lives are no less empty than those of their subordinates. They are even more insecure in some respects. They are in a highly competitive race. To be promoted or to fall behind is not a matter of salary but even more d matter of self-respect. When they apply for their first job, they are tested for intelligence as well as for the tight mixture of submissiveness and independence. From that moment on they are tested again and again by the psychologists, for whom testing is a big business, and by their superiors, who judge their behavior, sociability, capacity to get along. etc. This constant need to prove that one is as good as or better than one's fellow-competitor creates constant anxiety and stress, the very causes of unhappiness and illness. Am I suggesting that we should return to the preindustrial mode of production or to nineteenth-century “free enterprise” capitalis m? Certainly not. Problems are never solved by returning to a stage which one has already outgrown. I suggest transforming our social system from a bureaucratically managed industrialism in which maximal production and consumption are ends in themselves into a humanist industrialism in which man and full development of his potentialities—those of love and of reason—are the aims of all social arrangements. Production and consumption should serve only as means to this end, and should be prevented from ruling man.1.By “a well-oiled cog in the machinery” the author intends to render the idea that man is （）.2.From die passage we can inter that real happiness of life belongs to those（） .3.To solve the present social problems the author suggests that we should（） .4.The author's attitude towards industrialism might best be summarized as one of（） .问题1选项A.a necessary part of the society though each individual's function is negligibleB.working in complete harmony with the rest of the societyC.an unimportant part in comparison with the rest of the society, though functioning smoothlyD.a humble component of the society, especially when working smoothly问题2选项A.who are at the bottom of the societyB.who prove better than their fellow-competitorsC.who could keep far away from this competitive worldD.who are higher up in their social status问题3选项A.resort to the production mode of our ancestorsB.offer higher wages to the workers and employeesC.enable man to fully develop his potentialitiesD.take the fundamental realities for granted问题4选项A.approvalB.dissatisfactionC.suspicionD.tolerance【答案】第1题:C第2题:C第3题:C第4题:B【解析】1.信息推断题。

Part I Listening ComprehensionSection A (1 Point each)1. A. His paper has been published with the help of his adviser.B. His paper has won an award with the help of his adviser.C. His paper has been revised by his adviser.D. His paper has got the approval from his adviser.2. A. Tom is terribly ill. B. Tom is in low spirits.C. Tom is bad-tempered.D. Tom is nervous at the moment3. A. He saw his boss in person for the first time.B. He is now complaining in a different way.C. He has made his boss change his attitude.D. He has changed his opinion of his boss.4. A. He was not fond of the concert.B. He didn't like the tea offered at the concert.C. He left early to have some tea with somebody else.D. He doesn't want to tell the woman why he was not there.5. A. He always looks down upon others.B. He always lowers the value of others.C. He always judges people by their appearanceD. He is always reluctant to take newcomers.6. A. She is always stupid. B. She is always concentrated.C. She is always careless.D. She is always absent-minded.7. A. She wants to leave a way out. B. She doesn't trust her boss.C. She wants to repay her boss.D. She wants to stay with her boss as long as possible8. A. She should let her daughter decide.B. She should choose what the teacher is interested in.C. She should make the same choice as the other parents.D. She should choose what she is interested in.9. A. She felt very cold because of the weather. B. She was frightened by the scene.C. She sent the two boys to the hospital.D. She went to help the injured immediately. Mini-talk one10. A. He went mountain climbing. B. He went camping.C. He went to a party:D. He went to a concert.11. A. He was lost in the forest. B. He was caught in a natural disaster.C. He was woken up in the middle of the night.D. He burned his dinner.12. A. Because it was too noisy. B. Because he wanted to join the party.C. Because he was too tired.D. Because he turned on some music.Mini-talk Two13. A. They may be overweight. B. They may earn less money.C. The may suffer from serious diseases.D. They may have lasting damage in their brain.14. A. Improving children's nutrition in their country.B. Providing their people with cleaner conditions.C. Improving health care for their people.D. Providing their people with better education.15. A. Preschool period. B. Teenage period.C. Between birth and 15 years old.D. Between pregnancy and two years old.Section C (1 point each)16. "Facebook" and "MySpace" are some of the most popular blog sites for_______________.17. Blogs offer young people a place to show their writings and ______________.18. Personal information puts teenagers at risk of being sought out by dangerous people who ______.19. When teenagers include information on their blogs that can be seen as a threat to others they can ___________________.20. Parents are advised to read their children's blogs to make sure they are not giving out__________.PART II VOCABULARY (10 minutes, 10 points )Section A (0.5 point each)21. The city was virtually paralyzed by the transit strike for better wages.A. subjectivelyB. imaginablyC. positivelyD. practically22. In spite of the taxing business schedule, he managed to take some time off for exercise.A. imposingB. demandingC. compulsoryD. temporary23. The court held the parents accountable for the minor child's acts of violence.A. responsible forB. indifferent toC. desperate forD. involved in24.The visitors were impressed by the facilities planned and programmed in terms of their interrelationships.A. in units ofB. with reference toC. in aspects ofD. on condition of25. "There is a weird power in a spoken word," Joseph Conrad once said.A. mightyB. prospectiveC. oddD. formidable26. Poverty and inadequate health care take their toll on the quality of a community's health.A. destructionB. contributionC. chargeD. origin27. This old man had trouble expressing the attachment he felt when arriving at his native town.A. hospitalityB. affection C: appeal D. frustration28. If you become reconciled to your lot, you will never get a new start in life.A. submissiveB. resistantC. tolerableD. committed29. The little girl felt increasingly uneasy while waiting for her mother at the bus-stop.A. difficultB. excitedC. relievedD. restless30. A high official is likely to win respect and trust if he can stick to his principles.A. turn toB. add toC. keep toD. lead toSection B (0.5 point each)31. To achieve sustainable development, the of resources is assuming new importance.A. conservationB. reservationC. exhaustionD. devastation32. The sale of alcoholic beverages is ________ to those above 21 in some regions.A. confinedB. inhibitedC. obligedD. restricted33. The importance of protecting rainforests from human invasion is increasingly realized by developing anddeveloped countries_______.A. bothB. eitherC. alikeD. apart34. Before the 1980s, the idea of health insurance was quite _______ to those living in the mainland of China.A. overseasB. abroadC. foreignD. offshore35. The government is expected to make new legislations to ______ foreign investment in real estate.A. manipulateB. regulateC. dominateD. prevail36. Despite the suspect's ________to be innocent, there is compelling evidence that he was involved.A. convictionB. assertionC. accusationD. speculation37. For many countries, being part of a global supply chain is like striking oil -- oil that may never ____.A. run outB. work outC. turn outD. call out38. Having been an office secretary for some years, she always _______chores in a responsible way.A. goes onB. goes forC. goes withoutD. goes about39. Without clear guidelines ______, executives of hospitals are sometimes at a loss about what to do.A. in orderB. in placeC. in needD. in trouble40. The age of other trees is variously estimated as ______ from two hundred to eight hundred years.A. changingB. differingC. varyingD. rangingPART III CLOZE TEST (10 minutes, 10 points, 1 point each)Every year, as the price of goods rises, the inflation refuses to (41) even from the high educational institutions. In the US, according to a 2023 survey by the College Board, (42) at state universities rose by an average of 7.1percent annually, after a year when inflation grew much less. At private schools it was up 5.9 percent. The survey which (43) more than 3,000 colleges and universities did not provide clear reasons for the continued increases. It did say that the price of goods and services at universities have risen rapidly. Some of the fastest growth has been in employee health (44), and professional salaries.Living expenses on campus have also (45). At the university of Southern California student dining hall, a buffet meal cost $5.50 in 2023. But now it's $9. The US government often provides (46) assistance to students' lunch in primary and high schools, but these favorable policies usually don't (47) universities.Some students said the food on campus is sometimes even more expensive than that at restaurants (48) campus.To compensate the rise in tuition and living expenses, the federal and state governments (49) universities and private sources have provided (50) for students. Of all the full time undergraduates about 62 percent have a grant covering 30-50 percent of their tuition, according to the College Board.41. A. stay away B. stand out C. step down D. set off42. A. fares B. payment C. charges D. tuition43. A. attended B. covered C. included D. composed44. A. welfares B. advantages C. benefits D. goods45. A. rolled up B. gone up C. sat up D. taken up46. A. management B. economic C. policy D. financial47. A. apply to B. suit for C. adjust to D. gear for48. A. in B. to C. off D. over49. A. as well as B. the same as C. as far as D. such as50. A. grasps B. grains C. grounds D. grantsPART IV READING COMPREHENSION (45 minutes, 30 points, 1 point each)Passage OneDid your mum and dad go to university, or did they leave school and go straight to the Job Centre? The educational experience of parents is still important when it comes to how today's students choose an area of study and what to do after graduation, according to The Future-track research in the UK.The research was done by the Higher Education Careers Service Unit. It plans to follow university applicants for six years from 2023 through their early careers.The first year's findings come from a study of 130,000 university applicants. They show significant differences in prospective students' approach to higher education, depending on whether their parents got degrees (second-generation applicants) or didn't (first-generation applicants).First-generation applicants were more likely to say that their career and employment prospects were uppermost in their minds in deciding to go to university. About one-fifth of this group gave "to enable me to get a good job" as their main reason for choosing HE. And 37 percent said that a degree was "part of my career plan".A young person coming from a non-professional household where finances are stretched may find the idea of learning for its own sake to be a luxury. This explains the explosion in vocational courses.At Portsmouth University, first-year student Kim Burnett, 19, says that she specifically chose her degree in health research management and psychology to get a secure, well-paid job. Harriet Edge, 20, studying medicine at Manchester University, also wanted job security. Her parents lacked college degrees, though the fact that her uncle is a doctor appears to have influenced her choice."Medicine is one of those fields where it's pretty likely you'll get a job at the end. That's a big plus, as the debt levels after five years of study are going to be frightening," she says. Many experts believe that this situation affects those with no family tradition of higher education far more keenly. The fact that 26 percent of respondents said that they needed more advice implies that some students may end up feeling that their higher education investment was not worthwhile.For those with graduate parents, this lack of guidance may, the researchers suggest, be less of a problem. " But, for those without the advantages, lack of access to career guidance before applying for higher education leaves them exposed to making poorer choices," the survey concludes.51. The main idea of the passage is that_________.A. parents' experiences are more important for their children's educationB. parents' careers are vitally important for their children's degreesC. students' approach to higher education correlates with their parents' educational experienceD. students' career and employment prospects are decided by their parents52. "HE" in the 4th paragraph probably refers to __________.A. health educationB. higher employmentC. Harriet EdgeD. higher education53. A young person coming from a non-professional household ____________.A. is less likely to get financial aid to go to universityB. is more likely to choose vocational educationC. may think learning for pleasure is a good ideaD. may choose to study for a professional degree54. In which of the following aspects do Kim Burnett and Harriet Edge have in common?A. They both chose their majors because of their family influence.B. They are both the first-year students in university.C. Both of their parents lack college degrees.D. Both of them chose degrees for job security.55. It is implied that ____________.A. the cost of a degree in medicine is very highB. higher education investment in medicine is not worthwhileC. a student without family medical tradition is less likely to choose medicineD. medicine is a field where every degree-holder can get a job56.Those with graduate parents may _________.A. make poorer choices when choosing their majorsB. make better choices when applying for higher educationC. not need career guidance before graduationD. have no problems in applying for a collegePassage TwoLast month, the public address system at Earl's Court subway station in London was ordered to get the noise down. Passengers, it seems, had had enough of being told the blindingly obvious: "Stand back or the train will run you over." "Don't lean on the doors." "Stand back from the opening doors." "Do this." "Don't do that."Bossiness is not just aural. It is also written. As a commuter, I'm continually bombarded by notices on car walls. "Please take your feet off the seat." "Please turn down your personal stereo." And when I drive past the local primary, a sign flashes: "School. Slow down!"The presumption behind these signs is that Britons must have everything spelled out because we are tow, uncivilized people who were raised by wolves.Britain didn't use to be so bossy. When I was a boy, for instance, the local cinema put a warning on screenbefore we settled down to watch. "Don't," it said, "make noises." In those days, long before mobile phones, it was the only bossiness we saw in the cinema. Since then, bossiness has become more commonplace. Television, that strongest guide to public morals and lifestyles in this country, is alive with dominant people. On screen, we see health experts holding some poor woman's breasts and demanding that she get in shape. Cooking programs tell us not to think of leaving toast crumbs on the kitchen table.There is no point in blaming TV for this new bossiness. We want to be bossed. We have behaved badly and now we yearn to feel the whip to correct us. On July 1, smoking will be banned in public places in England. My local government told churches in the area last week that no-smoking posters must be prominently displayed by church entrances.I love this: the governments are bossing people to make them more bossy. They are insisting that priests tell their congregations (教区旳教民) what to do.My local government isn't the only source of bossiness. I find it everywhere. But the rise in bossiness does not seem to have been accompanied by a rise in socially well-adjusted behavior. In fact, the opposite. Perhaps this is because, if you feel as though you are treated with contempt, you will respond with the same.57. The case at Earl's Court subway station shows that _________.A. it is very noisy in public placesB. it is necessary to warn the passengers of their safetyC. people have realized the importance of public orderD. people have been tired of being bossed58. It is presumed that bossiness is everywhere because Britons__________.A. need to be bossed to behave themselvesB. want to be reminded of how to behave wellC. must have everything spelled outD. are raised in uncivilized society59. It is suggested in the passage that____________.A. now Britons behave much better than they did in the pastB. in the past Britons behaved much better than they do nowC. the dominant people on screen should be blamed for the new bossinessD. television has misguided the public morals and lifestyles in Britain60. According to the passage, which of the following statements is true?A. Television should play a role in enhancing public morals.B. The local government has got involved in the church activities.C. The governments want to make themselves more authoritative by bossing people.D. The rise in bossiness has helped the improvement of people's behavior.61. The author writes this passage in a _________.A. funny toneB. criticizing toneC. friendly toneD. radical tone62. What is the appropriate title of this passage?A. British People Have Had Enough Bossiness AroundB. British People Want to Be BossedC. Bossiness in Great Britain: Its Past and PresentD. Bossiness in Great Britain Should Be IgnoredPassage ThreeIt began as just another research project, in this case to examine the effects of various drugs on patients with a severe mood disorder. Using an advanced brain scanning technology--the clumsily named echo-planar magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (磁共振光谱成像) procedure, or EP-MRSI--researchers at Boston's McLean Hospital scanned the medicated and un-medicated brains of 30 people with bipolar disorder in order to detect possible new treatments for the more than 2 million American adults who suffer from the disease.But something unexpected happened. A patient who had been so depressed that she could barely speak became ebullient after the 45-minute brain scan. Then a second patient, who seemed incapable of even a smile, emerged actually telling jokes. Then another and another. Was this some coincidence? Aimee Parow, the technician who made these observations didn't think so. She mentioned the patients' striking mood shifts to her boss and together they completely refocused the study: to see if the electromagnetic fields might actually have a curative effect on depressive mood.As it turns out, they did. As reported last month in the American Journal of Psychiatry, 23 of the 30 people who were part of the study reported feeling significantly less depressed after the scan. The most dramatic improvements were among those who were taking no medication. The researchers are cautious. Says Bruce Cohen, McLean's president and psychiatrist in chief: “I want to emphasize that we are not saying this is the answer but this is a completely different approach in trying to help the brain than anything that was done before."It's a completely different approach because of the way the magnetism is applied to the brain. But it's anexample of new research on an old idea: that the brain is an electromagnetic organ and that brain disorders might result from disorder in magnetic function. The idea has huge appeal to psychiatrists and patients alike, since for many people the side effects of psychiatric (精神旳) drugs are almost as difficult to manage as the disease itself. And 30 percent of the nearly 18.8 million people who suffer from depression do not respond to any of the antidepressants available now. People with other severe mental disorders might benefit as well. And while no one fully understands exactly why or how the brain responds as it does to electrical currents and magnetic waves, fascinating new research is offering some possible explanations.63. The first paragraph describes a project aimed at finding ____________.A. who has bipolar disorderB. what improves people's moodsC. whether magnetic scanning is a treatmentD. how some patients respond to some drugs64. What does the passage say about bipolar disorder?A.It mainly affects males.B. It may cause drug addiction.C. It is a mental problem.D. It is hard to detect.65. The word "ebullient" in Paragraph 2 can be best replaced by________.A. considerateB. quietC. excitedD. sorrowful66. The researchers' attitude toward the new finding can be described as_________.A. confusedB. amusedC. carefulD. skeptical67. The new finding is significant because it shows that electromagnetic fields mayA. treat mental disordersB. cause mental disordersC. increase the effectiveness of some drugsD. reduce the effectiveness of some drugs68. The passage mainly_________.A. reports a discoveryB. challenges a discoveryC. explains the problems with a discoveryD. describes the background of a discoveryPassage FourMy kids tell me that I am "so 20th century", which troubles me. A person likes to feel that he is "with it", as we used to say in the 20th century.So I have been thinking how I might change myself into a true 21st-century man. Clearly, in my advanced state of age I would be foolish to attempt some wild leap into the contemporary fashion. And anyway, my distinctive taste attracts much favourable comment.But if my clothing is too characteristic to change, perhaps I should do something about my lifestyle. So last week I took myself to the NEC for the Smart Home Show which is "the exhibition dedicated to all the latest trends in smart home technology".It was a shock. How could I have lived for half a century without a fingerprint-operated front door? ("Never lock yourself out of your home again!") Or vacuum cleaners that suck dust straight into a dustbin, via a system of pipes in your house walls? (All you have to do is rebuild your entire home.) Or automatic garden sprinklers which are so smart that they turn themselves off when it starts to rain? Of course, you could just look out of the window, observe that it's raining and turn them off yourself, but that would be so 20th century.Besides, those were just the simpler things. For the true smart-home owner, a plasma (等离子) TV fireplace is a must. At first glance it's just an electric fire with a mantelpiece，but press your remote and a giant TV screen rises from the mantelpiece. "Thieves won't even know it's there," a spokesman claimed. Just as well. At£5,280，it would be a pity to have it broken. But the real revolution has happened in the bathroom. Never again need you feel cut off from world events as you go about your washing. Forget the mirrors that turn into TV screens. They're old hat. The buzz in bathrooms now is all about heated towel-racks that turn into TVs.Enough! I was convinced: I want a smart home. There's only one problem: The cost. You are looking at £18,000 to £25,000 for an average home. Hmm. I won't be entering the 21st century just yet, then.69. To be "21st century", the author decided to___________.A. move to a new houseB. change the way he livedC. improve his dressing styleD. talk in the most trendy fashion70. The author's comment on the vacuum cleaner implies that___________.A. he believed that it was uselessB. he wanted to purchase one himselfC. he hated to cause inconvenienceD. he thought that it was not worth the effort71. What is the most revolutionary smart home technology according to the author?A. The plasma TV fireplace.B. The automatic garden sprinkler.C. Mirrors that turn into TV screens.D. Heated towel-racks that turn into TVs.72. The Smart Home Show__________.A. seemed too good to be trueB. was a true eye-opener for the authorC. left a negative impression on the authorD. appealed less to the middle- and old-aged73. What does the author think of buying the smart home products?A. He was interested, but found them too expensive.B. He was fascinated, and determined to buy them.C. He wasn't attracted, and wouldn't buy them.D. He wasn't sure, so he would rather wait and see.74. Which of the following words could best describe the author's tone?A. Overstated.B. Objective.C. Ironic.D. Passionate.Passage FiveNever before has flying been so controversial. In the space of two years, the environmental damage done by planes has gone from being something quietly discussed by scientists and committed environmentalists, to a headline-grabbing issue no one can ignore.Even those who fly once or twice a year on holiday can't help but feel a growing sense of guilt, while those opting for trips by car, train or ferry have a self-righteous spring in their steps.Now, however, the backlash is beginning. The tourism and aviation industries are mobilizing, and pointing out some awkward facts. Did you know that some ferries emit far more carbon dioxide than some planes'? That driving can release twice as much carbon as flying? A new report from Balpa, the pilot's union, even claims that planes can be better than train.While there are the campaigners who plot their camp at Heathrow to protest the air travel, in Kenya plans are being drawn up for a very different camp. Looking out from a cliff over the deserts of Samburuland is a stunning hotel, the O1 Malo Eco-Lodge. Revenue from the small number of visiting tourists has allowed the 5,000 acres around it to be transformed from over-grazed cattle ranch to a conservation site. More impressive still is the O1 Malo eye project. Up to 80 per cent of adults in the area suffer sight loss, so the O1 Malo Trust runs regular surgical camps, bringing doctors from the UK to treat them. In January, the camp gave 102 peopleback their sight. "It's very simple--all of our visitors fly here," said Julia Francombe, the founder. "If they stopped coming, it would kill us."One thing on which all sides agree is that aviation is booming, so it becomes crucial to develop new and less polluting aircraft. Airbus's claim that it can save the world with the A380 may be far-fetched, but its "gentle giant" plane is far more efficient and quieter than those of 20 years ago.Some environmentalists, however, scorn these advances, saying such measures are a "delusion." "The aviation industry is likely to vastly overstate the gains that can be made from technological improvements but sadly a climate friendly plane isn't on the horizon," says Emily Armistead of Greenpeace.So the question is: who do you believe?75. Pollution caused by planes used to _____________.A. be heatedly debated in the scientific communityB. be a controversial issue no one could ignoreC. draw little attention among the general publicD. divert people's attention from more important issues76. Compared with people who fly, those who choose cars or trains for travel_________.A. feel equally guilty of causing environmental damagesB. seem to care more about the environment than about timeC. believe that they are doing the right thing for the environmentD. are more troubled by the latest facts on environmental pollution77. The camps in Kenya are mentioned to_________.A. demonstrate the necessity of flyingB. emphasize the problems of flyingC. persuade people to turn to flyingD. present the two sides of flying78. Emily Armistead suggests that the aviation industry___________.A. has not made great efforts to develop environmentally friendly planesB. cannot come up with environmentally friendly planes in the near futureC. should not use environmentally friendly planes to solve their problemsD. will not save the world even with environmentally friendly planes79. What is the author's position on air travel?A. Air travel should be avoided if possible.B. Air travel is not as problematic as people believe.C. It is too early to say that air travel has caused damages.D. It is hard to decide whether we should continue air travel80. The best title for the passage is “___________”.A. Should We Stop Flying?B. When Can We Stop Flying?C. What Will Happen If We Stop Flying?D. Will Stopping Flying Make a Difference?PART V TRANSLATION (30 minutes, 20 points)Section A (15 minutes, 10 points)British previous colonial policies led to the spread of English across the world. This wide use of English has。

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier.The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use,including for instruction at the authors institutionand sharing with colleagues.Other uses,including reproduction and distribution,or selling or licensing copies,or posting to personal,institutional or third partywebsites are prohibited.In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of thearticle(e.g.in Word or Tex form)to their personal website orinstitutional repository.Authors requiring further informationregarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies areencouraged to visit:/authorsrightsOutput regulation of state-coupled linear multi-agent systems withglobally reachable topologiesHongjing Liang,Huaguang Zhang n,Zhanshan Wang,Junyi WangCollege of Information Science and Engineering,Northeastern University,Box134,110819LN Shenyang,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received24December2012Received in revised form16May2013Accepted12July2013Communicated by D.LiuAvailable online26August2013Keywords:Multi-agent systemsOutput regulationState-coupledInternal modela b s t r a c tThis paper investigates output regulation problem of state-coupled linear certain and uncertain multi-agent systems with globally reachable topologies.Distributed dynamic state feedback control law isintroduced to realize the regulator problem and a general global method for error regulation isestablished.The Jordan canonical form is used to stabilize the closed-loop control system.Sylvesterequation and internal model theory are adopted to achieve the objectives of output regulation for everyinitial condition in the state space.Finally,numerical simulations are utilized to show the effectiveness ofthe obtained results.&2013Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionRecently,the coordination control for communication networkscomposed of multiple agents has received significant researchattention in manyfields.It is widely used on formation control,airtraffic control,rendezvous,foraging,task and role assignment andcooperative search.Consensus of multi-agents means the agree-ment of a group of agents on their common states via thecommunication information based on the structural topology.Consensus algorithms have applications in vehicle formations[1,2],flocks[3,4],attitude alignment[5].The whole systems candispose complex tasks in a coordinated fashion.Multi-agentsystems have more advantages than the conventional singlecontrol system on reducing cost,improving system efficiency,and producing new property and so on.In[6–12],the essentialproblem for multi-agent systems is to design a control law for eachagent by using local information from other agents.Distributedconsensus algorithms are designed,assuming only neighbor-to-neighbor interaction between agents.In coordination control problems,the focus is on the commu-nication constrains instead of the individual system dynamics[13,14].The individual system dynamic is commonly modeledas simple integrator and the control input is based on theexchange of information modeled by some communication graph.In contrast to consensus problems,a particularly interesting topiccalled leader-following consensus problem is the consensus of agroup of agents with a leader,where the leader is a special agentwhose motion is independent of all the other agents and thus isfollowed by all the other ones[15–19].A leader-following con-sensus problem of a group of autonomous agents with time-varyingcoupling delays was considered in[15].The authors in[16]gave aleader-following consensus algorithm with communication inputdelays and then presented a frequency-domain approach tofind thestability conditions.Distributed estimation via observers design formulti-agent leader-following was used in[18]where an activeleader to be followed moved in an unknown velocity.Output regulation is an important and interesting problem incontrol theory.This problem aims to achieve asymptotic trackingand disturbance rejection for a class of reference inputs anddisturbances,which generated by an exosystem.Thus,the pro-blem of output regulation is more challenging than stabilizationand has attracted much attention.In multi-agent systems,exo-system is same for all the nodes but only partial nodes have thestate information channel with it.The output regulation problemfor linear or nonlinear systems had been studied,e.g.,[20–25].In recent years,output regulation of multi-agent systems hadreceived considerable attention in[26–34].It was shown in[26]that the partial control of the systems cannot access the exogenoussignal.The robust output regulation problem of a multi-agentsystem was considered in[27],and internal model principle wasused in an uncertain multi-agent system.Ref.[33]consideredlinear dynamical systems with heterogeneous networks.Theadaptive regulator problem for linear systems had been addressedin[34].Contents lists available at ScienceDirectjournal homepage:/locate/neucomNeurocomputing0925-2312/$-see front matter&2013Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved./10.1016/j.neucom.2013.07.028n Corresponding author.Tel.:þ862483687762;fax:þ862483679605.E-mail addresses:hgzhang@,zhg516516@(H.Zhang).Neurocomputing123(2014)337–343The objective of this paper is to research output regulation problem about state-coupled linear certain and uncertain multi-agent systems based on the relative states of neighboring agents and exosystem information.The reference inputs and/or the disturbances are same for all the nodes but only partial nodes have the state information of exosystem and the others cannot access the exogenous signal.In this case,a dynamic distributed compensator is established.A general global method for error regulation is established in this paper.The distributed dynamic state feedback control law based on compensator has been expressed under the globally reachable topologies.This paper is organized as follows:The system model and preliminaries are given in Section 2.The main results about certain and uncertain agents are presented in Sections 3and 4.Following that,Section 5gives numerical simulations,and finally,some conclusions are drawn in Section 6.The following notations will be used throughout this paper.Let R be the set of real numbers.R n is the n -dimensional vector space and R n Ân is the matrix space of dimension n .For a given vector or matrix A ,s ðA Þdenotes the spectrum of A.A T denotes its transpose.A B denotes the Kronecker product of matrices A and B .The Kronecker sum of A A R n Ân and B A R m Âm is de fined as A ÈB ¼ðA I m ÞþðI n B Þ.1N represents ð1;1;…;1ÞT with dimen-sion N .2.Problem formulation and preliminaries 2.1.Algebraic graph theoryIn this section,we review some preliminary graph theory in[35]which is a very useful mathematical tool in the research of multi-agent systems.The topology of a communication network can be expressed by a graph.Let G ¼ðV ;E ;A Þbe a directed graph,where V is the set of nodes.E D V ÂV is the set of edges,and A ¼½a ij is a weighted adjacency matrix with nonnegative adja-cency elements a ij .The Laplacian with the directed graph is de fined as L ¼D ÀA ,where D ¼½d ij is a diagonal matrix withd ii ¼Σnj ¼1a ij .Obviously,all the row sums of L are zero.If the edge e ij ¼ðv i ;v j ÞA E ,then a ij 40which means agent i could receive information from agent j ,other else a ij ¼0.The set of neighbors of node v i is denoted by N i ¼f v j A V :ðv i ;v j ÞA E g .An edge of G denoted by e ij ¼ðv i ;v j ÞA E means that node v i receives information from node v j .There is a sequence of edges with the form ðv i ;v k 1Þ;ðv k 1;v k 2Þ;…;ðv k j ;v j ÞA E composing a direct path beginning with v i ending with v j ,then node v j is reachable from node v i .A node is reachable from all the other nodes of graph,the node is called globally reachable.2.2.System modelSuppose that the multi-agent systems under consideration consist of N agents.Directed graphs are used to model commu-nication topologies.Each edge ði ;j ÞA E corresponds to a weighting information channel between agent i and j .The agent i is assumed to have the following dynamics:_xi ðt Þ¼Ax i ðt ÞþBu i ðt ÞþD i ðt Þy i ðt Þ¼Cx i ðt Þ;ð1Þwhere x i A R n is the state of i th subsystem.u i A R m is the consensusprotocol to be designed which depends on the agent i and its neighbors.The term D i (t )represents a disturbance.y i A R p is the measurement output,i.e.,the output can be used for the con-sensus protocol.In addition,assume that there exists a finite dimensional linear system,representing the reference inputs and/or the disturbances,which is assumed to be generated by an exosystem _ωðt Þ¼Γωðt ÞD i ðt Þ¼E i ωðt Þ;ð2Þwhere ωA R q is the state of exosystem and E i is a matrix with appropriate dimension which is associated with the description of disturbance signal,then y r ðt Þ¼Q ωðt Þ;ð3Þwith y r ðt ÞA R p as the reference output.The error output between the measurement output and reference output is represented as e i ðt Þ¼y i ðt ÞÀy r ðt Þ¼Cx i ðt ÞÀQ ωðt Þ:ð4Þ2.3.Problem statementA digraph is used to describe the information communication between agents and the exosystem.Let G ¼ðV ;E ;A l Þbe a directed graph of order N þ1,where V ¼f 0;1;2;…;N g is the set of nodes,in which the node indexed by 0is referred to exosystem and the other nodes are corresponding to the agents be regulated.Edge set E D V ÂV is often used to model the information exchange between agents,and A l ¼½a ij ;i ;j ¼0;1;2;…;N is a weighted adjacency matrix of the digraph.The control u i can receive the signal of the exogenous if and only if a i 040and else a i 0¼0.A digraph G ¼ðV ;E ;A l Þwhich is used to label the agents except exosystem is de fined as a subgraph of G with the vertex set V ¼f 1;2;…;N g .A dynamic compensator with the state ζi A R q ;i ¼1;2;…;N ,is established as_ζiðt Þ¼Γζiðt Þþα∑j A N ia ijðζiðt ÞÀζjðt ÞÞþa i 0ðζiðt ÞÀωðt ÞÞ !:ð5ÞNote that the dynamics of ζi also depend on ζj ,j A N i ,so (5)can always be seen as a distributed observer and the parameter αis an arbitrary constant which will be used later.Let the external state measurements relative to its neighbors and the state-coupling variable relationship between agent i and j A N i be de fined asg i ðt Þ¼∑j A N ia ij ðx i ðt ÞÀx j ðt ÞÞþa i 0ðx i ðt ÞÀC þQ ζi ðt ÞÞ;ð6Þwhere a ij is a weighted adjacency element of the digraph and C þis a generalized inverse of C .To solve the output regulation problems,Distributed Dynamic State Feedback Control Law will be expressed in the form u i ðt Þ¼K 1z i ðt ÞþK 2g i ðt Þ_zi ðt Þ¼G 1z i ðt ÞþG 2∑j A N ia ij ðy i ðt ÞÀy j ðt ÞÞþa i 0ðy i ðt ÞÀy r ðt ÞÞ !;ð7Þwith z i A R s .Remark 1.In this note,there exists the information exchange between agents and exosystem in the control law,but the agents have different dimensions with the exosystem.Eq.(6)is used to structure the external state measurements relative to its neigh-bors.As will be pointed out in Assumption (H3),it can also satisfy that C has full row rank and then we have CC þ¼I p .Given the system (1),the error output (4)and the state feedback control law (7),letx ¼½x T 1;…;x T N T;z ¼½z T 1;…;z T N Tζ¼½ζT 1;…;ζT N T ;e ¼½e T 1;…;e T N T and ~ω¼1N ω.We can obtain the system as follows:_xðt Þ¼ðI N A þH BK 2Þx ðt ÞþðI N BK 1Þz ðt ÞÀðA 0 BK 2C þQ Þζðt ÞþE ~ωðt ÞH.Liang et al./Neurocomputing 123(2014)337–343338_zðtÞ¼ðH G2CÞxðtÞþðI N G1ÞzðtÞÀðH G2QÞ~ωðtÞ_ζðtÞ¼ðαHÈΓÞζðtÞÀαðAI qÞ~ωðtÞ;ð8Þwhere A0¼blockdiagða10;a20;…;a N0Þ,E¼blockdiagðE1;E2;…;E NÞ, let H¼þA0and is the Laplacian matrix of digraph Also,letξ¼ðx TðtÞ;z TðtÞ;ζTðtÞÞT andΛ¼I N AþH BK2,A c¼ΛI N BK1ÀA0 BK2CþQ H G2C I N G1000αHÈΓB@1C AB c¼EÀðH G2QÞÀαðA0 I qÞB@1C A:The system(8)and the error system(4)can be rewritten as_ξ¼AcξþB c~ωe¼ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω:ð9ÞDefinition 1.Cooperative output regulation of multi-agent systems can be solved if the following two conditions satisfied:(1a)The normal system_ξ¼A cξis exponentially stable,i.e.,all the eigenvalues of matrix A c are assigned in the open left half plane.(1b)For all initial condition x ið0Þ;ωð0Þ,all the tracking errors satisfy:lim t-1e iðtÞ¼0;i¼1;…;N,i.e.,lim t-1eðtÞ¼limt-1ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω¼0:ð10Þ3.Solution of regulator problemTo solve the regulator problem,the following standard assump-tions will be used.(H1)The pairðA;BÞis stabilizable,i.e.,there exists a matrix K such that AþBK is Hurwitz.(H2)All the eigenvalues ofΓdo not have negative real parts. (H3)For allλA sðΓÞRank AÀλI BC0!¼nþp:ð11ÞThe following lemma is obtained in[15].Lemma 1.The matrix H¼þA0is positive stable if and only if node0is globally reachable in G.Definition2(Huang[36]).A pair of matricesðW1;W2Þis said to incorporate a p-copy internal model of matrixΓifW1¼S S1S20G1!SÀ1;W2¼SS3G2!;where S is any nonsingular matrix and S i,i¼1,2,3,are any constant matrices with appropriate dimensions,andG1¼blockdiagðβ1;β2;…;βpÞG2¼blockdiagðs1;s2;…;s pÞ;for all i¼1;…;p,βi is a constant square matrix.s i is a constant column vector such thatðβi;s iÞis controllable and the minimal polynomial ofΓdivides the characteristic polynomial ofβi.Remark2.In this context,ðG1;G2Þis a special case ofðW1;W2Þ,i.e., the pairðG1;G2Þincorporates a p-copy internal model of the matrix Γ.In fact,the pairðG1;G2Þwhich satisfies the conditions ofDefinition2is easy to be obtained.Letmin detðλIÀΓÞ¼λs mþa1λs mÀ1þ⋯þa s mÀ1λþa s mbe the minimal polynomial ofΓ,then we haveβi¼01⋯0000⋯00⋮⋮⋮⋮⋮00⋯01Àa smÀa smÀ1⋯Àa2Àa1B BB BB B@1C CC CC CA;s i¼⋮1B BB BB B@1C CC CC CA:ð12ÞLemma2.A pair of matrixðG1;G2Þis regarded as a special case of ðW1;W2Þin Definition2,i.e.,the pairðG1;G2Þincorporates a p-copy internal model of the matrixΓA R qÂq.If the following matrix equation:Π2ðI N ΓÞ¼ðI N G2ÞΩþðI N G1ÞΠ2ð13ÞwithΩA R NpÂNq,has a solutionΠ2A R NsÂNq.Then we haveΩ¼0:Proof.LetΠ2¼Π112⋯Π1N2⋮⋮ΠN12⋯ΠNN2B B@1C CA;Ω¼Ω11⋯Ω1N⋮⋮ΩN1⋯ΩNNB@1C A;whereΠij2A R sÂq;Ωij A R pÂq;i¼1;…;N;j¼1;…;N,and from(13) we haveΠij2ΓÀG1Πij2¼G2Ωij:ð14ÞSince G1¼blockdiagðβ1;β2;…;βpÞ,G2¼blockdiagðs1;s2;…;s pÞ, rewrite(14)asΠij21Πij22⋮Πij2pB BB BB@1C CC CC AΓÀG1Πij21Πij22⋮Πij2pB BB BB@1C CC CC A¼G2Ωij1Ωij2⋮ΩijpB BB BB@1C CC CC A;ð15ÞwhereΠij2¼ððΠij21ÞT;ðΠij22ÞT;…;ðΠij2pÞTÞT,Ωij¼ððΩij1ÞT;ðΩij2ÞT;…;ðΩij pÞTÞT andΠij2k;k¼1;2;…;p have appropriate dimensions.Ωijk;k¼1;2;…;p are the k th row ofΩij.From(15)we haveΠij2kΓÀβkΠij2k¼s kΩij k:ð16ÞWithout loss of generality,it is assumed thatβk;s k have the form (12)and the above equation also has the following form:Πij2k1ΓÀΠij2k2Πij2k2ΓÀΠij2k3⋮Πij2kðs mÀ1ÞΓÀΠij2kðs mÞΠij2kðs mÞΓþa s mΠij2k1þ…þa1Πij2kðs mÞB BB BB BB B@1C CC CC CC CA¼⋮ΩijkB BB BB B@1C CC CC CA;ð17ÞwithΠij2kl,l¼1;…;s m as the l th row ofΠ2k ij.It is easy to see Πij2kl¼Πij2k1ΓlÀ1;l¼2;…;s.SubstitutingΠij2kl;l¼2;3;…;s m into the last row of(17)givesΩijk¼Πij2k1ðΓs mþa1Γs mÀ1þ⋯þa s m IÞ:From Definition2,the minimal polynomial ofΓdivides the characteristic polynomial of G1.ThusΓs mþa1Γs mÀ1þ⋯þa s m I¼0 andΩij k¼0,i.e.,Ω¼0.□H.Liang et al./Neurocomputing123(2014)337–343339Lemma3(Huang[36]).If(H1)–(H3)hold,the pairðG1;G2Þincor-porates a p-copy internal model of the matrixΓ.LetA¼A0G2C G1!;B¼B;then the pairðA;BÞis stabilizable.Lemma4(Tuna[38]).Given the stabilizable pairðA;BÞ,the follow-ing algebraic Riccati equation:A T PþPAþI nÀPBB T P¼0ð18Þhas a unique solution P¼P T40,and for all a Z1and b A R,matrix AÀðaþjbÞBB T P is Hurwitz.Lemma5(Huang[36]).The Sylvester equationXAÀBX¼Cwhere A A R nÂn;B A R mÂm and C A R nÂm,has a unique solution if and only if A and B have no eigenvalues in common.Theorem1.Let(H1)–(H3)hold.The output regulation problem can be solved by distributed dynamic state feedback control law(7)if the node0is globally reachable in digraph G.Proof.First,we prove the normal system_ξ¼A cξis exponentially stable.The node0is globally reachable in digraph G and all the eigenvalues of H have positive real parts.By Jordan canonical form theorem[37],there are a nonsingular matrix T A R NÂN andJ NiðλiÞ¼λi1λi⋱⋱1λiB BB B@1C CC CAð19Þthat satisfy H¼TJTÀ1,whereλi A sðHÞ,J¼blockdiagðJ N1ðλ1Þ; J N2ðλ2Þ;…;J NkðλkÞÞand N1þN2þ⋯þN k¼N.J is the Jordan matrix of H.A transformation is used as~ξ¼ð~x T;~z T;~ζTÞT¼blockdiagðT In;T I NsÂNs;T I NqÂNqÞξthat transforms_ξ¼A cξinto_~ξ¼~A c~ξ,where~A c ¼~ΛINBK1ΦJ G2C I N G1000αHÈΓ0B@1C Awith~Λ¼I N AþJ BK2,Φ¼ÀðTA0TÀ1 BK2CþQÞ. Matrix A c is block upper-triangular and A c is stable ifΛI N BK1 H G2C I N G1!ð20ÞandαHÈΓare stable.Obviously,after the transformation,the stability of(20)is equivalent to the stability of the matrix~ΛINBK1 J G2C I N G1!:ð21ÞBecause the elements of the transformed system matrix(21)are either block diagonal or block upper-triangular,(21)is stable if and only ifA ci¼Aþλi BK2BK1λi G2C G1!ð22Þis stable,whereλi A sðHÞ.Let T i¼ðI n00λÀ1iI nÞ,and then^Aci¼T i A ci TÀ1i¼Aþλi BK2λi BK1G2C G1!:Since the matrix AÀBB T P is Hurwitz by the properties ofalgebraic Riccati equation.LetK¼Àðmin ReðλiÞÞÀ1B T Pwith i¼1;2;…;k;λi A sðHÞ,andAþλi BK¼AÀðminReðλiÞÞÀ1λi BB T P¼Aþλi BK2λi BK1G2C G1!is stable with K¼ðK2;K1Þ,then(20)is stable.The eigenvalues of matrixαHÈΓcan be expressed asλðαHÈΓÞ¼fαλiðHÞþλjðΓÞ∣i¼1;…;N;j¼1;…;q g:Clearly,there existsαo0such that all the eigenvalues ofαHÈΓhave negative real parts,i.e.,αHÈΓis Hurwitz.To sum up,A c is stabile.On the other hand,the Sylvester equationΠðI N ΓÞ¼A cΠþB cð23Þhas a unique solutionΠbecauseλiðI N ΓÞþλjðA cÞa0;i¼1;…;q;j¼1;…;NðnþsþqÞ.RewrittenΠasðΠT1;ΠT2;ΠT3ÞT withappropriate dimensions thenΠ2ðI N ΓÞ¼ðH G2CÞΠ1ÀðH G2QÞþðI N G1ÞΠ2¼ðI N G2ÞððH CÞΠ1ÀðH QÞÞþðI N G1ÞΠ2:SinceðG1;G2Þincorporates a p-copy internal model,by Lemma2,we haveðH CÞΠ1ÀH Q¼ðH I pÞððI N CÞΠ1ÀI N QÞ¼0:ð24ÞBy the invertible of H I p;one getsðI N CÞΠ1ÀI N Q¼0:ð25ÞLet^ξ¼ξÀΠ~ω;ð26Þand taking the derivative of^ξyields_^ξ¼AcξþB c~ωÀΠðI N ΓÞ~ω¼A cξþB c~ωÀðA cΠþB cÞ~ω¼A c^ξ:Since A c is stabile,one gets^ξ-0.ðt-1Þ.Consider the erroreðtÞ¼ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω;and assume thatC c¼I N C00ðÞ:Using Eqs.(25)and(26),the error e(t)can be rewritten aseðtÞ¼C cξÀðI N QÞ~ω¼C cð^ξþΠ~ωÞÀðI N QÞ~ω¼C c^ξþððI N CÞΠ1ÀI N QÞ~ω¼C c^ξ:ð27ÞIt is easy to verifylimt-1eðtÞ¼limt-1ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω¼0and the prove isfinished.□H.Liang et al./Neurocomputing123(2014)337–343340Remark3.In contrast with our paper,a dynamic feedback control law is introduced in[26]asu i¼K1i x iþK2iηi;i¼1;…;N;_ηi¼Sηiþμð∑j A N i a ijðηjÀηiÞþa i0ðvÀηiÞÞ:(This control law can regulate the single agents tracking error to arbitrarily small value,but it essentially handled each subsystem by its own state x i independent of its neighbors x j;j A N i under the structure topology.In fact,the agents will often transmit informa-tion with others and be influenced by them in multi-agent systems.If the exchanges of the neighbors information among agents are considered,the normal systems cannot be stabilized directly by the stability of(A,B)under directed network informa-tionflow.To overcome this difficulty,an internal model theory is introduced in our paper which can make the normal systems stable.Based on the internal model theory,(25)is sure to have solution and the details are explained in Lemma2.By(25)we can prove that the error equationeðtÞ¼ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ωtends to zero when time tends to infinity.Remark4.The problem on the output regulation for system(1) with internal model approach had been appeared in[28,29]. Robust output regulation problem had been deeply analyzed in [28]under the switching network,and[29]also gave a general result of output regulation for linear multi-agent systems.Our result gives a distributed observer design which both of them did not use.Here are some advantages and disadvantages about it.Not all agents could access the exosystem signal in output regulation of multi-agent systems.In[28,29],the consensus protocol u i uses the exosystem signal directly if the agent i can communicate with exosystem,other else,u i only uses the information which transfer between agent i and j rather than uses exosystem information directly.In this paper,the observer is used to compensate the information of un-access parts.So the agent could receive more comprehensive information from its neighbors.But it will increase the calculation compared with[28,29].In practical application,it maybe increase costs.4.Robust output regulation for multi-agent systemsAn internal model approach has been used in the above section. This method could also handle some uncertainty plants and uncertain linear systems are given as follows:_x iðtÞ¼Ax iðtÞþBu iðtÞþE iðtÞy iðtÞ¼C x iðtÞ;i¼1;2;…;Nð28Þin which x i;y i;u i have the same dimensions with variables defined in(1).The matrices A B C and E i are uncertain and they could be written as the following forms:A¼AþΔA;B¼BþΔB;¼CþΔC;i¼E iþΔE i:ð29ÞIt is convenient to identify the system uncertainties with a vectorΔ¼vecðΔAΔBΔCΔE1…ΔE NÞA R nðmþnþpþNqÞ,where the vector vecðA¼½a ij A R nÂnÞis defined by vecðAÞ¼ða11;…; a1n;…;a n1;…;a nn;ÞT.The system withΔ¼0is called a nominal system.We assume that system(1)is the nominal system of(28).A B CE i in(29)are called the nominal matrix.In addition,the exosystem is written as follows:_ωðtÞ¼ΓωðtÞy rðtÞ¼QωðtÞð30Þin whichΓand Q are known.The error output between the measurement output and the reference output is represented as e iðtÞ¼y iðtÞÀy rðtÞ¼Cx iðtÞÀQωðtÞ:ð31ÞDistributed Dynamic State Feedback Control Law(7)is also appropriate for the robust output regulation of multi-agent systems and Cþis a generalized inverse of the nominal part of C. By control law(7),uncertain systems(28)are expressed as_ξ¼AcωξþB cω~ω;withξ¼ðx TðtÞ;z TðtÞ;ζTðtÞÞT,Λ¼I N AþH BK2andA cω¼ΛI N BK1ÀA0 BK2CþQH G2C I N G1000αHÈΓB@1C AB cω¼EÀðH G2QÞÀαðA0 I qÞB@1C A:Definition3.Robust cooperative output regulation of multi-agent systems can be solved if the following two conditions satisfied: (3a)The nominal closed-loop matrix is Hurwitz.(3b)There exists an open neighborhood W ofΔ¼0such that, for all initial conditions,all the tracking errors satisfy:lim t-1e iðtÞ¼0;i¼1;…;N,i.e.,limt-1eðtÞ¼limt-1ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω¼0:Assume that assumptions(H1),(H2),(H3)also satisfy for the nominal parts of uncertain system(28).Theorem 2.Let(H1)–(H3)hold.The robust output regulation problem can be solved by distributed dynamic state feedback control law(7)if the node0is globally reachable in digraph G.Proof.By the proof of Theorem1,it is easy to see that A c,the nominal form of A cω,is Hurwitz.For eachΔA W;where W is an open neighborhood ofΔ¼0such that A cωis stable,there exists a unique solutionΠof the following Sylvester equation:ΠðI N ΓÞ¼A cωΠþB cω:LetΠ¼ðΠT1;ΠT2;ΠT3ÞT with appropriate dimensions,thenΠ2ðI N ΓÞ¼ðI N G2ÞððH CÞÀH QÞþðI N G1ÞΠ2;since H is invertible,by Lemma2,one getsðI N CÞΠ1ÀI N Q¼0:Then for allΔA W,we havelimt-1eðtÞ¼limt-1ðI N CÞxÀðI N QÞ~ω¼0:ð32ÞThus,the robust output regulation problem is solved.□5.ExamplesWe illustrate the proposed design technique via two examples. For the sake of brevity and clarity,consider the multi-agent systems consisting of four agents withA¼0110;B¼1;C¼ð10ÞE1¼000110;E2¼000010H.Liang et al./Neurocomputing123(2014)337–343341。

专升本英语单项选择题The English language is a vast and complex system of communication that has been the subject of extensive study and analysis for centuries. One of the key aspects of the English language that is often assessed in academic and professional settings is the ability to accurately answer multiple-choice questions, particularly in the context of upgrading to a bachelor's degree. These questions can cover a wide range of topics, from grammar and vocabulary to reading comprehension and written expression.One of the primary challenges in tackling English language multiple-choice questions is the need to demonstrate a deep understanding of the language's nuances and idiosyncrasies. This requires a strong foundation in the fundamental principles of English grammar, including parts of speech, sentence structure, and verb tenses. Additionally, successful test-takers must be adept at recognizing and correctly identifying common grammatical errors, such as subject-verb agreement, pronoun usage, and parallel structure.Another critical component of English language multiple-choicequestions is the ability to comprehend and analyze written passages. This involves not only understanding the literal meaning of the text but also identifying the author's tone, purpose, and underlying message. Test-takers must be able to draw inferences, recognize rhetorical devices, and evaluate the overall coherence and organization of the passage.Vocabulary is also a crucial aspect of English language multiple-choice questions. Test-takers must be familiar with a wide range of words, including their definitions, synonyms, and contextual usage. This knowledge can be particularly important in questions that assess the ability to identify appropriate word choices or to determine the meaning of unfamiliar terms based on context.In addition to these core language skills, successful performance on English language multiple-choice questions often requires the ability to think critically and strategically. This may involve analyzing the structure and logic of the questions, identifying patterns or common distractors, and employing effective test-taking strategies, such as process of elimination or educated guessing.One of the key benefits of mastering English language multiple-choice questions is the opportunity to upgrade to a bachelor's degree. Many academic institutions and professional programs require applicants to demonstrate a high level of proficiency in theEnglish language, and successful performance on these types of assessments can be a crucial factor in gaining admission.Furthermore, the skills and knowledge required to excel in English language multiple-choice questions can be directly applicable to a wide range of academic and professional pursuits. Strong language skills, critical thinking abilities, and test-taking strategies can be invaluable assets in fields such as business, law, healthcare, and the social sciences, where effective communication and problem-solving are essential.In conclusion, the ability to successfully navigate English language multiple-choice questions is a valuable and sought-after skill in the academic and professional world. By developing a deep understanding of the language's structure, a keen eye for detail, and a strategic approach to test-taking, individuals can not only upgrade to a bachelor's degree but also position themselves for success in a variety of future endeavors.。

this is called system analysisSystem analysis is a crucial process that involves the examination and evaluation of a system's structure, functions, and operations. It aims to understand the system's current state, identify its strengths and weaknesses, and recommend improvements that can lead to better performance and efficiency. This analytical process is applied across various fields, including business, engineering, healthcare, and even social sciences.In system analysis, the first step is to define the scope and objectives of the analysis. This involves identifying the specific system or aspect of a system that needs to be analyzed and setting clear goals for the analysis. For example, in a business context, the scope could be a specific process or department within the organization.Next, the system is examined in detail, including its various components, relationships, and interactions. This involves collecting data, identifying patterns and trends, and understanding how the system functions as a whole. In this process, it is important to identify both the visible and hidden elements of the system that may affect its performance.After collecting and analyzing the data, the system analyst will identify problems, inefficiencies, and areas for improvement. They may use various tools and techniques, such as flowcharts, data models, and simulation software, to visualize and understand the system better.Finally, the system analyst will recommend solutions or changes to the system that aim to improve its performance, efficiency, and reliability. These recommendations could range from minor changes to the system's design or operations to complete overhauls of the system itself.In summary, system analysis is a comprehensive process that aims to understand a system's current state and recommend improvements that can lead to better performance and efficiency. It is a valuable tool for organizations looking toimprove their operations, processes, and overall competitiveness.。

西北民族大学学位英语真题A rapid means of long-distance transportation became a necessity for the United States as settlement(新拓居地)spread ever farther westward. The early trains were impractical curiosities, and for a long time the railroad companies met with troublesome mechanical problems. The most serious ones were the construction of rails able to bear the load, and the development of a safe, effective stopping system. Once these were solved, the railroad was established as the best means of land transportation.By 1860 there were thousands of miles of railroads crossing the eastern mountain ranges and reaching westward to the Mississippi. There were also regional southern and western lines.The high point in railroad building came with the construction of the first transcontinental, system. In 1862 Congress authorized two western railroad companies to build lines from Nebraska westward and from California eastward to a meeting point, so as to complete a transcontinental crossing linking the Atlantic seaboard with the Pacific. The Government helped the railroads generously with money and land.Actural work on this project began four years later. The Central Pacific Company, starting from California, usedChinese labor, while the Union Pacific employed crews of Irish labourers. The two groups worked at remarkable speed, each trying to cover a greater distance than the other. In 1869 they met at a place called Promontory in what is now the state of Utah.Many visitors came there for the great occasion.There were joyous celebrations all over the country, with parades and the ringing of church bells to honor the great achievement.The railroad was very important in encouraging Westward Movement. It also helped build up industry and farming by moving raw materials and by distributing products rapidly to distant markets. In linking towns and people to one another it helped unify the United States.1.The major problems with America‘s railroad system in the mid 19th century lay in _______.A. lack of financial support for developmentB. poor quality rails and unreliable stopping systemsC. limited railroad linesD. lack of a transcontinental railroad2.The building of the first transcontinental system ________.A. brought about a rapid growth of industry and farmingin the west.B. attracted many visitors to the construction sitesC. attracted labourers from EuropeD. encouraged people to travel all over the country3.The best title for this passage would be ________.A. Settlements Spread WestwardB. The Importance of Railroads in the American EconomyC. American Railroad HistoryD. The Coast-to-Coast Railroad：A Vital Link4.The construction of the transcontinental railroad took ________.A. 3 yearsB. 7 yearsC. 4 yearsD. 9 years5.What most likely made people think about a transcontinental railroad?A. The possibility of government support for such a task.B. The need to explore Utah.C. The need to develop the railroad industry in the west.D. The need to connect the east coast with the west.If you look closely at some of the early copies of theDeclaration of Independence, beyond the flourished signature of John Hancock and the other 55 men who signed it, you will also find the name of one woman, Mary Katherine Goddard. It was she, a Baltimore printer, who published the first official copies of the Declaration, the first copies that included the names of its signers and therefore heralded(宣布，预示)the support of all thirteen colonies.Mary Goddard first got into printing at the age of twenty-four when her brother opened a printing shop in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1762. When her proceeded to get into trouble with his partners and creditors, it was Mary Goddard and her mother who were left to run the shop. In 1765 they began publishing The Providence Gazette, a weekly newspaper. Similar problems seemed to follow her brother as he opened businesses in Philadelphia and again in Baltimore. Each time Ms. Goddard was brought in to run the newspapers. After starting Baltimore‘s first newspaper, The Maryland Journal, in 1773, her brother went broke trying to organize a colonial postal service. While he was in debtor’s prison, Mary Katherine Goddard‘s name appeared in the newspaper’s masthead (报头) for the first time.When the Continental Congress fled there fromPhiladelphia in 1776, it commissioned Ms. Goddard to print the first official version of the Declaration of Independence in January 1777. After printing the documents, she herself paid the post riders to deliver the Declaration throughout the colonies.During the American Revolution, Mary Goddard continued to publish Baltimore‘s only newspaper, which one historian claimed was "second to none among the colonies."She was also the city’s postmaster from 1775 to 1789 ——appointed by Benjamin Franklin –and is considered to be the first woman to hold a federal position.6.With which of the following subjects is the passage mainly concerned?A. The accomplishment of a female publisher.B. The weaknesses of the newspaper industry.C. The rights of a female publisher.D.The publishing system in colonial America.7.Mary Goddard‘s name appears on the Declaration of Independence because____.A. She helped write the original documentB. She published the documentC. She paid to have the document printedD.Her brother was in prison8.According to the passage, Mary Goddard first became involved in publishing when she ____.A. was appointed by Benjamin FranklinB. signed the Declaration of IndependenceC. took over her brother‘s printing shopD.moved to Baltimore9.The word "there"in paragraph 3 refers to____.A. the coloniesB. the print shopC. BaltimoreD.Providence10.It can be inferred from the passage that Mary Goddard was ____.A. an accomplished businesswomanB. extremely wealthyC. a member of the Continental CongressD.a famous writer。

当你真正想完成一件事时，根本不会在意别人是否看到。

备考漫漫长路，和你一起默默地走下去。

下面是整理的内容，希望对你们有帮助！【篇一】2021年12月英语四级阅读理解Police fired tear gas and arrested more than 5,000passively resisting protestors Friday in an attemptto break up the largest antinuclear demonstrationever staged in the United States. More than 135,000 demonstrators confronted police on theconstruction site of a 1,000-megawatt nuclearpower plant scheduled to provide power to most ofsouthern New Hampshire. Organizers of the huge demonstration said, the protest wascontinuing despite the police actions. More demonstrators were arriving to keep up thepressure on state authorities to cancel the project. The demonstrator had charged that theproject was unsafe in the densely populated area, would create thermal pollution in the bay, and had no acceptable means for disposing of its radioactive wasters. The demonstrationswould go on until the jails and the courts were so overloaded that the state judicial systemwould collapse.Governor Stanforth Thumper insisted that there would be no reconsideration of the powerproject and no delay in its construction set for completion in three years."This project willbegin on time and the people of this state will begin to receive its benefits on schedule. Thosewho break the law in misguided attempts to sabotage the project will be dealt with accordingto the law," he said. And police called in reinforcements from all over the state to handle thedisturbances.The protests began before dawn Friday when several thousand demonstrators brokethrough police lines around the cordoned-off construction site. They carried placards that read"No Nukes is Good Nukes,""Sunpower, Not Nuclear Power," and "Stop Private Profits from PublicPeril." They defied police order to move from the area. Tear gas canisters fired by police failedto dislodge the protestors who had come prepared with their own gas masks or facecloths. Finally gas-masked and helmeted police charged into the crowd to drag off the demonstratorsone by one. The protestors did not resist police, but refused to walk away under their ownpower. Those arrested would be charged with unlawful assembly, trespassing, and disturbingthe peace.1. What were the demonstrators protesting about?[A] Private profits.[B] Nuclear Power Station.[C] The project of nuclear power construction.[D] Public peril.2. Who had gas-masks?[A] Everybody.[B] A part of the protestors.[C] Policemen.[D] Both B and C.3. Which of the following was NOT mentioned as a reason for the demonstration?[A] Public transportation.[B] Public peril.[C] Pollution.[D] Disposal of wastes.4. With whom were the jails and courts overloaded?[A] With prisoners.[B] With arrested demonstrators.[C] With criminals.[D] With protestors.5. What is the attitude of Governor Stanforth Thumper toward the power project and thedemonstration?[A] stubborn.[B] insistent.[C] insolvable.[D] remissible.【篇二】2021年12月英语四级阅读理解The Continuity of theReligious Struggle in BritainThough England was on the whole prosperousand hopeful, though by comparison with herneighbors she enjoyed internal peace, she could notevade the fact that the world of which she formed apart was torn by hatred and strife as fierce as any in human history. Men were still for fromrecognizing that two religions could exist side by side in the same society; they believed thatthe toleration of another religion different from their own. And hence necessarily false, mustinevitably destroy such a society and bring the souls of all its members into danger of hell. Sothe struggle went on with increasing fury within each nation to impose a single creed uponevery subject, and within the general society of Christendom to impose it upon every nation. In England the Reformers, or Protestants, aided by the power of the Crown, had at this stagetriumphed, but over Europe as a whole Rome was beginning to recover some of the ground ithad lost after Martin Luther’s revolt in the earlier part of the century. It did this in two ways, by the activities of its missionaries, as in parts of Germany, or by the military might of theCatholic Powers, as in the Low Countries, where the Dutch provinces were sometimes near theirlast extremity under the pressure of Spanish arms. Against England, the most important of allthe Protestant nations to reconquer, military might was not yet possible because the CatholicPowers were too occupied and divided: and so, in the 1570’s Rome bent her efforts, as shehad done a thousand years before in the days of Saint Augustine, to win England back bymeans of her missionaries.These were young Englishmen who had either never given up the old faith, or having doneso, had returned to it and felt called to become priests. There being, of course, no Catholicseminaries left in England, they went abroad, at first quite easily, later with difficulty anddanger, to study in the English colleges at Douai or Rome: the former established for thetraining of ordinary or secular clergy, the other for the member of the Society of Jesus, commonly known as Jesuits, a new Order established by St, Ignatius Loyola same thirty yearsbefore. The seculars came first; they achieved a success which even the most eager couldhardly have expected. Cool-minded and well-informed men, like Cecil, had long surmised thatthe conversion of the English people to Protestantism was for from complete; many―Cecilthought even the majority―had conformed out of fear, self-interest or―possibly thecommonest reason of all―sheer bewilderment at the rapid changes in doctrine and forms ofworship imposed on them in so short a time. Thus it happened that the missionaries found awelcome, not only with the families who had secretly offered them hospitality if they came, but with many others whom their first hosts invited to meet them or passed them on to. Theywould land at the ports in disguise, as merchants, courtiers or what not, professing someplausible business in the country, and make by devious may for their first house of refuge. Therethey would administer the Sacraments and preach to the house holds and to such ofthe neighbors as their hosts trusted and presently go on to some other locality to which theywere directed or from which they received a call.1. The main idea of this passage is[A]. The continuity of the religious struggle in Britain in new ways.[B]. The conversion of religion in Britain.[C]. The victory of the New religion in Britain.[D]. England became prosperous.2. What was Martin Luther’s religions?[A]. Buddhism. [B]. Protestantism. [C]. Catholicism. [D]. Orthodox.3. Through what way did the Rome recover some of the lost land?[A]. Civil and military ways. [B]. Propaganda and attack.[C]. Persuasion and criticism. [D]. Religious and military ways.4. What did the second paragraph mainly describe?[A]. The activities of missionaries in Britain.[B]. The conversion of English people to Protestantism was far from complete.[C]. The young in Britain began to convert to Catholicism[D]. Most families offered hospitality to missionaries.Vocabulary1. evade 避开，回避2. creed 教义，信条，主义3. the Crown 原义皇冠，在英国代表王权，王室/君主4. low Countries 低地国，指荷兰，卢森堡，比利时5. last extremity 最后阶段，绝境，临终。