Cassiopeia A and its Clumpy Presupernova Wind

开普勒47系统，两颗行星环绕一组联星。

开普勒47（Kepler-47）是一个周围有至少两颗系外行星环绕的联星系统，距离地球约4900光年，位于天鹅座。

恒星系统开普勒47是由半径稍小于太阳的开普勒47A和半径只有太阳三分之一的开普勒47B组成。

系统轨道半长轴0.0836天文单位（1250万公里），周期7.45日。

开普勒47A的半径和质量与太阳大致相等，但光度只有太阳的84%，金属量也是较太阳低的[Fe/H]=-0.25。

表面温度是5636 K。

开普勒47B的半径和质量只有太阳的三分之一，光度只有太阳的1.4%，表面温度3357 K。

行星系统2012年，NASA和以色列特拉维夫大学的天文学家团队利用开普勒太空望远镜发现开普勒47系统中的两颗行星。

这两颗行星命名为开普勒47b和开普勒47c，是开普勒太空望远镜首次在联星系统中发现多颗环联星运转行星。

最外侧的行星是位于恒星适居带的气体巨行星。

因为联星系统占大多数，这个多行星系统的发现会对行星形成理论造成影响。

开普勒47b在较内侧公转的开普勒47b是气体巨行星，半径大约是地球的3倍，是以凌日法发现最小的行星之一。

它的质量大约是木星的2.7倍以下，且与母恒星距离是小于水星和太阳距离的0.3天文单位，公转周期约50日。

该行星一般认为受到恒星加热，使甲烷分解并造成表面高温。

目前尚无法确定是否有卫星存在，并且因为太过靠近母恒星，被认为不适合生命存在。

开普勒47c在较外侧的开普勒47c位于母恒星的适居带，质量是木星的17倍以下，半径大约是地球的4.6倍，较海王星大，和母恒星距离与日地距离相当，公转周期303日。

虽然一般假设开普勒47c并不适合生命生存，开普勒47c 的体积仍被认为能让有水蒸气云的浓厚大气层存在。

SeaDAS Training Manual Ocean Biology Processing GroupOctober29,20072Chapter1An Introduction to the OBPGIntroductionThis chapter introduces the NASA Ocean Biology Processing Group(OBPG)and the software used in conjunction with data distributed by the group,the SeaWiFS Data Analysis System(SeaDAS).1.1What is the OBPG?The goal of the Ocean Biology Processing Group is to make available the highest quality ocean color and SST data to the broadest user community in the most timely and efficient manner possible.More specifically the OBGP is the:•Designated NASA team responsible for the processing and distribution of ocean color and SST data from various spaceborne instruments:–Ocean Color:MODIS/Aqua,MODIS/Terra,SeaWiFS,OCTS,CZCS–SST:MODIS/Aqua,MODIS/Terra•Product Evaluation and Test Element(PEATE)for OC and SST on NPP/VIIRS•Science Team Lead for OC on NPP/VIIRS.•Designated as the software development,processing,and distribution element for Sea Surface Salinity measurements from Aquarius.1.2What Services does the OBPG Provide?The primary service provided by the OBPG is data distribution,the details of which are covered in the next chapter.Main features of the data distribution system are:•Instant access:entire archive of Level-1A through Level-3data for all missions is stored online •Minimal latency:MODIS L0/L1A/GEO/L1B/L2data available2-5hours after satellite observation •Web-based browser:simple viewing/order/download tool for the entire multi-mission data set •Full ftp access:data may be downloaded via ftp34CHAPTER1.AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OBPG •Data subscriptions:automatic staging of new data products to user-specific ftp accountsThe other main service provided by the OBPG is user support for accessing,understanding,process-ing,and working with the data.A great deal of this support takes place on the Ocean Color Forum (/forum/oceancolor/forum show.pl)and through documentation available on the Ocean Color Web(/).Figure1.1:The Ocean Color Web1.3.WHAT DATA DOES THE OBPG PROVIDE?5 1.3What Data does the OBPG Provide?As mentioned,the OBPG provides ocean color data from the MODIS/Aqua,MODIS/Terra,SeaWiFS, OCTS,and CZCS sensors,and SST data from MODIS/Aqua and MODIS/Terra.Data levels range from Level-0or Level-1A up to Level-3Binned and mapped products.The Level-2and Level-3data contain geophysical products,some of which are listed below.(Hundreds of predefined products and unlimited custom products can be created using the SeaDAS software package.)•Standard Ocean Color Products(all sensors,daytime only)–Normalized water-leaving radiances,nLw(λ)–Chlorophyll,C a–Diffuse attenuation,K d(490)–Aerosol type and concentration–Optical thickness,τa–˚A ngstr¨o m exponent–Atmospheric epsilon–Processingflags–Cloud,land,glint,atmfail,atmwarn,chlfail,chlwarn,etc.•Standard Ocean Temperature Products(MODIS only)–Long-wave SST(11-12µm)(daytime and nighttime)–Short-wave SST(3.9-4.0µm)(nighttime only)–SST quality level(0-4)•Non-standard Ocean Color Products(all sensors,daytime only)–Alternate C a and K d algorithms–Chlorophyllfluorescence,FLH–Particulate inorganic carbon,Calcite–Inherent optical properties(various bio-optical models)–absorption(total,phaeophytin,dissolved matter)–backscatter(total,particulate)–Photosynthetically active radiation,iPAR,PAR–Euphotic depth(Z eu,Z sd)–Subsurface PAR at1st optical depth,K d(PAR)–Intermediate atmospheric correction products–..and many others•Non-standard Ocean Temperature Products(MODIS only)–Brightness temperatures(daytime and nighttime)6CHAPTER1.AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OBPG 1.4What is SeaDAS?SeaDAS is a comprehensive image analysis package for the processing,display,analysis,and quality control of ocean color data.SeaDAS is intended for use with all of the OBPG supported sensors:MODIS/Aqua, MODIS/Terra,SeaWiFS,OCTS,CZCS.SeaDAS can also be very useful as a general scientific imagery/data analysis package.SeaDAS features include:•Visualize and manipulate all data distributed by the OBPG•Visualize and manipulate non-OBPG data(e.g.general HDF4,AVHRR Pathfinder)•Process all data from L0or L1A through to L3and SMI(complete source code included)•Reproduce products identical to the OBPG standard ocean color and SST products•NPP/VIIRS will be supported in the future•Runs on UNIX-like systems only:Linux,Macintosh OS X,Sun Solaris,SGI IRIX•Direct user support and extremely active user support forumsFigure1.2:The SeaDAS Home Page1.4.WHAT IS SEADAS?7 The SeaDAS GUI and most data visualization/manipulation functions are written in the Interactive Data Language(IDL),made by ITT Visual Information Solutions(ITT VIS).IDL is a scientific programming language and scientific environment similar in many ways to Matlab.It is not necessary to purchase IDL in order to have access to full SeaDAS functionality.Figure1.3:The Main SeaDAS GUI Window1.4.1SeaDAS Modes of OperationSeaDAS functionality can be accessed in a variety of ways:•Using the Graphical User Interface(GUI)–Virtually all SeaDAS functionalities are accessible via the GUI.The GUI is often a good way to learn about the capabilities of SeaDAS and to work with single datafiles.Once a user determineshis or her goal and accomplishes a task using the GUI,it is often more efficient to automate thesteps by using a command-line approach.•Using the SeaDAS command-line–The SeaDAS command-line is available to those who have purchased a full IDL license from ITT.The SeaDAS command-line is actually an IDL command-line that provides access to both SeaDASand IDL commands.Almost all SeaDAS processing,display,visualization,and manipulationfunctions can be accessed on the SeaDAS command-line in concert with IDL commands.•Using the UNIX command-line–All SeaDAS processing capabilities are also accessible via the UNIX command-line.This includes L0to L3processing(including automatic ancillary data determination and retrieval),as well asfunctions for subscening datafiles and generating true-color mapped image products.None ofSeaDAS’graphics capabilities are available on the UNIX command-line.•Automating SeaDAS using IDL scripts and/or UNIX shell scripts–Virtually any series of SeaDAS processing and graphics operations can be automated by writing IDL scripts.These scripts can combine both SeaDAS and IDL commands(and optionally spawnUNIX commands)to perform complex data operations.This feature does not require thepurchase of IDL.–For data processing,UNIX shell scripts can be used to easily automate the subscening and pro-cessing of multiple datafiles from L0through to L3.IDL scripts can also be called from suchUNIX shell scripts to access SeaDAS display,visualization,and manipulation functions.1.4.2Components of the SeaDAS DistributionThe SeaDAS distribution package is primarily made up of IDL code,C binaries and libraries,and UNIX shell scripts.The SeaDAS GUI is written in IDL code as are various image and data manipulation functions. Binaries(executablefiles created by compiling C and Fortran code)are used for data processing(e.g.the msl12binary used for L1to L2processing).SeaDAS also makes use of HDF binaries and libraries.Shell scripts(executable textfiles containing various UNIX and shell commands)are mainly used as wrappers for data processing(e.g.modis L1A to L1B.csh).Other shell scripts exist as stand-alone utility scripts(e.g. the ms met.csh script for meteorological ancillary data determination and retrieval).8CHAPTER1.AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OBPG 1.4.3SeaDAS SupportAs mentioned direct user support and extremely active user support forums are available for SeaDAS users. Direct support can be obtain via email(seadas@)or by phone.However,most support occurs in the Ocean Color Forum(/forum/oceancolor/forum show.pl),where announcements are made and both technical and scientific questions and discussions take place.SeaDAS-specific technical questions are asked on the‘SeaDAS:General Questions’board,data access questions on the‘Satellite Data Access’board,and scientific queries on the‘Satellite Data Products&Algorithms’board. TIP SeaDAS GUI windows have a Help button that will spawn that window’s local help webpage.All SeaDAS-specific help documents are also available online:/seadas/help.htmlFigure1.4:The Ocean Color ForumChapter2An Overview of Ocean Data LevelsIntroductionAs mentioned,the OBPG is the designated NASA team responsible for the processing and distribution of ocean color and SST data acquired from the MODIS/Aqua,MODIS/Terra,SeaWiFS,OCTS,and CZCS sensors.This chapter discusses the standard NASA data levels used for storing ocean color satellite data. These data levels are distributed by the OBPG and/or are producible by the SeaDAS software package. GoalThis chapter gives an introduction to the HDFfile format and briefly describes the following standard OBPG satellite ocean data levels:•Level-0•Level-1A•MODIS GEO•Level-1B•Level-2•Level-3Binned•Level-3Standard Mapped Images2.1HDF and HDF-EOS Data FormatsOBPG Level-1A to Level-3datafiles are stored in the HDFfile format.HDF can be thought of as a ‘container’that can store a variety of data types and meta data in a singlefile(see Figure2.1).From the NASA Atmospheric Science Data Center:Hierarchical Data Format(HDF)is a data file format designed by the National Center for Supercomputing Applications(NCSA)to assist users in the storage and manipulation of scientific data across diverse operating systems and machines.NCSA developed a library of callable routines and a set of utility programs and tools for creating and using HDF files.This work is now performed by The HDF Group(THG).OBPGfiles are actually stored in the HDF-EOS format,a specialized form of HDF created by NASA in1993 as a standard format for all data generated by instruments on the Earth Observing System(EOS)satellites. TIP SeaDAS is fully compatible with all OBPG HDF-EOS datafiles.910CHAPTER2.AN OVERVIEW OF OCEAN DATA LEVELSFigure2.1:HDF File Example(Curtesy of The HDF Group)2.2Level-0DataLevel-0(L0)datafiles contain the raw radiance counts(digital numbers)and this is the lowest and most raw level of data normally available to end-users.L0data is rarely utilized by end-users since the Level-1A(L1A)data is usually a simple re-organization of the L0data into the more friendly/standardized HDF-EOS format.However,L0data from MODIS Aqua and Terra may be desired because unlike MODIS L1A data(which has been ocean-band-subsetted),MODIS L0data contains all36MODIS bands including the7high resolution bands,some of which may be useful for oceanic pro-cessing.As of July2007,all MODIS L0data is available from the singlefile selection page of the OBPG Level1and2Browser.A rolling60-day archive of L0MODIS Aqua and Terra data is also available via ftp:///.TIP SeaDAS has the ability to process L0data to L1A for only the MODIS and SeaWiFS sensors,and can display only L0SeaWiFS data.2.3Level-1A DataL1A datafiles contain the sensor raw radiance counts(digital numbers)as well as spacecraft and instrument telemetry and calibration data.Navigation data is also included except for MODIS,in which case the geolocation data is contained in a separatefile.All L1Afilenames use the SeaWiFS-like convention,which indicates sensor(e.g.S for SeaWiFS,A for MODIS-Aqua,T for MODIS-Terra),sampling rate(C for full1-km sampling),and time of thefirst scan in thefile(e.g.AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.L1A LAC).The entire mission archive of L1A ocean data for all sensors is maintained online,and all higher-level products are derived from this archive.Due to the ever-changing nature of L1B calibration coefficients for active missions,it is recommended that researchers who intend to generate their own L2 products begin their processing using the L1A data(and an up-to-date version of SeaDAS).2.4.MODIS GEO DATA11 OBPG MODIS L0to L1A processing is performed using the standard code developed by the MODIS Science Data Support Team(SDST)and all MODIS L0and L1Afiles distributed by the OBPG are5-minute granules. Forfile size and bandwidth reasons,MODIS L1Afiles are reduced(band-subsetted)by removing excess bands and data that are not utilized for oceanic processing.A standard MODIS L1Afile is∼575MB(∼220MB compressed),while a band-subsetted L1Afile is∼215MB(∼50MB compressed).The reduced Ocean L1A file format retains the bands shown in Figure2.2).Figure2.2:MODIS Ocean Subset Band List2.4MODIS GEO DataFor the MODIS sensor only,a separate geolocation(GEO)file must be generated from an L1Afile,and contains the navigation for that granule.L1B and L2processing then requires the GEOfile as an input. The naming convention for GEOfiles is similar to that of the L1Afiles,e.g.AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.GEO. GEOfiles are not maintained in the long-term OBPG archive since they can be regenerated as needed using SeaDAS,so only a short-term rolling archive is made available for distribution by the OBPG.For the OBPG distribution’s NRT stream,predicted attitude and ephemerisfiles are used to produce Quick-Look GEOfiles. Several days later,in the Refined processing stream,the definitive attitude and ephemerisfiles are used to create thefinal GEO version and refined data products.2.5Level-1B DataLevel-1B datafiles contain the calibrated at-aperture(top-of-atmosphere)radiances derived from L1A sensor counts by applying the sensor calibration.L1Bfiles are named similarly to L1Afiles,e.g.AYYYYDDDHH-MMSS.L1B LAC or simply AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.L1B.For non-MODIS sensors the end-user will rarely make use of L1Bfiles since the processing software produces a L2file directly from an L1A input.However,for MODIS processing,generat-ing the L1Bfile is a required separate step.If the input MODIS L1Afile is not band-subsetted,separate high resolution L1Bfiles will also be produced,e.g.AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.L1B HKM,AYYYYDDDHH-MMSS.L1B QKM.There are differences between the MODIS L1Bfiles produced by the OBPG and those from the MODIS Calibration Support Team(MCST).First,since ocean pixels are generally much darker than land and cloud pixels,a higher level of precision is required for ocean processing.Therefore the OBGPfine-tunes the MCST calibration coefficients for ocean data and so the ocean radiances will be slightly different(and hopefully improved).Second,the OBPG uses the ocean subsetted L1Afiles as input to the L1B processing so OBPG L1Bfiles will contain only the bands listed in Figure2.2.However,if SeaDAS is used to process12CHAPTER 2.AN OVERVIEW OF OCEAN DATA LEVELS a non-subsetted L1A file,all the non-high-resolution MODIS bands will be present in the L1B file (the high-resolution bands will exist in separate L1B HKM ad QKM files).2.6Level-2DataLevel-2data files contain calculated geophysical values for each pixel (e.g.nLw’s,Chlorophyll-a,SST)derived from the L1B radiances by applying atmospheric corrections and bio-optical algorithms.L2data files also contain geolocation data.Each L2product corresponds exactly in geographical coverage (scan-line and pixel extent)to its parent L1A product and is stored in one physical HDF file.As with previous levels,the data has not been mapped and so is in “satelliteview”.Figure 2.3:Level-2Chlorophyll-a Product L2filenames have the form AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.L2LAC.MODIS SST products require different processing parame-ters than other ocean products,therefore MODIS SST L2files are generated in a separate processing run and arenamed AYYYYDDDHHMMSS.L2LAC SST or TYYYYD-DDHHMMSS.L2LAC SST.The L2files distributed by the OBPG contain a standardsuite of products including water-leaving radiances,chloro-phyll a concentration,the diffuse attenuation coefficient at490nm,and a few other products.In addition,thirty-twoflags are associated with each pixel indicating if any algo-rithm failures or warning conditions occurred for that pixel.These flags exist in the ‘l2flags’product.The separatestandard MODIS SST files contain the 11µand 4µ(night-time only)SST products.Five quality levels are associatedwith these SST products and are stored in the ‘qual sst’and ‘qual sst4’ing SeaDAS,L2files can be creatingthat contain hundreds of pre-defined products and/or customproducts.Level-2processing is performed using the Multi-Sensor Level-1to Level-2(msl12)code,which is devel-oped and maintained by the OBPG.msl12is used for the standard processing of all ocean products dis-tributed through the OBPG web browsers and ftp sites.This software is capable of retrieving oceanic optical properties and a multitude of derived products from the observed top-of-atmosphere (TOA)radi-ances.For non-MODIS sensors the L1A file is input to msl12,and for MODIS the L1B and GEO files are used as input.Full documentation,source code,and output product descriptions can be found at /DOCS/MSL12/.2.7Level-3Binned DataLevel-3Binned (L3b)data files contain spatially and temporally binned L2data products.In other words,an L3b data file consists of the accumulated L2data statistics for the specified instrument,product(s),spatial resolution,and time period.Bins can be thought of as square grid elements or grid cells.(Prior to L3b,geophysical variables are derived only for individual satellite pixels.)The statistical data provided in L3b files allow for the calculation of the mean,standard deviation,median,and mode for each L2variable,and for certain other variables (e.g.primary productivity)which are functions of the L2variables.The L3b data are stored in a representation of a global,sinusoidal equal-area grid (see Figure 2.4),and the standard OBPG-distributed bin resolutions are either 4.6km or 9.2km (certain regional products are 1km resolution).Only those bins containing data values are present in the L3b file;land bins and bins with no data are not stored.To create L3b files,the L2files are spatially averaged into L3Daily2.7.LEVEL-3BINNED DATA13 binnedfiles using the l2bin program,and the Dailyfiles are further composited into Weekly,Monthly, Annual,Seasonal,and Climatological time periods using the l3bin program.TIP SeaDAS can be used to create an L3b composite for an arbitrary time period,and the available SeaDAS binning resolutions are0.5,1,2,4,9,and36kilometers.Figure2.4:Square Bins Defined by a Sinusoidal Equal-Area ProjectionThe full suite of L2ocean color parameters as well as three sea surface temperature parameters are available as standard temporal composites from the OBGP.Each product contains only data that has met data quality standards as indicated by a selected standard set of L2flags and masks.SST products can contain data of varying data quality levels,but each bin will only contain the best quality data available for the time period. L3b products are stored either in a single,self-containedfile,or else in separate datafiles known as subor-dinates(for bandwidth and disk space considerations).Single-file L3b products havefilenames of the form IYYYYDDDYYYYDDD.L3b TTT,where I is the instrument identifier,YYYYDDDYYYYDDD are the concatenated digits for the GMT year and day of the start and end days of the binning period,and TTT is a code for the binning period length(DAY,8D,MO,YR,etc.).For daily products,only the year and day of the data are used.For the multi-file L3b products a‘main’file exists,containing all product-level metadata and other data common to all the binned geophysical parameters,along with the multiple subordinatefiles,each of which contains the data of one binned geophysical parameter.An example of thefilenames used for a multi-file SeaWiFS L3b Daily product is:S1998001.L3b DAY.mainS1998001.L3b DAY.x00S1998001.L3b DAY.x01...S1998001.L3b DAY.x10Although it is not necessary to know which subordinatefile stores which product(SeaDAS automatically14CHAPTER2.AN OVERVIEW OF OCEAN DATA LEVELS handles this),each extension number(x00,x11,etc.)is permanently assigned to a certain geophysical product.For example,the extension numbers for SeaWiFS are assigned as follows:x00−→nLw412x00−→nLw412x01−→nLw443x02−→nLw490x03−→nLw510x04−→nLw555x05−→nLw670x06−→angstrom510x07−→chlor ax08−→K490x09−→eps78x10−→tau865TIP L3Binned data products are stored as VDATA HDF objects within the datafiles,so any HDF utility such as vshow can be used to obtain information about the contents of the datafiles.More L3b documentation including algorithms used for spatial and temporal binning are listed in the OBPG Algorithms and Products FAQ:/forum/oceancolor/topic show.pl?tid=19592.8Level-3Standard Mapped ImagesA Level-3Standard Mapped Image(SMI)is an equidistant cylindrical projection of the arithmetic means derived from the statistical data of one Level-3Binned geophysical product.(The equidistant cylindrical projection is also called the equirectangular projection or geographic projection.)Therefore SMI products are image representations of binned data products over the period covered by the parent product.The OBPG distributes global SMI maps at4.6km(4320×2160)and9.2km(8640×4320)resolution to match the L3b standard resolutions.Grid points for the entire globe are present in the datafiles,including an assignedfill value for land and missing data points.SMIfiles are distributed both as HDFfiles and as PNG (Portable Network Graphics)imagefiles.The SMI HDF productfiles are created using the smigen program.Figure2.5:8-Day Level-3Standard Mapped Image(MODIS Aqua Chlorophyll-a,June2007)2.8.LEVEL-3STANDARD MAPPED IMAGES15 All of the OBPG-distributed SMI products are stored as16-bit integers(scaled down from the32-bitfloating-point L3b products).Due to scaling of the L3b data values and problems that may arise from mapping,researchers should fully understand the issues involved with the SMI format before using these maps for scientific purposes.Often using the L3Binned data directly instead of mapping the bins may be the best approach.TIP SeaDAS has theflexibilty to create SMI maps as8-bit integer data,16-bit integer data,or32-bit floating-point data at1,2,4,4.6,9,9.2,or36kilometer resolutions.16CHAPTER2.AN OVERVIEW OF OCEAN DATA LEVELSChapter3Obtaining Ocean DataIntroductionAs mentioned,the OBPG is the designated NASA team responsible for the distribution of ocean color and SST data acquired from the MODIS/Aqua,MODIS/Terra,SeaWiFS,OCTS,and CZCS sensors(this role had been previously shared by the NASA Goddard DAAC).The OBPG offers complete historical archives for each sensor,as well as near real-time(NRT)data for active missions.The access point for all OBPG data sets is the main OBPG webpage,the Ocean Color Web(/).GoalThis chapter outlines the various data access methods available via the Ocean Color Web.Each method for data access will be briefly discussed:•Historical Data Access–SeaWiFS Data Access–The Level1and2Browser–The Level3Browser–Data by FTP•Near Real-Time Data Access–Data Subscriptions for NRT Data–NRT Extracts and Maps–Data by FTP•Citing Data Products Obtained from the Ocean Color Web3.1Historical Data AccessComplete historical data archives for all sensors are available for immediate download from the OBPG servers,with the exception of certain SeaWiFS data restrictions(see below).Data from active missions are made available as soon as the processing system can ingest and process it(MODIS/Aqua and MODIS/Terra data is normally available within2-5hours of capture).1718CHAPTER3.OBTAINING OCEAN DATA 3.1.1SeaWiFS Data AccessThe only OBPG-distributed sensor data with access restrictions is SeaWiFS data,which is currently under a two week embargo from date of collection(per the contractual agreement with GeoEye).Therefore SeaWiFS files less than two weeks old are unavailable.All SeaWiFS data greater thanfive years old is publicly available,but data less thanfive years old is not available to the general public unless they become a SeaWiFS Authorized User.To become an authorized user one must make a(brief)request to the OBGP specifying the scientific rationale for the request along with some other information(see /cgi/apply.pl?page=du).Authorized users can then use the‘SeaWiFS User Login’button in the data browser to gain access to all the SeaWiFS data. On December24,2004,the SeaWiFS project stopped receiving global data from HRPT stations(from which the MLAC data are produced).Since that time the OBPG contract with OrbIMAGE(now GeoEYE)is only for the global GAC dataset,and a new agreement has also provided the OBGP with the coastal U.S. 1km dataset.A request for recorded LAC data can also be made to the OBPG for cruise support,but NRT MODIS1km data is now the preferred source.For non-coastal U.S.1km data after Dec24,2004,data can be purchased directly from GeoEYE.3.1.2The Level1and2BrowserThe‘Level1and2Browser’link on the Ocean Color Web homepage accesses the main browser interface for selecting,downloading,and ordering Level-1and-2datafiles(as well as MODIS L0files).From this top-level interface,search criteria can be set and then searches launched for the matching Level-1and-2 scenes(using the‘Find swaths’button or by clicking on the map).Figure3.1:The Level1and2Browser3.1.HISTORICAL DATA ACCESS19 Search criteria of the data browser include:•Sensor(s)•Day and/or night scenes•Geographic location defined by:–A predefined area of interest–User-specified area of interest(lat/lon box)–Scenes directly under mouse click on global map–Radius about mouse click on global map–Radius about specified lat/lon–Minimum percent of swath falling within area of interest–Date range(contiguous or non-contiguous)When using the data browser,a‘Help’button is available in the upper-righthand corner of each different type of browser page to provide help topics for all the functionalities on that page.Since this help feature details all of the minute functions of the browser,these details will not be discussed here.After a search has been launched using the‘Find swaths’button or by clicking a location on the global map, the search results will be displayed on a new browser page.If only one swath was found,then that swath’s files will be listed as hyperlinks for immediate download along with thumbnail browse images of the data. If more than one swath matches the search criteria,the results page will display multiple matching swath filenames and thumbnails(10per page by default).An individual swath can be selected by clicking on its filename link,or a swath can be added to a user’s‘shopping cart’by clicking the asterisks link(“****”).At any time clicking the‘ORDER DATA’button will take the user to the Scene Order Form page.Figure3.2:Level1and2Browser Search Results20CHAPTER3.OBTAINING OCEAN DATA On the Scene Order Form page the order can be viewed and the user must specify:•An email address•Whether or not to extract a specific region from the datafiles•Data levels desired•Level-2Data products desiredFigure3.3:Level1and2Browser Order FormNext,the‘Review order’button is clicked to continue to the Order Review page that will list allfiles to be staged.If the order looks correct,the user can then click the‘Submit Order’button to complete the Order. Once an order is submitted the OBPG server will begin staging the requestedfiles and send an email notification when thefiles are available for download.The entire ordering and staging process is completely automated so many orders will be available within minutes of submission.3.1.3The Level3BrowserThe‘Level3Browser’link on the Ocean Color Web homepage accesses the interface for selecting and downloading the entire Level-3global ocean color data set for many parameters and time periods.The Level-3files in this browser have been converted from Level-3Binned datafiles to Standard Mapped Images stored both as digital data in HDF formattedfiles and as PNG images.Both4km and9km data are available.A variety of standard and evaluation products can be selected,and clicking on the timeline will set a start date for products to be displayed.Below the timeline is a table of thumbnail images depicting global projections of the selected product type during various time periods.Next to the thumbnails are hyperlinks to the4km (4320x2160)and9km(8640x4320)HDF and PNGfiles.Each column in the table is associated with time periods of afixed length such as a year,a season,a month,or an eight-day‘weekly’period.Clicking on the。

Subcategory ISSN Abbreviated Journal Title中科院分区2013年10月发TotalCitesACOUSTICS0960-7692ULTRASOUND OBST GYN2区 8490 ACOUSTICS1350-4177ULTRASON SONOCHEM2区 5008 ACOUSTICS0301-5629ULTRASOUND MED BIOL2区 7839 ACOUSTICS0041-624XULTRASONICS2区 3651 ACOUSTICS1077-5463J VIB CONTROL2区 1649 ACOUSTICS0885-3010IEEE T ULTRASON FERR3区 7469 ACOUSTICS1558-7916IEEE T AUDIO SPEECH3区 2251 ACOUSTICS0001-4966J ACOUST SOC AM3区 35754 ACOUSTICS0022-460XJ SOUND VIB3区 19012 ACOUSTICS0161-7346ULTRASONIC IMAGING3区 890 ACOUSTICS0165-2125WAVE MOTION3区 1367 ACOUSTICS0278-4297J ULTRAS MED3区 3907 ACOUSTICS0167-6393SPEECH COMMUN3区 1982 ACOUSTICS1048-9002J VIB ACOUST3区 1825 ACOUSTICS0003-682XAPPL ACOUST4区 1975 ACOUSTICS1549-4950J AUDIO ENG SOC4区 832 ACOUSTICS0137-5075ARCH ACOUST4区 242 ACOUSTICS1610-1928ACTA ACUST UNITED AC4区 1808 ACOUSTICS0091-2751J CLIN ULTRASOUND4区 1642 ACOUSTICS0031-8388PHONETICA4区 570 ACOUSTICS0218-396XJ COMPUT ACOUST4区 328 ACOUSTICS1687-4722EURASIP J AUDIO SPEE4区 59 ACOUSTICS1475-472XINT J AEROACOUST4区 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看说揭太阳终极命运濒死“冒泡红巨星”或揭太阳终极命运令人不寒而栗新浪科技> 科学探索> 正文新浪科技讯北京时间12月30日消息，据国外媒体报道，最新一项太空观测令人不寒而栗！目前，天文学家探测到一颗红巨星，这颗垂死恒星非常类似太阳。

它距离地球530光年，位于天鹤星座，这颗红巨星或将揭晓未来太阳的终极命运。

天文学家使用欧洲航天局甚大望远镜（VLT）首次直接观测到太阳系之外一颗恒星的颗粒化表面结构，这颗衰老的红巨星被命名为“pi1 Gruis”，它的直径是太阳的350倍，表面覆盖着“对流涡胞。

每个涡胞的直径是该恒星直径的四分之一，大约1.2亿公里。

相比之下，太阳光球层包含大约200万个对流涡胞，直径仅有1500公里。

这项最新研究报告发表在近期出版的《自然》杂志上。

pi1 Gruis恒星是一颗寒冷的红巨星，它与太阳质量相近，亮度是太阳的数千倍。

太阳将逐渐膨胀，大约再过50亿年将演变成类似pi1 Gruis的红巨星。

欧洲航天局天文学家克劳迪娅·帕拉迪尼带领研究小组使用甚大望远镜的PIONIER仪器更加详细地观测pi1 Gruis恒星，结果显示该恒星光球层被灰尘遮蔽，对观测效果影响较大。

未来50亿年之后，地球上的生命将被超级炽热的太阳完全摧毁。

20亿年之后，太阳在死亡之前将演变成为一颗白矮星，太阳体积将增长100多倍，完全吞噬水星和金星。

当pi1 Gruis恒星耗尽氢燃料，燃烧较长时间，这颗远古恒星将终结核聚变进程的第一阶段。

伴随着其能量耗尽，这颗恒星逐渐缩小，导致其温度升高至1亿多摄氏度。

这些极端温度条件促进了pi1 Gruis恒星下一阶段的演变，它开始氦聚变成为碳和氧等较重原子。

之后超级炽热内核剥离恒星外层部分，导致其不断膨胀，体积达到最初的数百倍。

目前该恒星是一颗变量红巨星，在此之前变量红巨星表面的详细结构未被详细描述过。

当质量是太阳8倍以上的恒星以超新星爆炸方式终结生命时，很少有超大质量恒星像pi1 Gruis恒星一样逐渐剥离最外层，形成美丽的行星状星云。

英语单词词源故事一、神话传说1、chaos（混沌）：希腊神话中的混沌之神卡俄斯卡俄斯（Chaos）是希腊神话中最早的的原始神之一，代表宇宙形成之前模糊一团的景象。

根据赫西俄德和早期希腊神话记载：宇宙之初只有卡俄斯，他是一个无边无际、一无所有的空间。

随后他依靠无性繁殖从自身内部诞生了大地女神、地狱深渊神、黑暗神、黑夜女神和爱神等五大原始神。

世界由此开始。

由卡俄斯的名字Chaos产生了表示“混沌”的单词chaos及其派生词chaotic。

chaos：['keɪɒs]n.混沌、混乱。

chaotic：[keɪ'ɒtɪk]adj.混乱的、无秩序的。

2、geography（地理）：希腊神话中的大地女神盖亚在古希腊神话中，掌管地球的女神称为“盖亚”（Gaia或Gaea），通常被翻译为“大地女神”。

她由混沌之神卡俄斯所生。

盖亚通过自我繁殖诞生了天神（表示天地之分离）、海底神（表示大地之凹陷）和山脉神（表示大地之凸起），并与天神结合生了六男六女十二个泰坦巨神及三个独眼巨人和三个百臂巨神。

她是世界的开始，所有的神都是她的子孙后代。

从盖亚的名字产生了表示“地球”的词根geo-，从词根geo-产生了许多与地球、大地有关的单词。

geography：[dʒɪ'ɒgrəfɪ]n. 地理学。

记：geo大地+graphy描绘→描述大地的概貌就是地理geology：[dʒɪ'ɒlədʒɪ]n. 地质学。

记：geo大地+logy表示学科→研究大地的学科geologist：[dʒɪ'ɒlədʒɪst]n. 地质学家。

记：geo大地+logy学科+ist表示人物→研究大地的学者geometry：[dʒɪ'ɒmɪtrɪ]n. 几何学。

记：geo大地+metry测量→最早的几何是测量大地的技术3、territory（领土）：罗马神话中的大地女神大地女神盖亚在罗马神话中换了一个罗马名字，叫做Tellus（忒勒斯）或Terra Mother（大地母亲）。