五分钟搞定5000字-外文文献翻译

由于导师给的是扫描件，扫描件的pdf格式无法复制文字，用翻译的软件也比较难识别文本，所以给出以下教程（以下软件都能够在360软件管家里面下载）
第一步，去网上下载cajviewer，如图表所示，安装完以后打开。

用软件打开导师给的pdf文档，在软件的左上角有个文字识别，利用这个功能就能扫描出排版工整的文字了。

第二步，如果出现了图片不公整（图片斜的），扫描出来的文字就跟原文有较大的出入，所以我们要调整图片的位置。

首先你电脑里要有以下软件，楼主就直接下载的360软件管家
里面的，
然后在下载dopdf(如果是office2007可不下此软件)
最后下载一个ps软件（楼主下的光影魔术手）
有可能安装有问题，那么换美图秀秀也可以的。

操作如下
S1先用Adobe Reader打开文档
S2复制一张不工整的（斜的图片）扫描件到电脑附件自带画图软件里面
保存
S3利用PS软件将图片调整成水平位置（位置调整角度一般很小），保存图片
S3 用电脑自带的office新建个word文档，将PS过后的图片插入到文档中去
S4 如果电脑中office是2003时则在文档中选项中选择文件/打印（如下图所示），记得将打印机的名称改成doPDF 8,然后确定，跳出来对话框，选择转化成pdf格式的存放位置点OK确认就生成pdf文件；
如果office是2007可直接文件/另存为PDF格式的就可以了
S5 操作如上述用cajviewer扫描出文字然后用软件翻译外文即可。

本人用过金山词霸还有谷歌翻译（需要翻墙），对比看谷歌翻译还是可以的，但是还是有20-30%的错误率，有些专业术语还要自己重新翻译的。

金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。

一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。

金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。

然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。

这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。

很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。

因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。

南京航空航天大学金城学院毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译系部经济系专业国际经济与贸易学生姓名陈雅琼学号2011051115指导教师邓晶职称副教授2015年5月Economic policy,tourism trade and productive diversification（Excerpt）Iza Lejárraga,Peter WalkenhorstThe broad lesson that can be inferred from the analysis is that promoting tourism linkages with the productive capabilities of a host country is a multi-faceted approach influenced by a variety of country conditions.Among these,fixed or semi-fixed factors of production,such as land,labor,or capital,seem to have a relatively minor influence.Within the domain of natural endowments,only agricultural capital emerged as significant.This is a result that corresponds to expectations,given that foods and beverages are the primary source of demand in the tourism economy.Hence,investments in agricultural technology may foment linkages with the tourism market.It is also worth mentioning that for significant backward linkages to emerge with local agriculture,a larger scale of tourism may be important. According to the regression results,a strong tourism–agriculture nexus will not necessarily develop at a small scale of tourism demand.It appears that variables related to the entrepreneurial capital of the host economy are of notable explanatory significance.The human development index(HDI), which is used to measure a country's general level of development,is significantly and positively associated with tourism linkages.One plausible explanation for this is that international tourists,who often originate in high-income countries,may feel more comfortable and thus be inclined to consume more in a host country that has a life-style to which they can relate easily.Moreover,it is important to remember that the HDI also captures the relative achievements of countries in the level of health and education of the population.Therefore,a higher HDI reflects a healthier and more educated workforce,and thus,the quality of local entrepreneurship.Related to this point,it is important to underscore that the level of participation of women in the host economy also has a significantly positive effect on linkages.In sum, enhancing local entrepreneurial capital may expand the linkages between tourism and other sectors of the host country.Formal institutions and their regulatory control of the market,proxied by the size of the government and price controls,were not found to have significant effects on linkages formation.Despite the importance of democratic governance,this was not identified as a key determinant either.On the other hand,the significance of informal institutions accords with the clustering dynamics inherent in tourism,in which linkages are formed on the basis of self-enforcing“relations-based”governance.Also,informal structures cost less than formal,rules-driven institutional frameworks for entrepreneurship.Therefore,highly formalized regulations can deter the spontaneous and cost-driven coordination among potential local suppliers and the potential buyers of the tourism economy.One type of formal institutions that does matter is policing and vigilance.As would be expected,the results show that countries with higher incidence of violence or crime are significantly associated with lower levels of tourism linkages.Indeed, the coordination of providers in tourism clusters depends fundamentally on trust among local entrepreneurs and trust can hardly flourish in an environment characterized by social conflict.Equally important,the perception of violence on the part of tourists and hotels will dissuade tourists from venturing beyond the safe boundaries of the“enclave”hotel resort.Finally,hotel managers and other foreign investors in the tourism economy will be less inclined to maintain productive relations with the host economy in the absence of predictability and stability. Therefore,investments in institutions that maintain safety and a perception of safety,in the host economy appear critical for spawning coordination.While all country domains may be playing a role in fostering or hindering linkages, the business environment seems to exert an overriding influence on linkages.After controlling for a country's natural endowments,level of development,and institutional maturity,the business environment on its own explains almost20%of cross-country variations in linkages.In particular,the level of corporate taxes in the host economy is associated with the most significant adverse effect on the formation of linkages,in conformity with the lower-cost motivation underlying tourism-led linkage creation.Also,a widespread usage of internet is alsosignificantly associated with a positive effect in the ability of suppliers to orchestrate coordination in tourism linkages.Moreover,the results suggest that there could be a role for government in improving trade facilitation and reducing transportation costs.Also,maintaining an open trade regime seems to be critical for the emergence of linkages.This underscores the importance of not protecting inefficient economic activities and opening potential products for tourism demand to competition.Although trade barriers may indeed serve to prod investors in the tourism economy to procure domestic goods, they will also hinder the competitiveness of local producers.Shielded from imports, local producers will not have the incentives to meet the international quality standards of the products needed by the tourism economy.Yet,quality expectations, possibly more so than costs,will likely inform the procurement decisions of the tourism economy.Concerning the relative magnitude of the effects of the different domains on linkages,the business environment and trade regulations stand out.The independent contributions of these domains,that is their ability to explain variations in the dependent variable when no controls for other domains are applied,amount to53%and 43%,respectively.The level-of-development domain follows with25%explanatory power,while the domains covering institutions and endowments provide an independent contribution of23%each.The implications of the analysis should be considered in light of its limitations. Causal direction cannot be fully substantiated,because we use a cross-sectional approach due to data limitations.In the absence of time-series for the variables at hand,it is not possible to test for causation.While the explanatory variables concerning natural endowments are exogenous,some of the other explanatory variables could potentially be subject to reverse causality.That said,there do not seem to be a priori strong conceptual reasons that would lead us to believe that the degree of tourism linkages critically affects trade policy,the quality of institutions, and other variables of our model.Moreover,the risk of encountering problems of reverse causality is mitigated by the observation that several longitudinal studies have established a causal relationship that runs from higher levels of economic development Eugenio-Martin et al.(2008)or a better business environment(Barrowclough,2007and Selvanathan et al.,2009)to the development of the tourism sector,rather than the other way around.Finally,the construction of the dependent variable as a ratio of indirect to direct tourism expenditure makes the reverse causality hypothesis less compelling. While it might be expected that an expansion of the tourism sector that increases total revenues and employment opportunities might have an impact on the explanatory variables,it is less evident that a change in the composition of tourism revenues, as implied by a change in the LINK variable,would have such an effect.That said, the confidence in our findings would clearly be further enhanced,if supported by results from future studies based on longitudinal designs.The scientific environmental ethics plays a key role in the recognition of the human—environment interactions．Modern environmental ethics is the philosophical rethinking of modern human race environmental behavior．The development of environmental ethics theory as well as its application in reality．determines the viewpoints of environmental ethics．Sustainable development implies harmony on human-environment interactions and intergeneration responsibility，with emphasis on a harmonious relationship among population，resources，environment and development，so as to lay a sustainable and healthy foundation of resources and environment for future generations．The harmonious society construction in China that is raised by the Chinese central government should be covered by environmental ethics．The connotation of open environmental ethics includes a respect for nature．care for the individual human race．and respect for the development of future generations，which means giving consideration to natural values．individual and human race benefits and welfare across generations．The role of environmental ethics in regional development consists of cognition，criticism，education，inspiration，adjusting，legislation and promoting environmental regulations．The major problems in regional development are extensive resource exploration，fast population growth irrational,industrialstructure.Unfair welfare distribution and the twofold effects of science and technology development．The formulation of environmental ethics that aims at regional sustainable development，can not only harmonize the relationship of population，resource，environment and economic development，but also guide behavior selection，push social and political system transformation.strengthen the legal system，and raise environmental awareness of the public．Human races face severe global challenges in resources，environment，population and poverty．To solve these problems science and technology should be developed on one hand，and human-environment interactions should be adjusted on the other hand．Modem environmental ethics is the philosophical review on modem human race environmental behavior．Environmental ethics can be a view point as the moral perception of the relationship between humankind and nature in general．The keystone of sustainable development is on harmonious human．environment interactions．with an emphasis on sustainable environmental ethics．Environmental ethics and sustainable development are key issues in the study of man．1and system，as well as a precondition to regional development(Zheng，2005a)．Though there exists theoretical divergence in different environmental ideologies．some general understandings can also be obtained：human races are the only ethical agents on earth；the essence of the environmental crisis is a cultural and value crisis；future generations have the same right as current generations，especially on survival space；differences should be made between human race and other entities on earth，at the same time they are an undivided union；the capability of the earth is limited．Based on the above general understandings．it is possible to form a more open and sustainable environmental ethics．A more open and sustainable environmental ethics has some special connections．To respect and treat nature friendly means to acknowledge the value and right of nature，that is to say,minimum hurt criterion，basic benefit criterion and fair compensation criterion should be followed．To pay attention to both individuals and mankind should follow justice criterion，equity criterion and cooperation criterion．To have futuregeneration in mind Should follow responsibility criterion，saving criterion，and cautiousness criterion(Wang，2003；Wang，2004a)．The conclusion to be drawn from the above is to give attention to both human race and natural value．to both individual and mankind’s benefit。

如何翻译英文文献
当你需要翻译一个英文文献时，以下是一个简单的参考步骤：
1. 首先，阅读并理解原始文献。

确保你对文献的主要内容和结构有一个清晰的了解。

2. 将文献分成几个段落，并将每个段落的主要论点和细节记录下来。

这将帮助你组织翻译过程。

3. 开始翻译。

从第一个段落开始，将原始文本逐句翻译成目标语言（如中文）。

尽量保持原始文本的词序和句子结构，但也要注意目标语言的习惯表达方式和语法规则。

4. 当遇到翻译难点时，可以使用在线翻译工具或参考语言学资源，以确保准确理解原始文本的意思。

5. 逐句翻译完整个文献后，进一步审查和编辑翻译内容。

确保语义和逻辑的准确性，并修复任何可能的语法或用词错误。

6. 做一次整体审查，确保翻译流畅自然，没有歧义或不连贯之处。

注意提前准备好目标语言的专业术语和词汇，以便正确传达原文的意思。

7. 最后，检查翻译与原文之间是否有任何遗漏或错误，以确保您的翻译准确无误。

建议在翻译过程中保留原文献的原始结构和思路，并自然流畅
地传达其意义。

尽量使用准确的专业术语，并始终关注翻译的准确性和一致性。

山东理工大学英-中文翻译材料英文题目： Brief Introductionto .NET中文题目： .NET简介学院：计算机科学与技术专业：软件工程学生姓名：米东文指导教师：刘秋香二O一五年六月Brief Introduction to .NETThe .NET FrameworkThe .NET Framework is a multi-language environment for building, deploying, and running XML Web services and applications. It consists of three main parts: •Common Language Runtime Despite its name, the runtime actually hasa role in both a component's runtime and development time experiences.While the component is running, the runtime is responsible for managing memory allocation, starting up and stopping threads and processes, and enforcing security policy, as well as satisfying any dependencies that the component might have on other components. At development time, the runtime's role changes slightly; because it automates so much (for example, memory management), the runtime makes the developer's experience very simple, especially when compared to COM as it is today.In particular, features such as reflection dramatically reduce the amount of code a developer must write in order to turn business logic into a reusable component.•Unified programming classes The framework provides developers witha unified, object-oriented, hierarchical, and extensible set of classlibraries (APIs). Currently, C++ developers use the Microsoft Foundation Classes and Java developers use the Windows Foundation Classes. The framework unifies these disparate models and gives Visual Basic and JScript programmers’ access to class libraries as well. By creating a common set of APIs across all programming languages, the common language runtime enables cross-language inheritance, error handling, and debugging. All programming languages, from JScript to C++, have similar access to the framework and developers are free to choose the language that they want to use.• builds on the programming classes of the .NET Framework, providing a Web application model with a set of controls and infrastructure that make it simple to build ASP Web applications. includes a set of controls that encapsulate common HTML user interface elements, such as text boxes and drop-down menus. These controls run onthe Web server, however, and push their user interface as HTML to the browser. On the server, the controls expose an object-oriented programming model that brings the richness of object-oriented programming to the Web developer. also provides infrastructure services, such as session state management and process recycling, which further reduce the amount of code a developer must write and increase application reliability. In addition, uses these same concepts to enable developers to deliver software as a service. Using XML Web services features, developers can write their business logic and use the infrastructure to deliver that service via SOAP.DATA CONNECTIONIntroductionThe top of the stack is the API or object library layer. Applications connect to Microsoft® SQL Server through either API functions or interfaces exposed by an object library. Examples of APIs used to access SQL Server include ODBC and DB-Library. Examples of object libraries used to access SQL Server include OLE DB, ADO, and . Because ADO ultimately uses OLE DB to communicate with the server, there are really just two object libraries commonly used by Windows applications to communicate with SQL Server: OLE DB and . Connecting through ADO or is certainly more common than doing so over ODBC (although SQL Server's Query Analyzer and Enterprise Manager Still connect over ODBC), so I'll discuss the client-side of SQL Server's connection architecture in terms of ADO/OLE DB and . Most apps these days get to SQL Server by way of an object library rather than ODBC or something similar.ADO and OLE DBOLE DB clients (also known as consumers) communicate with servers and other back-ends by means of a client-side provider. This provider is a set of one or more COM components that translate application requests into network interposes communication (IPC) requests. In the case of SQL Server, the OLE DB provider that is most commonly used is SQLOLEDB, the Microsoft-provided OLE DB provider for SQL Server. SQLOLEDB comes with SQL Server and is installed as part of the Microsoft Data Access Components (MDAC) stack.Applications that communicate with SQL Server using ADO do so by first establishing a connection to the server using a Connection object. ADO's Connection object accepts a connection string that specifies the OLE DB provider to be used as well as the parameters to pass to it. You'll see "SQLOLEDB" in this string if an app is connecting to SQL Server using the SQLOLEDB provider.It's also possible for an ADO application to connect over ODBC to SQL Server. To do this, the app uses the OLE DB provider for ODBC and specifies an ODBC data source that references the target SQL Server in its connection string. In this scenario, the application communicates with OLE DB, and the OLE DB provider for ODBC makes the appropriate ODBC API calls to talk to SQL Server. applications typically connect to SQL Server using the .NET Framework Data Provider for SQL Server. This native provider allows objects to communicate directly with SQL Server. Typically, an application uses a SqlConnection object to establish a connection, and then uses a SqlCommand object to send commands to the server and receive results back from it. The SqlDataAdapter and SqlDataReader classes are typically used in conjunction with SqlCommand to interact with SQL Server from managed code applications.By making use of the OleDbConnection class, applications can also use the SQLOLEDB OLE DB provider to interact with SQL Server. And they can access SQL Server by way of ODBC through the OdbcConnection class. So, from managed code alone, you have three distinct ways of accessing SQL Server from an application. This is good to know from a troubleshooting standpoint because it can help you isolate connection-related problems you encounter to a particular data access layer or library.Client-Side Net-LibrariesThe next layer down in the stack is the Net-Library. A Net-Library provides the conduit between the API or object library an application uses to communicate with SQL Server and the networking protocols used to exchange data with the network. SQL Server provides Net-Libraries for all major networking protocols. These libraries transparently handle sending requests from the client to the SQL Server and returning the server's responses to the client. You can configure which Net-Libraries are available on a particular client using SQL Server's Client Network Utility. Supported client-side protocols include TCP/IP, Named Pipes, Multiprotocol (RPC), and a few others.One Net-Library that's worth special mention here is the shared memory Net-Library. As the name suggests, this Net-Library uses Windows' shared memory facility to communicate between a SQL Server client and server. Naturally, this means that the client and server must reside on the same physical machine.Because it is able to bypass the physical network stack, the shared memory Net-Library can be considerably faster than other Net-Libraries. Access to the shared memory region is protected by synchronization objects, so the speed of the communication between the client and server is constrained mainly by Windows' ability to signal and unsigned kernel objects and processes' ability to copy data to and from the shared memory region.You can indicate that the shared memory Net-Library should be used by specifying either a period or (local)as your machine name when connecting. You can also prefix your machine\instance name withloc: when connecting to indicate that you want to use the shared memory Net-Library.Understand that, even when connecting to a SQL Server on the same machine, the shared memory Net-Library is not necessarily your best connection option. The directness of the connection between the client and server can limit its scalability in some situations. As with other elements in an application's overall architecture, you should always thoroughly test a given technology solution before assuming that it scales well or is faster than alternate approaches.ConnectionsWhen a client connects, SQL Server's user mode scheduler (UMS) component assigns it to a particular scheduler. At startup, SQL Server creates a separate UMS scheduler for each CPU on the system. As clients connect to the server, they are assigned to the scheduler with the fewest number of connections. Once connected, a client never changes schedulers—it will remain on its assigned scheduler until it disconnects.This has important implications for applications that establish multiple connections to the server. If an application is poorly designed or does not evenly distribute work across its connections, it's possible for the app to cause needless contention for CPU resources between some of its connections, while others remain virtually idle.Say, for example, that at application establishes four connections to SQL Server that is running on a machine with two processors and that connections 1 and 3 end up on processor 0, while connections 2 and 4 end up on processor 1. If the lion's share of the app's work is carried out over connections 1 and 3, they will contend for CPU 0 while CPU 1 might remain virtually idle. In this situation, there's nothing the app can do but disconnect/reconnect some of its connections and hope thatconnections 1 and 3 end up on different CPUs (there's no way to specify processor affinity when connecting) or redistribute its workload across its connections such that they are more balanced. The latter is, of course, far preferable to the former.Connection MemorySQL Server sets aside three packet buffers for every connection made from a client. Each buffer is sized according to the default network packet size specified by the sp_configure stored procedure. If the default network packet size is less than 8KB, the memory for these packets comes from SQL Server's buffer pool. If it's 8KB or larger, the memory is allocated from SQL Server's MemToLeave region.It's worth noting that the default network packet size for the .NET Framework Data Provider for SQL Server is 8KB, so the buffers associated with managed code client connections typically come from SQL Server's MemToLeave region. This contrasts with classic ADO applications, where the default packet size is 4KB, and the buffers are allocated form the SQL Server buffer pool.EventsOnce connected, client requests typically fall into one of two broad categories: language events and remote procedure calls. Although there are certainly others, most requests from a SQL Server client to a server consist of one of these two types. A language event is a batch of T-SQL sent from the client to the server. For example, if you call the Execute method of an ADO Command object whose CommandText property is set to a T-SQL query and whose CommandType property is set to adCmdText, the query is submitted to the server as a language event. Likewise, if you set CommandType to adCmdTable and call the Execute method, ADO will generate an internal query that selects all the columns in the table identified by the CommandText property and submit it to the server as a language event. On the other hand, if you set CommandType to adStoredProc, calling Execute will causeADO to submit a remote procedure call request to the server to execute the stored procedure listed in the CommandText property.Why do you care about whether you're submitting requests to the server as language events or RPCs? You care because RPCs, generally speaking, perform better, especially when you're repeatedly calling the same query with different filter values. Although SQL Server can auto-parameterize plain language event requests, its ability to do so is pretty limited. It will not attempt to auto-parameterize certain types of queries at all. This can cause different executions of what is essentially the same query to incur the cost of plan compilation on the server simply because they filter on different values. Quite often, this is not what you want—you want to compile a new plan for the first execution of a query, then reuse the plan for subsequent executions that happen to feature different parameters.An RPC, on the other hand, encourages plan reuse by explicitly parameter zing a query rather than relying on the server to do it. A single plan is generated for the first execution of the procedure, and subsequent executions automatically reuse it, even if they supply different values for the parameters. Calling a stored procedure using an RPC versus doing so through a language event not only saves the execution time and CPU resources required for plan compilation, it also makes better use of SQL Server's memory resources because it avoids wasting memory on redundant execution plans.This is the same reason that sp_executesql is generally preferred to EXEC() when executing dynamic T-SQL. Sp_executesql works by creating a stored procedure using the specified query, then calling it using the supplied parameters. Unlike EXEC(), sp_executesql provides a mechanism that allows you to parameterize dynamic T-SQL and encourage plan reuse.A dynamic query that is executed using sp_executesql has a much better chance of avoiding unnecessary compilation and resource costs than one ran using EXEC().TDSRPCs, language events, and other types of requests sent from a client to SQL Server are formatted into a SQL Server-specific data format known as Tabular Data Stream (TDS). TDS is the "language" spoken between SQL Server clients and servers. Its exact format is no longer documented, but a client must speak TDS if it wishes to communicate with SQL Server.Currently, SQL Server supports three versions of TDS: TDS 8.0 (for SQL 2000 clients), TDS 7.0 (for SQL Server 7.0 clients), and TDS 4.2 (for SQL Server 4.2, 6.0, and 6.5 clients). The only version that completely supports all SQL Server 2000 features is TDS 8.0. The others are maintained for backward compatibility.Server-Side Net-LibrariesOn the server side, client requests are initially received by listeners SQL Server sets up to listen on particular networking protocols. These listeners consist of networking libraries on the server and the server-side Net-Libraries that provide a conduit between them and the server. You can configure the protocols on which the server listens using the Server Network Utility. Except when dealing with clusters, SQL Servers support the same range of networking protocols as is supported by clients. For clustered SQL Servers, only TCP/IP and Named Pipes are available. SQL Server sets up one thread per networking protocol on which it listens for client requests, and uses Windows' I/O completion port mechanism to wait for and process requests efficiently. As TDS packets are received from the network, the Net-Library listener reassembles them into their original client requests and passes them on to SQL Server's command-processing layer, Open Data Services (ODS).Returning Results to the ClientWhen the server is ready to return results for a particular client request, it uses the same network stack over which the request was initially received. It sends results over the server-side Net-Library to the appropriate networking protocol, and these, in turn, are sent back across the network to the client in TDS format.On the client-side, the TDS packets received from the server are reassembled from the IPC layer by the client-side Net-Library, and then forwarded on to the API or object library that initiated the request.Putting It All TogetherDespite all the pieces involved, the roundtrip between a SQL Server client and server can be quite fast—sub-second response time is not unusual at all, especially when working with the shared memory Net-Library. There are several data points here that are worth keeping in mind as you build and tune your own SQL Server client applications:•If your app runs on the same machine as your SQL Server, consider using the shared memory Net-Library if you aren't already. Shared memory Net-Library-based connections are often considerably faster than other types of connections. Keep in mind what I said earlier, though: always thoroughly test a solution and compare it with viable alternatives before assuming that it is inherently better or faster.The proof is in the pudding.•Because a client is assigned to a particular UMS scheduler when it first connects and will not leave that scheduler until it disconnects, it's important to ensure that an application's workload is balanced across the connections it establishes to the server. Unbalanced workloads can cause unnecessary CPU contention and suboptimal resource usage.•The default network packet size you configure on the server and that clients specify when connecting directly affects how much memory they require on the server and the pool from which it is allocated.Keep this in mind as you configure servers for scalability and speed.Also keep in mind that, by default, apps will have a larger network packet size than ADO apps.•Generally speaking, you should prefer RPCs to language events when sending requests to the server. Set the appropriate properties in the ADO or objects you're using to facilitate this. •When executing dynamic T-SQL, use sp_executesql rather than EXEC() when possible. About the only time this isn't possible is when using EXEC()'s ability to concatenate query fragments into dynamic query strings that exceed what can be stored in a single local variable(a rare situation).•When you run into client-side problems that you suspect may have to do with the object library or API you're using to reach the server, one troubleshooting technique you can use is to change the client-side mechanism you're using so that you can isolate the problem to a particular component. For example, let's say that you upgrade MDAC and begin seeing 17805 errors in your SQL Server error log indicating that malformed TDS packets are arriving from a client-side ADO application. You might try switching the app to use the OLE DB provider for ODBC, if you can do so without much trouble, to see whether the problem is related to the SQLOLEDB provider in some way. Conversely, if your ADO-based app has been connecting over ODBC, you might switch to SQLOLEDB to see if that remedies the problem or at least helps you narrow the scope.•Along these same lines, it sometimes makes sense to change out the Net-Library you're using when troubleshooting connection-related problems. If you're using TCP/IP, perhaps Named Pipes would be worth trying. For example, if you're running into an issue with your DHCPserver and don't have a valid IP address, you won't be able to connect to SQL Server using TCP/IP. By switching to Named Pipes, you can quickly isolate the problem to something specific to TCP/IP. On the other hand, if you switch Net Libraries and still have the same problem, you can probably rule out Net-Library-specific issues. Perhaps the server is down or a piece of the network infrastructure between you and the server is not functioning properly. If nothing else, being able to easily change the Net-Library an app uses without having to change the app itself gives you a tool for helping isolate problems. Even if a particular Net-Library isn't viable for you in the long term, temporarily switching a client to use it can help narrow down where a connection-related issue resides.Introduction to information management system of the hotelPurpose of this project are: universal access to computer technology, the traditional hotel management technology does not suit the needs of the contemporary development of hotel and guesthouse accommodation, hotel management to keep the guests one of the major factors. Hotel business links related to the work of more broad, the hotel is no longer only the traditional accommodation and settlement, but contains a wider range of services. As a service industry, from the guests scheduled to stay at the hotel registration until you check out, if you can provide fast and convenient service to guests, you will give guests a better feeling, so that you can enhance the rate of second glance of the hotel. Hotel information management system is in such demand.This project is mainly to solve daily basic requirements of hotels involved in the management of information, the goal is to make the administrator a convenient, speedy and efficient room on the Web site management, reservations, check out business. This site includes basic information management staff, rooms basic information management, reservation management, room unsubscribe management, sales management, and other important modules..NET简介.NET 框架.NET Framework 是用于生成、部署和运行 XML Web services 和应用程序的多语言环境。

本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low-carbon Development 文献、资料来源：Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表（出版）日期：V ol.2 No.3, 2010院（部）：管理工程学院专业：工程造价班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：2012.5.28外文文献China’s Pathway to Low-carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China’s current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon (LC) development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings –The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co-benefit approa ch are needed for China’s transition to a green and LC economy, and that, especially for developing countries, it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation. Instead, a concrete roadmap towards a LC future is needed that addresses key issues of technology transfer, institutional arrangements and sharing the costs in the context of a global climate regime. In this light, it is argued that China should adopt an approach for low-carbon development centred on carbon intensity reduction over the next ten years.Originality/value –The paper thus provides a unique summary, in English, of the arguments supporting China’s current low-carbon innovation policies from one of the authors of this policy. Keywords：Carbon, Sustainable development, Environmental management, Government policy, ChinaPaper type – Research paperClimate change has become the most significant environment and development challenge to human society in the twenty-first century. Responding to climate change is the core task to achieving global sustainable development, both for today and for a rather long period of time from today. International negotiations on prevention of global warming and related actions not only concern the human living environment, but also directly impact the modernization process of developing countries. Although the process of global climate protection depends on the consensus of our scientific awareness, political wills, economic interests, society’s level ofacceptance, as well as measures adopted, a low-carbon (LC) development path is, undoubtedly, the critical choice of future human development.The science basis of climate change and its extended political and economic implicationsGlobal warming of the climate system has become an unequivocal fact. According to a large amount of monitoring data, global average land surface temperature has risen 0.748C over the last century (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d). And the rate of rising has been sped up. In the meantime, global average sea level has been constantly rising too. Global warming has posed a serious challenge to Chin a’s climate, environment and development. In the global context of climate change, China’s climate and environment are changing too. For instance, in the last century, the land surface average temperature has witnessed an obvious increase; though the precipitation has not changed too much, its interdecadal variations and regional disparity have been big. In the last 50 years, there have also been major changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather and climate events (Editorial Board of China’s N ational Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2007).The IPCC (2007a, b, c, d) integrated assessment shows that since 1750, human activities have been a major cause of global warming, while in the last 50 years, most of the global warming is the consequence of human activities, with a probability of more than 90 per cent, in particular from the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions due to the human use of fossil fuels. It is forecast that before the end of the twenty-first century, global warming will continue, and how much the temperature will rise depends on what actions humans will take. According the Third Working Group Report of the IPCC fourth Assessment (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d), human actions to mitigate climate change are feasible, both economically and technologically. Actions to deploy key mitigation technologies in various sectors, adopting policy and administrative interference and shifting the development pathway could all contribute greatly to mitigation of climate change.With China becoming the world’s largest CO2emitter, China faces increasing pressure to reduce its emissions. Being a responsible country, China will take actions to tackle climate change. When developing its mitigation target, China will consider such factors as level ofdevelopment, technology know-how, social impact, international image and a new international climate regime underpinned by fairness and effectiveness. China will move into a win-win development path to achieve climate protection, quality economic development and other related policy targets.To develop LC economy – background, opportunities and challengesAs illustrated above, systematic solutions are required to tackle climate change, due to the complexity of the global climate system as well as its coverage of broad social and economic issues. After nearly two decades’ exploration, human society has realized that in order to effectively mitigate and adapt to climate change, we have to fundamentally reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which means that we have to achieve the shift to a LC future from the way we produce and consume to how global assets are allocated (including industries, technology, capitals and resources) and how they are transferred. From the perspective of the limited storage capacity of GHGs in the climate system as a global public good, both a high level of human wisdom and a new international climate regime to deal with market failure are required, which also demands the participation of all stakeholders and together they shall charter a new development pathway. Human society has to pay the economic prices to solve climate warming. Thus, the three flexible “mechanisms” in the Kyoto Protocol ( joint implementation, emissions trading and clean development mechanism) demonstrate a meaningful experiment for the Annex I countries to decrease their emissions reduction costs. What is needed is to move forward from where we are now to explore a more universally applicable mechanism that would effectively allocate the resources among the key responsible stakeholders. The LC development path embodies an integrated solution strategy. It aims to build up a LC society through LC economic development, tries to achieve the restructuring of all the key elements discussed above and offers new opportunities for human society in response to climate change through collaborations.As a fundamental venue to coordinate social and economic development, guarantee energy security and respond to climate change, development of LC economy is gradually gaining the needed consensus from more and more countries. Though without a fixed academic definition, the core of developing a LC economy is to establish a development pathway that has high-energyefficiency, low-energy consumption and low emissions. Under a fair and effective international climate regime, the efficiency of energy exploration, generation, transmission, transformation and use is expected to be increased greatly and energy consumption greatly reduced, so that the carbon intensity in energy supply for economic growth is dramatically reduced, along with the carbon emissions from energy consumption. Through increasing carbon sink and using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, the GHG emissions from fossil fuels that are hard to reduce can be offset. In the meanwhile, through the establishment of reasonable and fair technology transfer and financial support mechanisms, developing countries can undertake the costs of shifting towards LC patterns while being at the lowest end of the value chain in the international trade structure. The perspectives of development value need to be changed in order to promote the transition of consumption towards a sustainable and LC future.What needs to be clarified is that, due to the differences of various countries’ social and economic contexts, the starting points towards a LC future might vary, as might the pursued goals. For developed countries that are taking the lead to commit to reduction targets, their first objective to develop a LC economy is to reduce emissions. For developing countries whose economies are still at a fast growing stage, their first priority is development and their per capita energy consumption is expected to continue to grow. The objectives shall be multiple. At the current stage, it is hard to mainstream the climate change policies domestically. What is possible is to reduce energy intensity and increase carbon productivity in order to gradually decouple economic growth and carbon emissions. What is equally important is that there exist many uncertainties in development of LC economy, particularly for developing countries. Tremendous difficulties and barriers need to be overcome in the process. At the international level, the uncertainties of developing LC economy include:Costs and markets – at this moment we could hardly be able to estimate the whole costs that are required to develop a LC economy. It is far from being as simple as calculating the direct costs of adopting LC technologies. It also takes time to establish LC technology and product markets, especially now, when the global financial crisis has hit everyone hard and when no one can give a good estimate about when the world economy could turn around and recover; though many experts and scholars hold that the response to the long-term climate change could bring new opportunities to economic recovery (Stiglitz, 2009; Wang, 2008b). What makes the situationmore complicated now is how the USA, China, India and other key countries would participate in the establishment of a LC market.Establishment of a fair international climate regime and mid- to long-term targets to tackle climate change – the development of a LC economy also depends on the international climate negotiation process and its result, of which the most critical element is whether it will result in legally binding global emissions reduction targets and the corresponding mechanisms of technology transfer and financial support, even if this was not established at Copenhagen.To date, even though some EU countries have achieved the decoupling of economic growth and carbon emissions, LC economy has not generated universally applicable, successful experiences; and what those experiences mean to developing countries still needs to be figured out and tested overtime.For developing countries, the difficulties and barriers to devel oping a LC economy are obvious, including current stage of development, international trade structure, economic costs, inadequate market, technology diffusion system, institutional arrangement, incentive policy and management system. From the historic evolution of the relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions in industrialized countries, most countries experienced successively the inverted U-shape curves of carbon intensity, per capita carbon emissions, and then total carbon emissions. But different countries or regions vary greatly in economic development level or per capita gross domestic product (GDP) relative to the carbon emissions peak. This shows that there does not exist a single, exact turning point between economic growth and carbon emissions. If you examine those countries or regions that have passed the carbon emissions pe ak, roughly 24-91 years, on average 55 years, are required between the peak of carbon emissions intensity and that of per capita carbon emissions. Some driving forces to reach different peaks have been shown in Figure 1 in terms of experience in the past and scenario analysis in the future. The point is, without strong mandatory emissions reduction measures and external support, developing countries will need relatively longer time to reach the peak of carbon emissions growth and then stabilize and decreaseStrategic measuresOn the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, the LC path with Chinese characteristics shall also focus on gradually setting up “resource-e fficient, environment-friendly and LC-oriented” society. Guided by LC development strategy and its targets, efforts shall be made to develop relevant institutional arrangements, improve management systems, stipulate development plans, accumulate experience from demonstrations and pilots, and push forward LC economic development in an orderly manner, so that a sustainable and LC future can be shaped for China. Four major aspects are the key starting points to structure a LC social and economy system:(1) Establish a legal and regulatory framework addressing climate change and improving the macro-management system. The legislative feasibility and legal model of “Law to Address Climate Change” shall be debated and articulated. Also, in the legislation process of other laws and regulations, articles related to response to climate change shall be included. For instance, a technical guideline of strategic environmental assessment shall include articles related to climate change impact assessment. A legal and regulatory framework of responding to climate change will gradually emerge. Owing to the fact that China’s administrative authority in charge of climate change remains weak and lacks capability, first, the Leading Group of the State’s Response to Climate Change and Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction Work shall play its full roles when a more flexible and diverse departmental coordination mechanism is established; and the group shall put forward strategic measure recommendations in response to climate change. Second, capacity building shall be strengthened and more administrative resources shall be allocated, so that better preparation is made for the next round of government restructuring to further improve the administrative level of the government department in charge of climate change.(2) Establish long-acting mechanism framework of LC development and stipulate related LC development policies in an orderly manner. Institutional innovation is the key to embarking on a LC development path. China shall become more pragmatic in developing a long-term incentive mechanism and policy measures that are in favour of energy saving, environmental protection and climate protection, guided by the balanced development framework and achieve the LC transition at government and business levels. At this moment, many regions and citieshave expressed their interest and enthusiasm toward LC development. As well as the complexity of LC economy and the diversity of models, related guidelines shall be rolled out to guide the macro policy and regulate the content, model, direction of development and assessment indicator system of a LC economy. Experiences and lessons from other countries can be examined and learned in order to move forward LC development in an orderly and healthy manner. Special planning and programs shall be developed at national level, and then some representative regions and cities, as well as some key sectors, can be selected for LC piloting purpose. When the market matures, LC markets shall be set up through regulating the pricing mechanism and stipulating fiscal and incentive policies.(3) Strengthen collaboration and establish a healthy LC technology system. Technological innovation is the core element in LC development. Government shall adopt integrated measures to offer a relaxed and favourable policy environment for business development and create and provide better institutional guarantees for technological innovation. As a result, the R&D and diffusion of high-energy efficiency and LC emissions technologies can be strengthened in both production and consumption. A diverse LC technology system will be gradually built for energy saving and energy efficiency, clean coal and clean energy, renewable energy and new energy, as well as carbon sinks. The level of commercialization will be improved. Thus, a strong technological foundation will be provided for LC transition and shift in the ways of economic growth. China shall also further strengthen international collaboration, not only through the climate-related international cooperation mechanism to import, absorb and adopt advanced technologies from other countries, but more importantly, through participating in the stipulation of related internation al sectoral energy efficiency standards and standard of carbon intensity, as well as benchmarking. China could consider voluntary or mandatory benchmarking management to elevate some key LC technologies, equipment and products to international leadership level.(4) Establish collaboration mechanism with all stakeholders’ participation.Low-carbon development is not just for government or business; instead, it requires all related stakeholders’ as well as the whole society’s participation. Owing to the fact that there exist some inadequacies in the general public’s awareness of climate change, publicity, education and training are required in combination with policy incentives to transform the public’s perception and thinking, increase the public’s awareness on response to climate change and gradually reach consensus on focusing onLC consumption behaviours and models. Joint actions with all the stakeholders are needed to resist the potential risks from climate change.References：EIA (2008), International Energy Outlook, EIA, USDOE, Washington, DC.He, J. (2008), “Addressing climate change through developing low carbon economy”, Keynote Speech in Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change, Beijing October 23. IEA (2008), World Energy Outlook 2008, IEA, Paris.IPCC (2007a), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, available at: www.ipcc.chIPCC (2007b), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, available at: www.ipcc.ch IPCC (2007c), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, available at:www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdfIPCC (2007d), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Jiang, K. (2007), “A scenario research on China’s greenhouse gas emissions”,International Climate Change Regime: A Study on Key Issues in China, China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing, pp. 8-24.Stiglitz, J.E. (2009), “Three ways to global economic recovery”, available at:/pl/2009-01-13/082317033320.shtmlWang, Y. (2008a), “A low carbon path with Chinese characteristics”,Greenleaf, No. 8, pp.46-52.Wang, Y. (2008b), Summary of Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change: Not to Delay Climate Change Progress by Financial Crisis, available at: /news/gjcj/200810/t1981142.htm中文翻译：中国低碳发展的途径摘要：目的：这篇论文的是探索中国现存的政策和针对低碳发展政策的其他可选方向。

怎么翻译外文文献
翻译外文文献的方法和步骤可以总结为以下七个步骤：
1. 阅读全文：在开始翻译之前，先通读一遍外文文献，了解主要内容和结构。

2. 理解上下文：将外文文献的上下文理解清楚，包括作者所表达的意思、目的和主题。

3. 提取关键信息：根据主题和目的，提取出自己需要的关键信息，例如数据、结论或主要观点。

4. 查找术语和专业词汇：在翻译过程中，遇到不熟悉的术语和专业词汇时，可以借助词典、学术论坛或专业资源进行查找。

5. 构建句子结构：根据源文档的语法和结构，构建出准确和流畅的句子，确保翻译的准确性和可理解性。

6. 避免直译：尽量避免直译源文档，而是根据目标语言和文化背景，进行合适的转换和调整。

7. 校对和编辑：完成翻译后，进行校对和编辑，确保翻译的准确性和流畅性，并与原文对照，检查漏译或错误。

在翻译外文文献时，为了保证翻译的准确性和专业性，最好选择具备相关背景知识的翻译者或专业翻译团队。

另外，翻译过程中可以借助一些翻译工具和资源，例如在线翻译软件、术语
词典或翻译论坛，提高翻译效率和准确度。

同时，保持对源文档的敬意和尊重，尽量保持原文的风格和质感。

论文外文文献翻译以下是一篇700字左右的论文外文文献翻译：原文题目：The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Medical Diagnostics: A Review原文摘要：In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of medical diagnostics. AI has the potential to improve the accuracy and efficiency of medical diagnoses, and can assist clinicians in making treatment decisions. This review aims to examine the current state of AI in medical diagnostics, and discuss its advantages and limitations. Several AI techniques, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing, are discussed. The review also examines the ethical and legal considerations associated with the use of AI in medical diagnostics. Overall, AI has shown great promise in improving medical diagnostics, but further research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and limitations.AI在医学诊断中发挥的作用：一项综述近年来，人工智能（AI）在医学诊断领域的应用引起了越来越多的关注。

第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。

如何翻译外文文献翻译外文文献实际上是一项很复杂的任务，需要一定的语言能力和专业知识。

以下是一种可以参考的翻译方法，按照步骤进行翻译文献。

步骤一：了解文献内容在开始翻译之前，首先要全面了解外文文献的内容，包括标题、摘要、关键词以及正文部分。

这可以帮助我们对文献有一个整体的认识，也有助于选择适当的翻译方法和策略。

步骤二：提取关键信息将文献中的关键信息提取出来，这包括理论、观点、实验方法和结果等。

对于较长的文献，可以使用标记或者摘录的方式来提取关键信息。

这一步骤可以帮助我们更好地理解和记忆文献内容，为后续翻译提供准确的依据。

步骤三：理解原文语境在进行翻译之前，需要对原文的语境进行充分理解。

这包括句子结构、段落逻辑、上下文关系等。

可以通过阅读原文多次，或者使用翻译工具辅助理解，确保对原文语境有一个准确的把握。

步骤四：逐句翻译根据原文的语境和关键信息，逐句进行翻译。

在翻译时要注意保持句子的结构和逻辑，尽量使用与原文相近的词汇和表达方式。

可以使用在线翻译工具辅助翻译句子，但要注意工具的准确性和可靠性。

步骤五：整合翻译在完成对文献的逐句翻译之后，要对翻译的句子进行整合，使之成为通顺和连贯的文章。

这包括对句子的连接词、过渡词和段落开头结尾的处理等。

可以对文献内容进行适当的删减和调整，以使之符合目标语言的表达习惯和规范。

步骤六：校对与修改在完成翻译之后，要对翻译的文献进行校对与修改。

这包括检查翻译的语法、用词、句式以及专业术语等的准确性和一致性。

也可以请专业人士或者同行进行审校，以确保翻译的质量和准确性。

总之，翻译外文文献是一项需要细心和耐心的任务，需要具备一定的语言和专业知识。

以上是一种可以参考的翻译方法和步骤，希望对你有所帮助。