英语论文-The Application of Schema Theory to English Reading Teaching in Senior High School

The Application of Schema Theory in Senior High SchoolEnglish Reading Teaching1.Introduction (1)2. Three models of reading processing (3)2.1 The bottom-up model (3)2.2 The top-down model (4)2.3 The interactive model (4)3. Schema theory (5)3.1 The fundamental concept of schema theory (5)3.2 Classifications of schemata (6)4. The application of schema theory in senior high school English reading teaching (8)4.1 Some considerations in the application of the schema theory in reading instruction (9)4.1.1 The readers (9)4.1.2 Some preparations before reading in relation to schema theory (12)4.2 Some technique in using schema theory in reading instruction (15)4.2.1 Conceptually driven schema (15)4.2.2 Data driven schema (16)4.3 Practical application of schema theory in reading class (17)5. Conclusion (20)References (22)1.IntroductionReading has always been considered one of the most important skills in foreign language learning. It is not only a chief means to gain information and learn English culture, but also an important way to consolidate and expand foreign language know- ledge. According to statistics, about 50% of knowledge that people obtain is from reading (程世禄, 张国扬, 2004).In the traditional way of English reading teaching, senior high school teachers usually focus on teaching single words, phrases or grammatical points. The analysis of English grammar is the main activity in the process of teaching. But they neglectthe point that lacking of language knowledge, background knowledge and passage structure knowledge tends to prevent English learners from reading effectively.During the past few decades, the schema theory has been introduced to English reading classes, which makes the research of schema theory in the teaching of English reading a hot topic. Currently, the concept ―schema‖is no longer strange to the instructors and researchers in the field of reading. Schema is a term first used in the field of cognitive psychology by F.C. Bartlett (Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. CUP. 1932).Though still debatable, schema is generally being referred as a mental structure. It is abstract because it does not relate to any particular experience, although it derives from all the particular experience we have had. It is a structure because it is organized; it includes the relationships between its components (Christine Nuttall, 2002).Can schema theory be one of the most influential ways to improve students‘reading ability? And how is schema theory applied in the teaching of reading? In this thesis, we will discuss schema theory and its application in the English reading teaching to get the best answer. But the decomposition of the reading process should be done first for the purpose of the present study on the application of schema theroy in reading. Only after we unpack the reading process and have a good understanding of the component processing of reading can we investigate and speculate the use of schema theory in reading comprehension. Fundamentally, psychologists have distinguished three kinds of processing: the top-down processing, the bottom-up processing and the interactive processing. Here in part two, we will have a furtherresearch on these reading processes.2. Three models of reading processing2.1 The bottom-up modelIn bottom-up processing, the reader builds up a meaning from the black marks on the page: recognizing letters and words, working out sentence structure. We can make conscious use of it when an initial reading leaves us confused. Perhaps we cannot believe that the apparent message was really what the writer intended; this can happen if our world knowledge is inadequate, or if the writer‘s point of view is very different from our own. In that case, we must scrutinize the vocabulary and syntax to make sure we have grasped the plain sense correctly. Thus bottom-up processing can be used as a corrective to ‗tunnel vision‘ (seeing things only from our own limited point of view).Our image of bottom-up processing might be a scientist with a magnifying glass examining the ecology of a transect – a tiny part of the eagle surveys. The scientist develops a detailed understanding of that one little area (which might represent a sentence in the text); but full understanding only comes if this is combined with knowledge of adjacent areas and the wider terrain, so that their effects on one another can be recognized. In other words, bottom-up and top-down approaches are used to complement each other.2.2 The top-down modelIn top-down processing, we draw on our own intelligence and experience—the predictions we can make, based on the schemata we have acquired to understand the text. As we know, this kind of processing is used when we interpret assumptions and draw inferences. We make conscious use of it when we try to see the overall purpose of the text, or get a rough idea of the pattern of the writer‘s argument, in order to make a reasoned guess at the next step (on the grounds that having an idea of what something might mean can be a great help in interpreting it.)We might compare this approach to an eagle‘s eye view of the landscape. From a great height, the eagle can see a wide area spread out below; it understands the nature of the whole terrain, its general pattern and the relationships between various parts of it, far better than an observer on the ground. A reader adopts an eagle‘s eye view of the text when he considers it as a whole and relates it to his own knowledge and exp erience. This enables him to predict the writer‘s purpose, the likely trend of the argument and so on, and then use this framework to interpret difficult parts of the text. The top-down approach gives a sense of perspective and makes use of all that the reader brings to the text: prior knowledge, common sense, etc, which have sometimes been undervalued in the reading class.2.3 The interactive modelThis model is the interaction of top-down and bottom-up processing. Although logically we might expect that we ought to understand the plain sense if we are tounderstand anything else, in practice a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says. This has become known as interactive model. Until 1970s, reading is first considered to be an interactive model by Rumemlhart. The interactive model is a theory which can entirely explain the reading process. The interactive model is also called the schema theory model. The schema theory model uses two methods to deal with information: one is ―bottom-up‖model; the other is ―top-down‖model. During the reading progress, no matter in any moment, those two models are always carried out at the same time. Bottom-up information dealing assures readers of discovering new information and information which is different with their own supposing. Top-down information dealing helps readers distinguish different meanings and make correct choice. Both approaches can be mobilized by conscious choice, and both are important strategies for readers. Therefore, Schema Theory model is not only a theory that explains the reading process but also a theory that fits for English reading teaching (陈开顺, 1988).3. Schema theory3.1 The fundamental concept of schema theoryThe accomplishment of Schema Theory owes to American artificial intelligence expert Rumelhart in 1970s. According to Rumelhart, schema theory is basically atheory about human knowledge, about how the knowledge is organized and stored in units in human‘s brain, and about how the knowledge is applied. His important conclusion on schema which can be regarded as the most significant in reading instruction is that schema contains many variables, which lead to various output or interpretation. The application of schema is associated in different settings which include different learners, the learners‘cultural background, and their linguistic competence at the time of instruction and so on. We believe it is this variable feature of schema that makes reading instruction a complex work that is worthy of study in the practice of reading instruction.3.2 Classifications of schemataGenerally speaking, schema can be divided into three types: linguistic schema, content schema and formal schema. Linguistic schema is reader s‘ mastering degree of the language materials. Content schema is readers‘familiar degree of the topic discussed in the article. Formal schema is readers‘ understanding degree of the article style.Linguistic schema is the base of content schema and formal schema. It is important for students to build linguistic schema, because language is students‘ weak points. Without linguistic schema, students cannot make use of the information of the reading materials to apply content schema and formal schema in their mind. In this way, they can never understand the articles. For example, a student who doesn‘t know English at all read a text on Christmas which he is familiar so much. No matter howhe is familiar with that festival, he still cannot understand the meaning of the text, because linguistic schema is the base. Without linguistic schema, content schema and formal schema cannot make effect. Instead, even though readers have firm linguistic schema but not be familiar to the content and formal of the reading materials, they cannot get better understanding of the reading materials.Look at the following passage：Business had been slow since the oil crisis. Nobody seemed to want anything elegant anymore. Suddenly the door opened and a well-dressed man entered the showroom floor. John put on his friendliest and most sincere expression as he walked toward the man.“I’ll take it. Cash on the line.” The man asserted within a few minutes.Later, as he was completing the paper work, John murmured to himself, “What does he really know about elegance?”(as cited in Chen xianchun).The words in this passage are not very difficult. Many senior high students consider that there is no new word. However, when students are asked where the conversation happened, what is John, or where is ―show room‖, almost no one can answer correctly. Someone said the conversation happened in exhibition hall. Students also understand the answer to ―what john is‖. Few students can explain ―show room‖well. But if the students were American, they can easily know that ―show room‖ is car selling place and the conversation happened in car selling place. They can even know that John is a businessman who sells cars while another person is a car buyer. The whole passage didn‘t appear the word ―car‖. However, American students can stillguess that the passage is about car business. Because there is content schema in their mind, they can suppose car oil from the words ―oil crisis‖and suppose payment methods from ―cash on the line‖. Cars are rather widely used in America, so almost every American student can understand the passage well. While the Chinese students have no such schema in their mind, they cannot think as American students do. From the condition above, although readers‘language element is important, some simple problems have to be solved by cultural background knowledge. The meaning is gained from special cultural environment. Getting information from the articles depend on the knowledge people have. If people want to comprehend the articles well, they should apply the three kinds of schema. Therefore, teachers should realize that reading is not only a process of understanding words but also a process of reciprocity between mental element and cultural background. In order to gain the best understanding of reading materials, teachers should lead students to build perfect schema and enlighten students to apply schema.4. The application of schema theory in senior high school Englishreading teachingResearch on teaching reading suggests that schema theory can optimize the reading development of students and it has provided numerous benefits to English reading teaching. Most current ESL/EFL textbooks attempt schema activation through pre-reading activities. In applying schema theory to the teaching of reading, which emphasizes on getting the gist of the texts, we can see a positive influence on thepre-reading activities, as it ‗builds up absent schemata, activates resident schemata and improve L2 reader comprehension in many situations (Scott 2001: 80).For example, when students are reading a passage about the solar system, previewing the text such as the title and figures helps them predict what they are going to read and activates their ‗content schemata‘(background knowledge of the world) of the solar system. The way we interpret texts depends on the schemata activated by the text; and whether we interpret successfully depends on whether our schemata are sufficiently similar to the writer‘s. The application to schema theory explains the research findings on how personal background knowledge helps the literacy development.4.1 Some considerations in the application of the schema theory in reading instruction4.1.1 The readersReaders can be divided into different groups according to different norms. Here, the classifying of readers involves two major norms: the readers‘ linguistic proficiency and their level of schema.By ―level of schema‖ we mean:a) Whether the reader possesses a sufficient knowledge of the world that can be activated for particular needs;b) Whether the reader‘s knowledge of the world is normally organized, this means that whether his knowledge of the world is consistent to the socially andculturally recognized norms. This item is proposed because of the observation that there are many occasions when readers make wild and absurd interpretations of the text that is not meant by the writer;c) Whether the reader has a schema for some specific field and how professional his schema in this field is. Readers can be approximately classified as below. (An approximate classification is due to the consideration that very detailed one may complicate the analysis work and lead to the failure of locating the main problems.)This diagram illustrates the following features of readers:a) Poor readers have stronger tendency of being weak in linguistic competence.b) A basic condition of being good readers is their good linguistic competence.c) Both good and weak readers share the overlapping feature of being good at linguistic competence and weak at schema.We will first focus our discussion on the reading instruction of the first category of readers in the perspective of schema theory. Observations in the reading reveal that schema theory turns out to be less valid to the readers with low linguistic competence, since schema method more or less has the characters of ―top-down mode‖ which emphasizes processing from higher-level skills. But automatic perception and decoding is the crucial foundation for initiating the higher-level skills. When readers are in their low linguistic stage, they still cannot surmount the difficulty of decodingin order to base their prediction on or activate their schema. David E. Eskey (Patricia L. Carrell et al, 1988) pointed out that interactive processing should be the interaction between information obtained by means of bottom-up decoding and information provide by means of top-down analysis. This statement strongly supports the belief that reading instruction should be ―held in the bottom‖ without which neither interactive approach nor schema method can be effectively applied. Experiments prove that more time is consumed when using top skills like guessing, predicting and confirming. While the basic recognition of vocabulary and structure provides the primary information entailed for activating the concerning schema. Therefore, it is feasible to believe that schema method is less adaptable to the readers with low linguistic competence, since schema method cannot and should not be responsible for direct instruction of language acquisition. This conclusion especially explains why readers with good schema, yet low linguistic competence still fail to be fluent and skillful readers due to their constraint linguistic competence.The second issue worthy of discussing is about good readers and poor readers who are both linguistically proficient but weak at schema. What are the factors that classify them into two categories of being good or poor readers? Here, ―weak at schema‖ can be reflected in tw o ways. One is that the readers totally lack the relevant schema, the other is that the schema may not be activated. Patricia L. Carell et al claims after studies that ESL reading comprehension may be affected not because the ESL readers lack the appropriate schema. (Patricia L. Carell et al, 1988.). According to this judgement, we can conclude that the good readers are those who seek to useflexible reading strategies and skills in their reading activities to make association and activate their storage of schema using available information. These strategies may include flexible switch from bottom-up to top-down or vice versa in time of need and make use of any available clues. The shift of processing mode helps to eliminate the difficulties in assigning meaning to the given text, which will initiate the activation of schema. Carell also notices that less skilled readers and poor readers tend to over rely on one-direction processes, for instance on the knowledge based or top-down processing (Patricia L. Carrell et al, 1988). Reading instruction for this type of poor readers should consist reading strategy instruction and training in order to fully effectuate their linguistic competence in the activation of schema. In conclusion, identifying the difficulties of the readers and the content level and type in regard to the readers is a primary step of purposeful instruction.4.1.2 Some preparations before reading in relation to schema theorySchema can be broadly defined as one‘s general knowledge of the world organized in units, we can find that much of the schema of readers cannot be taught in the reading instruction, but can be acquired through understanding the various texts used as our reading materials that contain these knowledge. We have to bear in mind that the principal goal of reading instruction is to help the reader on how to read instead of teaching the literal contents of the text. So what left us to do in using schema theory in our instruction is to equip the readers some skills and knowledge inusing schema theory in their reading.a) Understanding the formal schemataCarell (1983) draws a distinction between formal schemata and content schemata. Here, in this part we attempt to discuss the formal schemata, since this is something we can do to prepare the readers some knowledge about the text organization. According to Carell, formal schemata means the background knowledge of the formal rhetorical organizationl structure of different types of texts (fable, expository text, story, scientific text, poetry, news etc.) As we know, each type of the texts has its particular organization and style features. A knowledge of these will engage the readers in appropriate formal schema before reading or facilitate reading by constraining the reader in a particular suitable strategy to other less efficient processing for reading a particular type of text. The formal knowledge can be instructed before the reading program begins. The features of each of the types can bedisplayed with sample texts or explained directly by the teacher. Another way found effective for the readers to get acquainted with the features of the types is to display the sample texts of each of the types at the same time. Instead of explaining, the teacher can ask the readers to make comparisons to find out the differences between one type and another and make judgement themselves.b) Understanding some truth about writingThe instruction of this topic seems to have something in common with the reading strategy instruction. It does. In the application of schema theory in reading, the reader‘s abilities of inference and making association are of crucial in successfulcomprehension.Readers should be made aware through analysis of sample texts of the fact that the writer does not express everything he means, that the words or sentences may be deliberately employed not to convey their literal meaning, and that the writer may not provide sufficient clues and information. In such situation, the conventional pre-class activities like background introduction, prediction based on topic and illustrations and pre-class discussion may produce limited effect in obtaining coherent understanding of the intersentential meaning. So in this issue, the readers should be guided, again with sample texts to be alert to discover the underlying meaning of texts instead of wrestling only with the literal expressions. Readers have to be made known that they are responsible for filling out the messages not explicitly stated, interpreting the text seemingly absurd and inconsistent with the context. All these have to be made out by making inference with both their linguistic knowledge and locating the schema unit for the particular parts or the text. Besides, they should be instructed to constantly check or monitor their understan ding. By ―understanding‖, we mean a comprehension of not only local individual details, but also a coherent understanding of the whole text. This can be achieved in reading class by, for example, asking the successful readers to present or report how a comprehension is solved, how the thinking process happens or what knowledge he resorts to.4.2 Some technique in using schema theory in reading instructionAs Carrell (1983) mentioned that comprehension inefficiency is not because the readers lack the appropriate schema, but because they fail to activate the appropriate schema. What a teacher of reading should concentrate on is to design suitable classroom activities to help readers locate an appropriate schema among the numerous schema units in their storage.4.2.1 Conceptually driven schemaConceptually driven schema means activation of reader‘s schema by high level information such as concerning situation. Previewing is a pre-reading activity that provides the reader with some important and relevant information. It proves to be important for the less proficient readers. According to Patricia L. Carrell, (Paticia L. Carell et al 1988), Preview may include:a) providing outline;b) key concepts of cultural loads;c) providing some background;d) presenting specialized vocabulary and structure.These activities help to activate readers‘ schema through providing a general setting and confining the slot, which will instantiate and activate the components of the setting. To take ―shopping‖ as an example. If the setting of ―shopping‖ is presented, people will produce such associations as ―buyers‖, ―sellers‖, ―casher‖,―goods‖, ―money‖ and the shopping activities like ―bargain‖, ―paying‖, and even every detailed scenes of shopping. In this example, when the readers are presented a ―shopping‖ setting, they would search in their schema storage and locate the unit concerning ―shopping‖, and activate the schema in the lower level, namely, the associated words and concepts, which enter the processing as input materials. So, by application of the four activities of previewing mentioned above, the readers‘ schema are conceptually driven, or activated in a way of top-to-down.4.2.2 Data driven schemaAnother type of common activities used to activate schema is applying the lower level components to activate the higher-level schema, or Data driven schema. In these activities, readers are required to focus their attention on the text source like the key words, pictures, diagrams and so on. The information derived from these sources will function as activating certain higher-level schema those components may belong to. And when the higher-level schema is activated, it will cause activation of lower level components. For instance, when the name ―Michael Jordan‖ is presented as a key word, it will activate quite several higher-level schemas different from one to another. ―NBA‖ schema may be activated in some people; ―the brilliant history of Chicago Bulls‖ schema may touch the others. If the brand name ―Nike‖ is added to ―Michael Jordan‖, then the higher schema of ―advertisement‖ will be brought to readers‘ mind. This ―advertisement‖ schema will in turn activate either the high-level schema of the fashion of popular stars in advertisement or the lower-level schema, for example,about ―Nike‖ products. Pictures or diagrams provide parts of the information, too. They can be resorted to activate the appropriate schema.4.3 Practical application of schema theory in reading classSchema theory is complex and abstract. How to apply it into English teaching is a key question. It is impossible for teachers to explain the concept of schema theory as students‘ receptivity is limited. It is difficult for students to understand or apply schema theory. Therefore, teachers should turn schema theory into activities. In this way, students can easily comprehend schema theory. How to turn schema theory into activities? With the help of previous schema methods, the researcher takes one teaching case to discuss this problem.The researcher takes one lesson of Senior High School, Body Language from Unit 4 of Student‘s Book 4 for example to explain the application of schema theory in practice.Firstly, the teacher shows some pictures such as smile, frown, embrace, handshake, and kiss etc. to the students and then put the pictures on the blackboard. In this way, students can gain information according to vision. During this course, content schema comes into being in students‘ mind. They may make hypothesis that the message will be learnt is about people‘s express ion and action.Secondly, the teacher writes the word (smile, frown, embrace, handshake, and kiss) under each picture on the blackboard. Seeing the words under the pictures, students‘ brains produce Linguistic Schema. In this sense, the pictures match wit h the words. And then the teacher gives students a phrase: body language. The phrase canimprove students‘ original hypothesis in semantic aspect. Words as gesture, manner, custom, and communicate are also showed to students. In this case, students‘ conten t schema must be reactivated. They may produce association of ideas: different gestures express different meanings; what is the most decent manner; different countries may have different customs; only understand the knowledge above can people avoid the obstacle of communication. At this moment, the teacher would like to ask students some questions: Do people in China often embrace and kiss in public? How about people in western countries? The questions can activate students‘ Schema on the difference between eastern countries and western countries. The questions also bring background knowledge of the article: English people are more conservative, so you must keep a distance while talking with them. However, people from places like Spain, Italy or South American countries are more passionate, so it is a good manner to stand closer with them while talking.Finally, the teacher would help students apply linguistic schema to read the article. Linguistic Schema is the comprehending of vocabulary and language structure. Therefore, before students read the article, besides giving them meaning of new words and the usage of key phrase, the teacher would analyze the complex sentences of the article in order to get rid of the obstacle that students meet while reading.In order to make students make hypothesis and improve hypothesis, and finally correctly understand the meaning of articles, the researcher thinks it is necessary for teachers to bring up students‘ ability of applying linguistic schema and content schema. Through continuous practice of building schema, most students can quickly and correctly answer the question of articles, including the subjective question: Which people are the most enthusiastic in the world?Different articles have different content, topic, style and structure. Therefore,。

The Application of Schema Theory in English ReadingTeaching in Senior High Schools1.Introduction (2)1.1 Background and purpose of this research (2)1.2Significance of this research (3)1.3Research questions (4)2. Literature Review (4)2.1 Definition of reading (4)2.1.1 Reading as a decoding process (4)2.1.2 Reading as a selective and predictive process (5)2.1.3 Reading as an interactive process (5)2.1.4 Reading as a schema-constructed process (6)2.2 Typical models of reading (6)2.2.1 Bottom-up model (7)2.2.2 Top-down model (7)2.2.3 Interactive-compensatory model (8)3. The Schema and Schema Theory (9)3.1The meaning of schema (9)3.2 Schema Theory (10)3.3 The classification of schema (12)3.4 The functions of schema (13)3.4.1 Prediction of reading content (13)3.4.2 Selection of information input (13)3.4.3 Helping remembering (13)3.4.4 Attraction of read ers’ attention (14)4. The Role of the Schema Theory on the English Reading (14)4.1 The current situation of English Reading in Senior High School (14)4.2 The reasons affect the reading by schema (15)4.3 Effective reading based on schema abilities (15)4.3.1 Activating background knowledge and establishing the content schema (15)4.3.2 Predicting meaning to assist the reading process (16)4.3.3 Extracting the main idea and analyzing the textual structure (16)5. The Application of Schema Theory in Senior English Reading Teaching (17)5.1 Hypothesis (17)5.2 Subjects (18)5.3 Instruments (18)5.4 Testing procedures (19)5.5 Materials and training procedures (19)5.6 Results and discussion (24)6. Conclusion (25)References (28)Appendix 1 (31)E (34)Appendix 2 (35)1.IntroductionAs everyone knows, reading plays a very important role in English teaching. How can the readers read to achieve the best results? The traditional reading advocates using the bottom-up model —a kind of passive decoding model, by which readers only need to read word by word and it will be very easy for them to get the whole meaning. With the development of applied linguistics and psychological linguistics, it is found that reading is not a process of passive decoding, but a process of active “guess-confirm” (Goodman, 1971:135), which is the top-down model. After that, Rumelhart (1977) said that reading is a process that the bottom-up model and the top-down model interact together and at the same time process word information, which is called an interactive model. No matter what kind of model is used, either the readers’ background knowledge or the schematic knowledge is needed.The paper mainly concerns the conception of schema theory, the function of schema to reading and the enlightenment of schema theory to the reading teaching and above all is about how the students are trained in English reading under the guidance of schema theory by the teacher with the purpose of the three research questions.1.1 Background and purpose of this research“The written word surrounds us daily. It confuses us and enlightens us, it depresses us and amuses us, and it sickens us and heals us.” From Brandy’s words(1983) we can find how important reading is to everyone in a literate society. Some experts estimated that 80% of people’s knowledge is obtained through reading with only 20% through their own experience. Clearly, reading is valuable and it is very important to all students when they learn a language. As Carrel (1987) pointed out, “for many students, reading is by far the most important of the four skills in a second language, particularly in English as second or foreign language.”In China, the current Senior High School English Curriculum Standards demand that the reading teaching purpose is, first of all, to train students to read more effectively, to develop students’reading habits and to stimulate their interests in English. Both teachers and students in high school realize English reading is so important that they spend a lot of time and energy on it. However, there are many problems in English reading instruction in Senior High Schools. Many students tend to be passive audiences rather than active participants in class. After class, they seldom read English materials except for their textbooks, and they have to do a large number of exercises modeling the test paper of NMET (National Matriculation Entrance Test). As a result, they have a narrow scope of knowledge, read with a slow speed, and cannot understand English texts successfully. In a word, their reading competence is poor.1.2Significance of this researchThis research was designed to help the teachers achieve a better understanding of the schema theory and its effect on improving English reading based on schematheory. This thesis also demonstrates how such application can be carried out at classroom level by addressing the specific procedure and evaluation method of an experimental research conducted jointly by the author and a middle school English teacher. Although the research is only at the experimental level and may still need further improvement, its basic goals have been achieved and it has displayed the power of activating schemata in language learning to the front line in-service teachers.1.3Research questions(i) Does reading training under the guidance of schema theory improve the reading ability of high school ESL (English Second Language) learners?(ii) How is the effectiveness of reading training under the guidance of schema theory related to the reading proficiency of the students?(iii) What’s the relationship between reading comprehension and schema theory?2. Literature Review2.1 Definition of readingReading behavior is a part of daily life. It is an ordinary way in which we use written language to get information for survival, learning, enjoyment and so on. So reading is so important that we can’t break away from it in the modern world.2.1.1 Reading as a decoding processThose who hold this idea believe that when a speaker or writer has a message inhis mind, he wants somebody else to share. First, he encodes it and expresses it in language. Once it is encoded in either spoken or written form, it is available outside his mind as a text. The reader or the listener can receive the text and decode the message. Then reading as a decoding process is founded.2.1.2 Reading as a selective and predictive processReading is a kind of selecting process, which the reader uses language knowledge and relevant information to piece and chooses useful things. That is, based on the reader’s predict, to use the less selective language code to form the prediction and judgment. Goodman(1971) described reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game and a cyclical process in which the reader figures out meanings with their formerly acquired knowledge. The approach to reading emphasized the reader’s use of all relevant information to get meaning.2.1.3 Reading as an interactive processReading is a process in which the reader and the text (the writer) work interactively. The meaning neither adheres to the printed symbols, nor passive waits for the reader to find out. The reader should take advantage of varied knowledge through prediction, inference to obtain the meaning and understand the text. This perspective was firstly posed by Rumelhart in 1977. He expressed his idea that reading was not a passive process of decoding the printed symbols but an interactive model which works together with both lower level and higher level. It refers to thegeneral interaction, which takes place between the reader and the text. The basic concept is that the reader reconstructs the text information based in part on the knowledge drawing from the text and on part from the prior knowledge available to the reader (Carrel & Eisterhold, 1983). While reading, according to the text information, the reader reacts to the text with his background knowledge, word knowledge and linguistic knowledge.2.1.4 Reading as a schema-constructed processReading comprehension is a complex process, which has also been described as a constructive process (Bartlett, 1932). In order to understand the text, the reader must use information, which is explicit and implicit to form a schema. Readers interpret a text according to their schemata. Schema theory believes that knowledge is systematically organized (Rumelhart, 1980). A schema can be defined as having elements or components which can be delineated and which are ordered in specific ways. Readers are thought to use schemata to anticipate text contents and structures. 2.2 Typical models of readingIn this part, some of the key theoretical perspectives on the nature of reading are examined. Linguists believe that there are two basic models of information processing: bottom-up and top-down models. Schema theory calls for operation of both approaches: interactive approach.2.2.1 Bottom-up modelBottom-up model began with individual word and structure in texts. That is, reading as a decoding process. The writer used words, symbols and certain grammar rules to encode his thought as language. The reader should decode language to his thought. That is, it began with the smallest meaning unit. From words to sentences, paragraphs and finally to the whole text, it came from the smallest textual units to larger ones and then came to the whole text. In the process readers reconstruct the author’s intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and build up a meaning for the text. This type of processing is called “data-driven processing”(Carrell & Eisterhold, 1987:221). This model thought reading problem was actually the linguistic problem. This model also underestimated the reader’s active function and did not treat the reader as active worker.2.2.2 Top-down modelTo solve the problems that bottom-up model can not solve, top-down model was posed. Top-down model described reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game. According to this model, the reader selected enough information from the text to predict rather than used the whole textual cues. In the course of reading, the reader was the active party. Readers began to read with general predictions based on their cognitive system. It assumed that on reading, the readers have some hypotheses in mind. Then the hypotheses about the meaning were confirmed or reflected, and new hypotheses came out.To read with this model, the reader might be easy to abuse his predict ability, and neglect the actual meaning. The reader also tent to use his thoughts to understand the text and it was easy for him to misunderstand the writer’s meaning.2.2.3 Interactive-compensatory modelOnce it has been understood by readers, top-down model proves to be helpful in their reading. However, reading is a complex mental process. According to schema theory, not only content schemata, but also linguistic schemata and formal schemata are necessary factors in reading. Therefore an efficient and effective reading requires both top-down and bottom-up strategies operating interactively (Rumelhart, 1980). This is the third model: interactive compensatory model.In interactive processing, top-down model and bottom-up model occur at all levels of analysis simultaneously. On reading, the two processing always work at the same time, no matter on whatever stage or whatever level. The bottom-up model confirms the reader to find new information and things that are different from his hypotheses. The top-down model helps the reader remove ambiguity and select the useful information. So, the reading is the interactive processing between the reader’s knowledge in memory and the textual cues. The article itself does not have fixed meaning, it just directs that the reader use his background knowledge to reconstruct the text. The difference of the knowledge may cause different understanding. Therefore, if the reader stored certain background knowledge, it would be very useful for him to understand the text and make correct judgment.3. The Schema and Schema Theory3.1The meaning of schemaThere are various ways of defining schema, among which the followings are quite influential. Bartlett (1932), in Remembering, A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, defined the term “schema”as “an active organization of past reactions or past experience, which must always be supposed to be operation in any well-adapted organic response”. Rumelhart (1980) came up with this concept of schema and described schema theory basically as a theory of how knowledge is mentally represented in the mind and used. Based on his “schema theory”, “all knowledge is packaged into units. These units are the schemata.” Widdowson (1987) later described schema as “cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in a long-term memory”. And finally Cook (1989) redefined the concept as “a mental representation of a typical instance” which helps people to make sense of the world more quickly because “people understand new experiences by activation relevant schemata in their mind”.From the above definitions, we may conclude that schema is made up of the experience stored in memory and background knowledge. The schema is the knowledge units that exist in cerebrum. Generally speaking, every of us have a uniquely personal store of knowledge gained through experiences in his or her life time. This stored knowledge along with its storage structure is called schema. A schema (pl. schemata) is an abstract structure of knowledge. When the readerintegrates the store schema and the offer information together, he can understand the text.3.2 Schema TheoryAs far back as Kant(1781), it was asserted that background knowledge plays a part in comprehension. Bartlett(1932) developed schema theory on this notion to further explain how background knowledge is used by a reader to understand a text. He reported that learners’ reading comprehension mainly depends on their knowledge structure. A learner’s comprehension won’t occur if he doesn’t know the relative background knowledge or he can’t use the background knowledge successfully. He developed schema theory to explain how a reader to understand and recall a text by using background knowledge. Bartlett found that when participants read a story from an unfamiliar culture, their memory of the change over time to fit schemata from their own culture. But Bartlett was vague about how schemata work.In 1970s and 1980s, Bartlett’s theories received an enormous amount of attention in the artificial intelligence work. Rumelhart(1980), an American artificial intelligence expert, further developed the schema concept. He regarded the schemata as “arts of interactive knowledge structure” or “the building blocks of cognition”. He described schema theory as basically a theory of how knowledge is mentally represented in the mind and how it is used.Carrel is a well-known researcher on schema theory who proposed “modern schema theory” in 1983. She maintained that skilled readers constantly shift betweentop-down and bottom-up model according to the demands of the text they are reading. Carrel refers to over-reliance on bottom-up processing as “text-boundless”, and over-reliance on top-down processing as “schema interference”. That is, reading process was a combination of top-down and bottom-up models in which low level and high-level work together interactively as parts of a reading process (Rumelhart, 1977). Carrel and Eisterhold suggested, “The role of background knowledge in language comprehension has been formalized as schema theory, which has as one of its fundamental tenets that text, either spoken or written, does not by itself carry meaning.” This means reading is an interactive process in which the reader makes use of information from his background knowledge as well as information from the printed page. Carrel posed two important concepts: formal schema and content schema. Content schemata refer to the background knowledge of the content area of a text, or the topic a text talked about (Carrell 1988, Carrell &Eisterhold 1988). Formal schemata are higher order structures containing knowledge of rhetorical organization structures, including knowledge of the general properties of text type differences in genre (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983). A successful reading of passage depends upon a combination of linguistic knowledge, cognitive skills and general experience and knowledge of the world, whether acquired by experience or by learning, which influence greatly the reading comprehension process, for the more the reader brings to the text, the more is taken away.3.3 The classification of schemaAccording to forms of representation, schemata can be classified into three kinds: linguistic schemata, content schemata and formal schemata. The classification distinguishes the differences among the three types of schemata. It reminds teachers that they should activate different schemata and bring them into play according to the features in reading instruction, so the classification is helpful in reading instruction.Linguistic schemata contain the prior knowledge of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar rules. Without the linguistic schemata, the reader can not recognize words, phrases and sentences, then may cause the failure in comprehension of reading materials.Content schemata contain the background knowledge of the content area or the topic involved in reading materials (Carrell, 1988). For example, readers who have ever been in rural areas might find reading materials about farming easy to understand while an urban reader may not. The content schemata about farming help the readers to understand and recall more than the readers who are less familiar with farming.Formal schemata contain prior knowledge of rhetorical structures and expressing conventions, like different types of text structures: story, play, poem, allegory, prose, etc. All these have their own structures. The prior knowledge defines the reader’s expectations about how pieces of textual information will relate to each other and in what order details will appear (Carrell, 1987).From what has been mentioned above, it is clear that in reading activities linguistic schemata deal with problems of lexical items and grammatical rules, contentschemata with problems of topics, and formal schemata with problems of rhetoric arrangement and passage organization.3.4 The functions of schemaSince the reader’s schema affects both learning and comprehending of the information and ideas of a text, it is very important for teachers and students to understand the functions of schemata if they consciously activate such faculties and put them into effective use.3.4.1 Prediction of reading contentWith the schema, the readers can guess the type of the text, can have different anticipation towards the topic of different types of texts, and especially, the readers can guess the latter context of the text with the help of the former context of the text.3.4.2 Selection of information inputThe schemata can choose input and materials in two ways: the first way is to choose the prediction that the learners make in reading process. On reading, the function of choice is to pick up the information, after finishing understanding, the function of choice is to process and store the information. The ability to choose can make the reader choose the least but the most useful thread.3.4.3 Helping rememberingThe essence of schema is a structure, a frame. It can help students to recall theinformation in the text in a planned way. We know when people are recalling, they always collect the information from long-time remembering in a certain “clue”, while the schema unites the text by using the frame structure in a clue. As a result, it is easy to be remembered.3.4.4 Attraction of readers’ attentionThe schemata can attract reader’s attention. According to the schemata, the students can control their attention while learning a text. That is, the schemata guide them to take notice of the relevant parts and select the appropriate parts, then pay more attention to the important topics, and connect the topic with the whole text.4. The Role of the Schema Theory on the English Reading4.1 The current situation of English Reading in Senior High SchoolReading is very significant to everyone in a literate society. In China, the current Senior High English Curriculum Standards demand that the teacher should help the students read more effectively and improve their reading interest. But in real situation, some students show little interest in reading, and what’s worse they are getting tired of learning English. They seldom trained to read on their own. They just busy in memorizing the words that the teacher demands.4.2 The reasons affect the reading by schemaAccording to schema theory, causes of failure in understanding the reading materials may be:(i) Readers do not have the appropriate schemata. In that case, they could notunderstand the reading materials.(ii) Clues given in the text are insufficient. If readers are provided with enough clues, they may understand the reading materials.(iii) Readers might misunderstand the author and come up with a different understanding.4.3 Effective reading based on schema abilitiesEnglish reading is a complex process of active thinking and information processing. Based on the known information, knowledge and experience, the thinking process of recognition, initiation, prediction, confirmation of the readers is also the language communicative behavior between the readers and the writer by means of text.4.3.1 Activating background knowledge and establishing the content schemaIn English reading, the factors that constrain the process of reading can be divided into two kinds: one is from the outside of the text; the other is from the text itself. The former includes history, culture, society, class and etc. the latter includesthe text structure, syntax, style, etc. Since the text reports the writer’s culture awareness, many articles fill with writer’s national culture. The culture difference in certain degree may cause the failure of comprehension. So, the teacher needs to supply some background knowledge to the students and help them to solve the difficulties. Meanwhile, teacher should guide the students with background knowledge. For example, before the students read the text, the teacher introduces some background knowledge, which will help the students read more effectively.4.3.2 Predicting meaning to assist the reading processAs is already mentioned, prediction is important because it activates schemata, that is, it calls into mind any experiences and associates knowledge that the reader already has about the topic of the text. The teacher is attempting to help the learners activate various preexisting items of knowledge that have previously been unrelated, and to help the child reassemble these items of knowledge into an integrated schema. Teachers may organize prediction based on the title of the article, pictures, questions and so on.4.3.3 Extracting the main idea and analyzing the textual structureThe textual analysis in English reading aims at the training of the students’understanding of the writer’s opinion and writing purpose, so that they can acquire the ability of the bird’s eye at the whole text. Therefore, the key point of the text is not thesentence, but the text.Any reading material has a main idea and a frame structure. Thus, what the reader should do is not to understand the literal meaning expressed by the single word, but to distill and induce the main idea, and analyze the textual structure. What the teachers need to do is to train the students’ analyze ability and induction ability. Once the point concerning the main idea and text structure is activated, the reader begins to make induction, verification and modification on these things so as to have a clear understanding of the main idea and textual structure. The more familiar with the text structure, the easier for the reader to analyze the text. Then the reading speed will be improved.5. The Application of Schema Theory in Senior English Reading TeachingIn this part an experiment of the present research is described in detail, including key questions of the present research, subjects, and instruments testing procedures, material, results and discussion.5.1 HypothesisMuch has been talked about on the rationale of the schema theory and the implication and application in ESL reading classroom within the framework of schema theory. This study aims at exploring the relation between schema theory and reading comprehension in the ESL reading instructions and proving the positive effect of schema theory upon the ESL readers. Thus, an experimental study is designed to answer such research questions as “Can reading comprehension is improved throughthe instructions of schema theory?”, “What’s the relationship between reading comprehension and schema theory?”5.2 SubjectsThe subjects consisted of 60 students (36 girls and 24 boys) which were in Grade Two. The experiment was carried out in NO.1 Middle School in XingNing, Guangdong Province, which is a key school with a total of over 3500 students. These subjects were selected eventually because they were thought to have the same learning background. Before they entered the high school, they all had taken the same entrance exams and their scores must above the enrolment cut-off point that the school set. In this study, a reading pre-test and a post-test were given to the subjects. Scores on the reading proficiency test were indicators of subjects’ proficiency level. According to their pre-test, they were divided into three groups.5.3 InstrumentsA reading proficiency pre-test was constructed to divide the students into three different reading levels. The pre-test included 20 multiple-choice items and consisted of 5 passages, ranging from 350-400 words in length. Bereither and Bird (1985) suggest that trouble-free reading does not require readers to call upon their strategic resources. Therefore, passages which were a little beyond their current reading levels were selected. Following each passage, there were 3-5 multiple-choice questions: (i) 1-2 main idea questions, (ii) 1-2 factual information or detail questions and (iii) 1-2inference questions. Among the 20 items, 5 items were main idea questions, 5 inference questions and 10 detail questions. Based on the results of the pre-test, subjects were classified into three groups: low, intermediate and high. 13 students who received below 20 points were divided into the low level group; 38 students with between 20 and 30 points into the intermediate level group; and 9 students who obtained above 30 points into the high level group.5.4 Testing proceduresBefore the onset of the reading training, the students were given a reading comprehension pre-test. Six weeks later, when the subjects finished the reading training under the guide of schema theory, all were given a post-test. Test materials were designed for pre-test and post test. Ten passages were selected from the testing passages used in NMET papers of 2006 and 2007 (see Appendix Ⅰand AppendixⅡ). These materials were quite reliable as they have been designed by professional test designers in China. Five passages were used in pre-test while the rest were used in post-test to keep the level of tests consistent.5.5 Materials and training proceduresThe reading training was carried out under the guidance of schema theory, which is based on the reader’s knowledge to form a schema in mind in order to help understand reading materials. The reading training procedures are as follows: first, we explained the procedure of the reading training. Next, we enriched the students’。

The Application of Functional Equiva-lence Theory in Scientific Translation：A Case Study of the Translation of Ship-building EnglishZiqi LIUJiangsu University of Science and TechnologyAbstract: Translation of the scientific and technological articles can not simply convey the basic information of the source text literally by means of word to word or phrase to phrase. Instead, the differences on the characteristics and styles of the Chinese and English scientific articles should be noticed during the translation process and acceptable sentence patterns and expressions may be used to adapt to the reading habits of the target language readers. Scientific articles strive to express meaning by economy of the language and simple language is applied to explain professional problems in order to make the article understood. Under the guidance of the functional equivalence theory, this article studies four equivalent paths in the process of translation activity from Chinese to English, which can provide some learning for the people who are doing scientific translations in the field of ship-building English.Key words: Functional Equivalence Theory, Shipbuilding English1. IntroductionThe ultimate goal of translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text. However, during the process of intralingual communication or interlingual communication, two languages with total different features cannot be ab-solutely equivalent. What translators can do is to make the target text close to the source text as far as possible, thus achieving the closest equivalent. Besides, the target text should be fluent and natural, smooth and easy to understand, which is similar to the theory put forward by Nida that the target language should be the closest natural equivalent of the source language message (Nida, 2001:91)[1]. The theory implies that, “the equivalent” functions during the delivery of the information of the source text; 134The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English “natural” means the target text should be smooth, fluent and easy to understand; “the closest” means the target text should be infinitely close to the source text both in the aspects of information delivery and writing style.Functional Equivalence consists of four aspects: (1) lexical equivalence; (2) syntax equivalence; (3) textual equivalence; (4) stylistic equivalence. According to Nida's theory, in the process of translation, the translators should regard these four aspects mentioned above as the principles to realize the communication and inter-action between the source language and the target language. Therefore, based on these four aspects, this thesis focuses on the discussion of problems people often come across in the process of translation.2. The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the Target Language(1) Lexical EquivalenceAs the minimal language unit which can be individually used, the word is considered as a unified whole connecting voice, meaning and grammar, which possesses some kind of form and expresses some meanings. Therefore, the under-standing and translation of lexical meaning is the foundation of translation activi-ties and the errors in lexical translation are bound to result in the errors in sentence translation.In the scientific translation, scientific terms are the carriers of the scientific information and it plays an important part in the process of information delivery (Fu Y onglin, Tang Y ueqin, 2012: 27)[3]. As we know, scientific articles have the speciality categories, which decides that these articles are strongly terminological ( Feng Zhijie: 1998:26)[2].As the important part of the scientific theory, the termi-nology is of fundamental significance whose semantic is rigorous and single. A lot of terms and professional vocabularies often emerge in the scientific articles, which bring some difficulty to the translation activities. To do the scientific translation well, it is extremely important to correctly translate these terms and professional vocabularies. Only when these vocabularies are accurately conveyed and they are equivalent between the content and form, the target text readers can receive the message which is close to the source text so as to achieve the communicative func-tion.1) The Translation of Shipbuilding TerminologyAs what is mentioned before, this thesis mainly focuses on the professional lexical translation of the ship. To realize the communicative function in the process135Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019of translation activity, we must achieve the equivalence in content and functions, trying to make the target text readers accurately understand what the source text writers want to express. The translation of some words and phrases may fixedly exist in the field of ship, nevertheless, non-professionals can be unfamiliar with them. During the translation activities, we must combine relevant professional knowledge, the context and apply various translation techniques together to finish the translation which is the most closest to the source text rather than follow our inclinations or translate whatever we want.E.g.1: Gourds, rafts and leather bags are original tools which can be used towade in the water.E.g.2: Hollow gourds, rafts and aired hides are original tools which can beused to wade in the water.These two simple sentences include three primitive tools for wading in the water. We can easily know that “Gourds”, “rafts” and “leather bags” in the first sentence have the same meaning with “Hollow gourds”, “rafts” and “aired hiders” in the second sentence. However, according to the context, the “Hollow gourds” is better than “Gourds” in that in ancient times, to add the buoyancy, people had a tendency to empty the “ Gourds“ whose volume could be controlled by people and whose height is around 40-50 centimeters and the belly mean breadth is around 30-50 centimeters. As a matter of fact, the top of the “Gourds“ ought to be cut and the inside of it ought to be emptied and then people used canes to connect them one by one, so the “Gourds” become hollow. Therefore, although there is no specific introduction of the empty “Gourds“, we must add a modifier into it when translat-ing to make its meaning more accurate. The translators have made sure of the ac-curate delivery of semantic meaning, which realizes the principle of “Content first, form second”.Similarly, we use “aired hides” rather than “leather bags” in that according to the context, the tool mentioned in the article for wading in the water is made of the hide of the cows or sheep. “Leather bags” usually refers to the synthetic leather made by human while “hide” refers to the skin of the large animal. Based on the context and basic knowledge, we can know that the tool is made of animals’ skin. Therefore, “hides” is better than “leather bags “in this translation. What’s more, these hides need being filled with air, so we need to add a modifier “aired” in front of the “hides”. Hence the phrase “aired hides” comes.136The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding EnglishE.g.3: Hollow gourd waist boatE.g.4: Hollow gourd “waist boat” (people tied the hollow gourd to the waistto cross the water, so it was called waist boat.)E.g.3 and E.g.4 are basically the same but they differ in that the E.g.4 gives a further explanation of the phrase “waist boat“. This is absolutely necessary in that the target readers of this article are all foreigners. If they are simply looking at the phrase “waist boat”, they may feel puzzled or confused that whether it is the boat which looks like the waist or the boat which is tied in the waist. Since the ordinary readers may never have the chance to see this ancient tool by their own and expe-rience the way of wading in the water, it is hard for them to imagine the specific situation. Hence, in order to make sure the accuracy and objectivity of the infor-mation delivery, the translators must add comment to it that” people tied the hollow gourd to the waist to cross the water, so it was called waist boat”, which can help set the explicit limitation and definition for these ambiguous words so that the translators are able to make readers know the relevant information of the source text.2) The Translation of the Culture Proper NounsIn the document of the history about shipbuilding, there is no denying the fact that it has many literal description about the ancient history which may include some words and phrases associated with the Chinese culture. These words and phrases are difficult to find the equivalence in the target language. Therefore, in the process of the translation activities, we must take some techniques and strategies to translate these words and phrases which are strongly connected with Chinese cul-ture.E.g.5: Shih Chi Biography of Xia had recorded that tributes from Y angzhou were transported along the river to the sea and then were taken to the north along the sea. Next, they were brought to Huai River and Si River, at last to central plains. (in today’s Henan Province)As a Chinese geographical concept, “central plains” is literally defined as “a plain in the middle”. Since the area of China experienced endless changes, our country has ensured the territorial scope until modern times. Generally speaking, there are two different kinds of versions: one is the literal translation--central plains, and the other one is to add comments for “central plains”. so we can’t simply take a literal translation when translating this phrase.137Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019It is illustrated in the Great Dictionary of American Heritage that the word “China” has something to do with the Qin Dynasty. And what describes in the fol-lowing is the Xia Dynasty, which is more earlier than Qin Dynasty. Therefore, the translators find that “plains” of the Xia Dynasty mainly refers to the area in Henan, which can naturally be translated into “central plains”. Finally, they can add the comment to signify the position of the province.(2) Syntax EquivalenceThere is a majority of differences between English and Chinese, which can be seen obviously between the sentences and lines. English emphasizes the form while Chinese emphasizes the meaning; English uses more impersonal structures than Chinese does; English uses more passive voice while Chinese uses more active voice; English highlights the static expression while Chinese highlights the dy-namic expression. Various differences between English and Chinese in syntax make request for the syntax translation. To make sure the source text readers and the tar-get text readers achieve almost the same reading experience, the translators should take into consideration the difference of the syntax and translate the sentences into what target text readers are familiar with.The objectivity of the scientific articles decides that there are many non-subject sen-tences in them. Since much information is conveyed in the scientific articles, the scientific articles consist of many long difficult sentences. As a matter of fact, the information in the scientific articles is often strongly professional.The sentences of the scientific English have four major features: the abundant use of the passive voice to make statement objects more objective, the use of long sentences to make statement objects more complete, the use of the special sentence patterns to make the scientific English different from others, and the frequent use of the nouns which can describe the movement and the state. This is best reflected by E.g.6, E.g.7 and E.g.8.E.g.6: It is found that the final weld metal has a high plate dilution.E.g.7: Subsequently it was discovered that by dipping the wire in lime a morestable arc was obtained.E.g.8: The process is more suitable for welding plates in the thickness range of13 to 50 mm with square or vee edge preparations and is therefore used for ship-building purposes in the welding of vertical butts when erecting side shell panels or for the vertical shell butt joints when joining building blocks on the berth or dock. 138The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English(3) Textual EquivalenceText refers to a set of discourses or sentences that are different in lengths, of grammatical utterance and semantically coherent. It has both spoken language and written language ( Fu Y onglin, Tang Y ueqin, 2012: 170)[3]. The text usually focuses on the specific gist and has some logic. The discourses and sentences of the text are connected by means of the logical relationship and structure. In the process of do-ing translation activities, to make the target text more logical, we must clearly un-derstand the gist and structure of the source text. We should make clear the struc-ture of the text from the whole and understand the logical relationship and the con-necting devices from the local. Only in this way can we form the thesis structure and logical coherence in the target text which is equivalent to the source text that can be well-recognized by the target text readers.E.g.9: South China abounds with bamboos, so bamboo rafts were widely used there. First, use fire to bake the bottom of bamboos to make it cocked, and then bind them together with rattan and wild flax. Thus, when paddling it, the resistance will be much smaller, especially when it floats downstream the speed is amazing the bamboo raft in the Taiwan Strait has sail, so it is not very far from now.From the sentence above, we can easily come to the conclusion that the source text concentrates on the description of abundance of bamboos in the south area and the relevant procedures of making bamboo rafts. Generally speaking, in the Chinese text, there is no obvious marking words to explain the procedure of making bamboo rafts but people whose mother tongue is Chinese are easy to understand. It is the bamboo rafts rather than other kinds of rafts such as wooden rafts or leather rafts that are used spread because the south area is rich in bamboo, which provides the convenient condi-tion for making bamboo rafts. Going forward, the procedure of making bamboo rafts is step by step and it is a united procedure. Going ahead, the source text tells us that the rafts drift down the river and the clause “the speed is amazing “gives us the further ex-planation for the resistance mentioned ahead. In the English, the translators should first use a word “so” which implies a kind of causation relationship is used to totally con-vey the message that the bamboo bridge can be made just because of the abundance of bamboo in the south area. What’s more, the words “first” and “and then” tell us the order of making bamboo rafts. Due to the elaborate making procedures, the resistance of the raft is smaller. The word “thus” naturally brings us the consequence while the adverb “especially” is used to further emphasize the quick speed of the rafts drifting down the river. In the process of translation activity, we should clearly understand the relationship between sentences so as to make the message delivered wholly and achieve the textual dynamic equivalence.139Creativity and Innovation Vol.3 No.1 2019(4) Stylistic EquivalenceDifferent English articles may have different styles of writing, consistent with their own expression of spiritual emotions. Therefore, high-quality English transla-tion emphasizes the stylistic equivalence which means that the translators should deeply study the style of the source text to build a bridge between the writer and readers for effective communication and interaction. For example, in the translation of English business letters, we should pay attention to the use of polite words, and fully express the contents of the letter, in order to establish a good relationship be-tween the two cooperative parties to make them deeply feel each other' s sincerity which helps to promote more profound and lasting cooperation. Besides, for the translation of business contracts, translators should pay attention to the economy of language and accurately and completely convey information with simple words and sentences so that readers can understand according to the key words. This is also important for readers to improve their reading efficiency and comfort. In this pro-cess, translators need to carefully consider the contents of the contract and avoid information omissions or misunderstanding which can cause property loss for the company. In addition, the scientific translation lays high emphasis on rigorousness of logical structure. In the field of Western studies, no undetermined argument can be quoted freely, and in many arguments there is usually only “YES” or “NO”. Therefore, in scientific translation activities, we should respect the rigorous scien-tific tradition of Western research and do not add any subjective content with per-sonal emotion in the whole article structure and language style arrangement.3. The Strategies of the Functional Equivalence Theory in Scien-tific Translation(1) Clearly understanding the scientific concepts and transforming the key pointsIn the scientific paper, there are a lot of new and complex scientific concepts which bother people in a way. In this case, the translators need the experts in the field of the science and technology to make clear these complicated concepts in the paper and find key points in these concepts. Finally, they translate these concepts under the guidance of the lexical equivalence theory.(2) Making clear the logical relationship of the source text and translating with different methodsThe complex logical argumentation is frequently used in the English scientific paper. Which we translate between Chinese and English, we can express in differ-ent form. For instance, we can use the chart translation approach. The translators 140The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation: A CaseStudy of the Translation of Shipbuilding English can firstly list arguments one by one and associate them with the conclusion by chart which can bring a more vivid experience for readers. Actually, the translators can use the arguments readers are familiar with, which helps them experience the target context on their own.(3) Closely grasping the style of the source textBased on a serious scientific perspective, the scientific articles are equipped with rigorous argument process, precise logical structure, and the strict textual structure. Therefore, in the process of scientific translation, the translators should closely grasp the structure and language style of the source text.4. ConclusionBased on Nida’s functional equivalence theory, this thesis illustrates the prin-ciples of equivalence by the examples of scientific translation of shipbuilding and proposes some translation strategies for people who are doing scientific transla-tions.Works Cited［1］Nida, E.A . “Language and Culture: Context in Translation”. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.［2］Feng “Zhijie, A Guide to C-E Translation for Science” Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1998.［3］Fu Yonglin, “Tang Yueqin, Scientific Translation” Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching And Research Press, 2012.141。

AcknowledgementsThanks for giving me this opportunity to achieve this paper and to make the conclusion for my four years’ education. Through writing this paper, I have gained much more knowledge than I supposed.First and foremost, my sincere thanks and respects are given to my supervisor, Professor Li Xuefeng, for helping me to clarify my thought and sharpen my thinking, for her professional guidance and encouragement.Then I also want to express my thanks to all teachers who have ever taught me knowledge and other reasons,Finally, I would like to give my thanks to my friends who gave me much help and support. Thank you!AbstractThis task takes former research to schema theory, English listening teaching and their relationship as basis and then does deeper discussion to the application of schema theory to junior English listening teaching. It is vital to understand and use schemata correctly, activate students’ background knowledge and set up new schemata during the listening process. According to Questionnaire I and Test I, some problems existed in listening teaching have been discovered. Aimed at these problems, this task takes 40 students in Grade 7, Class 4 in Mayu Middle School as experimental objects to carry on experimental lessons based on schema theory for 10 weeks. And then Questionnaire II and Test II are used to verify the impacts taken to junior English listening teaching by the application of schema theory. Based on the research data and analysis, some enlightenment can be gained from the practice of schema theory.Key Words: background knowledge, listening comprehension, activate and set up schemata, listening teaching摘要本课题以前人对图式理论和英语听力教学以及两者关系的研究为基础，进行了用图式理论、如何激活学生在听力过程中所掌握的背景知识以及创建新图式是本课题的中心关键。

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The Importance of Schema Theory in English ReadingComprehension【Abstract】This paper presents the importance of schema theory in reading comprehension from the perspective of language philosophy，especially the philosophy of linguistic philosophers Putman and Wittgenstein.【Key words】schema theory；reading comprehension；language philosophy；Putman and Wittgenstein1. Schema Theory1.1 The Origin and Definition of Schema TheorySchema Theory is originally put forward in Cognitive Psychology，which was thought to be first touched upon and introduced by Bartlett in his book in Remembering：A study in Experimental and Social Psychology. In this book，Bartlett （1932）claimed that “’Schema’refers to an active organization of past reactions，or of past experiences，which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic responses”. Namely，the schema is referred to as the past background information stored in people’s memory，which can be activated.1.2 The Classifications of Schema TheorySchema theory is classified into linguistic schema，formal schema and content schema. According to Carrell，an expert in studying the application of schema theory to reading comprehension，linguistic schema refers to the readers’prior linguistic knowledge，including existing language proficiency in vocabulary，grammar and sentence structures；formal schema are often known as rhetorical schemata，which refers to the organizational forms and rhetorical structures of written texts；while content schema refers to the readers’prior knowledge of the content area of the text，which is key to the understanding of a specific text.2. Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension2.1 The Research of Schema Theory and Reading ComprehensionModern schema theory was repeatedly applied to the research of speech and reading，especially the research of reading comprehension. For instance，Rumelhart （1980）once claimed schema theory is applied to explain how readers comprehend and learn from the text by using their prior knowledge. He also believes that comprehension is the process of selecting the schema illustrating input information andvariable constraints. Patricia L Carrell，another expert，also researched deeply and extensively on schema theory and reading comprehension. He also published several papers to analyze and illustrate the correlation between Schema Theory and reading comprehension.Meanwhile，there are many people in China who have also introduced and researched on schema theory. For instance，Deng Gang，in his book，Discussion on Several Theoretical Problems of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning（2003），gave a literature review of schema theory and added some of his new comments on it. Besides，some language teachers and students’graduating papers have also involved the research of schema theory. 2.2 The Importance of Schema Theoryin Reading Comprehension from the View of Language PhilosophyLinguistic philosopher Putman proposes the “division of linguistic labor”，which denotes that the meaning of language cannot be determined by a single individual，and the comprehension and application of language is a social behavior. Therefore，according to Putman that language is a social behavior，and then the learning of a certain language requires the learners’interaction and communication with others，maybe also the interaction between the reader and the text itself. Here，the schema theory also emphasizes that the meaning of language can be acquired through the interaction between the reader and the text，that is，the reader can apply his or her pre-knowledge into the understanding of a text and thepre-knowledge in schema theory is the background information.Meanwhile，Wittgenstein has also proposed that the comprehension of a sentence is a comprehension of a language，which means that if you want to understand a sentence，you need not only know the language itself，but also need to comprehend other aspects concerning language comprehension，namely，the background of the language used，the formal types of the language.Therefore，from Putman’s and Wittgenstein’s views，we get to know that their philosophy emphasizes the importance of background information in language comprehension，pointing out the importance of schema theory in reading comprehension.ConclusionThis paper，through the introduction to schema theory and reading comprehension，presents the importance of schema theory in reading comprehension from the perspective oflanguage philosophy.References：[1]Carrell，P.L.，& Eisterhold，J.C.（1983）.Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy.TESOL quarterly，17（4），553-573.。

The aim of the study is to explore how to effectively teach English reading more effectively in senior high schools. Based on schema theory, the thesis probes into the process of teaching reading as thoroughly as possible. The study finds out that the teacher can apply schema theory to teaching English reading, which can be presented in two aspects: Firstly, reading is an interactive process. Thus, the teacher should stimulate students’ schemata by combining the “bottom-up” model and the “top-down”model. Secondly, there are three major types of schemata，namely, linguistic schemata, content schemata and formal schemata .Thus ,we can apply schema to teaching reading in terms of its three aspects. Compared with previous studies, the study puts forward that the key point of teaching reading is to enable students to grasp the meaning of a passage and the meaning of a passage can be leveled into two parts: the surface meaning and the deep meaning.; in order to understand these two levels of meaning, in the process of teaching reading, the teacher should guide students to apply different types of schemata to know the meaning of a passage. This study is merely a preliminary tryout; I hope it can be helpful to teach English reading in senior high schoolsKey words:teaching reading schema theory meaning本次研究的目的在于探索如何更有效地教高中生英语阅读课。

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