英语词汇学纲要

语言学纲要意译词举例 -回复 什么是语言学纲要？ 语言学纲要是语言学的基础概述，它旨在提供语言学的核心概念、理论和研究方法，以帮助学习者全面理解语言的本质和功能。语言学纲要涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学等，并提供了相关词汇的定义和解释。以下是一些语言学纲要中常见的词汇及其示例。 语音学： 1. 音素 [phoneme]：指语言中的最小语音单位，如英语中的 /p/ 和 /b/。 2. 音节 [syllable]：一个单词中的发音单元，如英语单词 "banana" 中的三个音节 /bəˈnæ.nə/。 3. 音韵学 [phonology]：研究语音的系统和模式的学科。 语法学： 1. 句法 [syntax]：研究句子和短语结构和组织的学科，如英语中的主谓宾结构 "He eats apples"。 2. 语法 [grammar]：语言的规则和约定，用于构成和组织句子和短语。 3. 词类 [part of speech]：用于分类单词的类别，如名词、动词、形容词等。 词汇学： 1. 词汇 [vocabulary]：一个语言中的所有单词的总和。 2. 同义词 [synonym]：具有相似意义的词语，如 "big" 和 "large"。 3. 反义词 [antonym]：具有相反意义的词语，如 "hot" 和 "cold"。 句法学： 1. 主语 [subject]：句子中执行动作或行为的人、事物或概念。 2. 谓语 [predicate]：句子中描述主语的动作、状态或性质的部分。 3. 宾语 [object]：句子中接受动作的人、事物或概念。 语义学： 1. 语义 [semantics]：研究词语和句子意义的学科。 2. 含义 [meaning]：词语或句子所传达的信息或概念。 3. 上位词 [hypernym]：在词语层级中具有更广泛意义的词语，如 "动物" 是 "狗" 和 "猫" 的上位词。 语用学： 1. 语用 [pragmatics]：研究语言使用背后的实际意义和交际的学科。 2. 言外之意 [implicature]：言外之意，即通过推理得出的不明确表达的意义。 3. 礼貌原则 [politeness principle]：指在语言交流中尊重他人并遵循社会礼仪的原则。 以上仅是语言学纲要中涉及的一小部分词汇，实际上，语言学纲要涵盖的范围非常广泛且深入。通过学习语言学纲要中的这些词汇，我们能更好地理解和分析语言的结构、运作方式和意义的构建，从而提高我们对不同语言的学习和应用能力。无论是研究语言现象还是学习外语，语言学纲要都是一个重要的基础知识。

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、V ocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional.二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oral form. 自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。

现代英语词汇学概论第一章汉语版
《现代英语词汇学概论》是英国语言学家约翰·西诺特（John Sinclair）所著，于1966年出版的一本关于英语词汇学的经典著作。

该
书第一章的主要内容涉及了词汇学研究的背景和目标。

第一章的汉语版主要包括以下内容：
1.引言：介绍了词汇学研究的重要性和目的，以及该书的结构和内容。

2.词汇学的起源和发展：回顾了词汇学研究的历史背景和不同阶段的
发展，包括传统历史语言学和现代语言学的贡献。

3.词汇研究的方法和工具：介绍了进行词汇学研究所需的方法和工具，包括词汇统计、语料库、词典和计算机技术的运用等。

4.词汇学的理论框架：探讨了几种主要的词汇学理论，包括认知语义学、联想语义学和构式语法等，并解释了它们在研究词汇结构、意义和使
用方面的作用。

5.词汇学的研究领域：概述了词汇学研究的不同领域，包括词汇结构、词汇意义、词汇使用和词汇变化等，并举例说明了不同领域的研究方法和
发现。

总之，第一章的汉语版主要介绍了词汇学研究的基本概念、方法和理
论框架，为后续章节的词汇学内容打下基础。

英语专业（法律英语专业）本科教学大纲一．总则为贯彻实施《高等学校英语专业教学大纲》（2000）、教育部《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010-2020）》及《关于全面提高高等教育质量的若干意见》（2012），为培养“具有扎实的英语语言基础和广博的文化知识并能熟练地运用英语在外事、教育、经贸、文化、科技、军事等部门从事翻译、教学、管理、研究等工作的复合型英语人才”、“具有创新精神和实践能力的高级专门人才”、“具有国际视野、通晓国际规则、能够参与国际事务和国际竞争的国际化人才”,并为“促进人的全面发展和适应社会需要”等国家人才培养的战略方针，特此制定英语专业（法律英语专业）教学大纲，旨在培养具有国际竞争力的高素质的、复合型的法律英语人才，以适应多元社会需求与多元目标取向。

二．英语（法律英语）专业培养目标培养适应经济社会发展所需的德、智、体、美全面发展，具有较高人文素养、熟练的英语语言技能、厚实的英语语言文学专业知识和法律、经贸专业基本知识，具有较强的创新精神、实践操作能力和社会适应能力的高素质、应用型的本科人才；能在政府机关、外事、公检法部门，海关边检、民航、旅游、外企、涉外律师事务所、高等院校及科研院所等部门从事翻译、研究、教学、管理、执法等工作的复合型人才。

英语（法律英语）专业坚持英语专业教学本位，体现英语法律结合特色，实施“英语+法律”复合型人才培养模式。

三．英语（法律英语）专业课程设置英语（法律英语）专业旨在奠定厚实的英语语言知识和法律经贸知识、较高的人文素养、和调研创新能力的基础，该专业包含十门核心课程，三个模块。

九门核心课程分别为英国文学、美国文学、英语语言学概论、法律语言学概论、国际经贸概论、中西方思想经典、法律英语、商贸英语及（法律）英语写作；三个模块分别为专业基础课、专业主干课、专业拓展选修课。

3.1 专业基础课程英语专业基础类课程：英语语音学、英语小说选读、英语诗歌选读、经贸英语文选选读、英语散文欣赏、英语词汇学、英语演讲与辩论、跨文化交际导论、中方思想经典、西方思想经典、英语口、笔译实践、法律英语口译实践、经贸英语翻译与实践、经贸英语文选选读、第二外语等课程；法律英语技能类课程：法律英语阅读、法律英语听说、法律翻译和法律英语写作，法律英语专业知识和实务类课程。

英语词汇学笔记整理Chapter 11 - The definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unit of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.4-A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the languageNatural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.10 - Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of useand become polysemous.12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas .14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive.16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as formwords. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific.Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style.Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The Englishlanguage is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings26 - Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.27 - Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.Chapter 21 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic.4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian.5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavianlanguages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.8 - Old English (450-1150)Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German.9 - Middle English (1150-1500)Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings.10 - Modern English (1500-up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England.Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishModern English began with the establishment of printing in England.Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishIn the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance.Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’’s great literary heritage and of great scholarshipIn fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages.It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology(45%); social, economic and political changes(24%);the influence of other cultures and languages(11%).the influence of other cultures and languages(11%).12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, frnch, greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors.Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 31 - These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.In other words, the morpheme is "the amallest functioning unit in the composition of words"In other words, the morpheme is "the amallest functioning unit in the composition of words"2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.3 - These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.4 - Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.5 - There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph.6 - Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.7 - Bound Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8 - Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups; inflectional and derivational affixes.Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes come before the ward and the suffixes after the word.9 - A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10 - A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful.A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added。