简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
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Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society? 答:There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “ Good morning! ” , “ Hi! ” , “ How's your family? ” , “ Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “ snow ” , there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos tomake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 答:The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determine idiolect?答:The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 答:First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agenc y writes grammar books and dictionaries to ,fix? this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ,incorrect? language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. 答:According to Halliday, “Languagevaries as its function varies; it differs in different situations. Th”e type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified asField: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher —students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答:(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “ passed ” is pronouncede[np]a,:dse],smk e[dneds[]m, and told[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the deletion of the link verb“be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine ”, “You crazy ”, “Her hands cold ”, and “That house big verb deletion is not a. In fac unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 —2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 —3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of the earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答:Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “ simplified var”iety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答:Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答:Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答:The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答:The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “ traditional grammar. ” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages intoa Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答:In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “ invented ”bryditsspueseecrhswtoherenctoheneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “ revised re”cord of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答:Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? 答:First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答:The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “ displacement ” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答:Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “ Chinais a large country with a long history. ”The expressive function supplies information about the user 's feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go- swhionpdpoiwng with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters. ”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答:Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答:The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f],feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [hel 0 ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [I] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf I”t is. called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [hel 0], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [ 0], its pronunciati somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [hel 0].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答:English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答:Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with theexception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答:A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答:(1) Both phono logy and pho netics are concerned with the same aspect of Ian guage the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答:Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “ copying a”feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “ sloppy te”ndency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant thatfollows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet —indiscreet, correct -incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying ” a foenastuorneaonftth eatcfollows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign -signature, resign -resignation, phlegm -phlegmatic, paradigm - paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答:The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which candistinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following wordsmorpheme and the next:a. microfile who translate s ” 答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning:something can be done or is possible stem added to verbs examples:acceptable, “can be accepted ”respectable, “can be respected ” (2) suffix:-ly meaning:functional stem type:added to adjectives examples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free ' ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'(3) suffix:-ee meaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company interviewee, “one who is interviewed3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a- prefix: a- meaning: “ without; not stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “ lacking symmetry ” asexual,“ without sex or sex organs 答: (1) prefix: dis-into their separate morphemes by placing a “ +”between each e. telecommunicationb. bedraggledc. announcementd. predigestion 答:a. micro + file f. forefather g. psychophysicsh. mechanistc. announce + mente. tele + communicate + ion b. be + draggle + edd. pre + digest + ion f. fore + father g. psycho + physicsh. mechan + ist 2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they maybe suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbs examples: actor,one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. translator, type:meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “ do not approve ”dishonesty, “ lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “ opposing the use of atomic weapons and power ”antisocial, “ opposedor harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “ producing results opposite to those intended ”counteract, “ act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.)”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor ' s, inventors, inventors 'd) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ' s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP T (Det) N (PP) ...VP T (Qual) V (NP) ...AP t (Deg) A (PP) ...PP t (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP t (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady gotoff the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A(以下8-12 题只作初步的的成分划分,未画树形图, 仅供参考)8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) T head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) t specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) t specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) t specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures. (划底线的为动词的修饰语,斜体的为名词的修饰语)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. (划底线的为并列的范畴)a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. (划底线的为补语从句)a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. (划底线的为关系从句)a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure) you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure) Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure) who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答:(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, con text —-leme nts closely lin ked with Ian guage behaviour. The represe ntative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “ situationin which the speaker utters itThis theory and the response it calls forth in the hearer. , somewhatclose to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答:The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples (略)3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy ”, and “hyponymy”.答:(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》(第2版)课后习题详解(下)【圣才出品】第8章语⾔与社会1. How is language related to society?Key: (1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “How is your family?”, “Nice day today, isn’t it?”(2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker.(3) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and social environment of a society. For example, while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather thanlinguistic.Key: As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore,judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.A case in point is the use of the postvocalic []. While in England accents without postvocalic [] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointlydetermine idiolect?Key:The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, age and gender. Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way she/he talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?Key: (1) The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.(2) The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language;usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually, the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.(3) The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; imposed from above the range of regional dialects.(4) The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purpose as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. Key: According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on biology in a technical college could be identifiedas:Field: scientific (biological)Tenor: teacher-students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?Key: (1) Linguistic features of Black English:Phonological features: simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is often pronounced [], mend [], desk [], and told [].Syntactic features one: the deletion of link verb “be”. In Black English, we often come across many sentences without copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English, it is often found in other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese.Syntactic features two: the use of double negation structure. e.g.He don’t know nothing. (He doesn’t know anything.)I ain’t afraid of no ghosts. (I am not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make positive. But in fact, such double negative constructions werefound in all dialects of English of earlier period.(2) I don’t think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English.Linguists are agreed that no variety of a language is inherently better than any other. They insist that all languages and all varieties of a particular language are equal in that they quite adequately serve the needs of those who use them. The only exception they recognize are pidgins, which are by definition restricted varieties, or the varieties we associate with people who are impaired in some way, e.g. certain mentally or physically handicapped people. American English is considered “better”only in a social sense: it has a preferred status; it gives those who use it certain social advantages; and it increases their life chances. Black English, being a nonstandard variety, tends to produce the opposite effect. These are some of the consequences that follow from elevating one variety and denigrating others, but there is no reason to suppose that any one of the varieties is intrinsically more worthy than any other.7. What peculiar features does pidgin have?Key: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgin arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders andmissionaries. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss ofinflection, gender and case. The “simplified” variety performs its function as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common? Key: Differences:(1)Bilingualism refers to the situation that two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(2)Diglossia, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. In a diglossic situation, two varieties (high variety and low variety) of a language, instead of two different languages, exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlappings.Similarity:The two languages of bilingualism and two varieties of diglossia exist side by side and have different role to play as situation changes.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案全文共10篇示例,供读者参考篇1Hello everyone! Today I'm going to give you all the answers to the study guide for the 2nd edition of New Practical English Language Learning Tutorial. Are you ready to ace your English language studies? Let's get started!1. What are the four main branches of linguistics?- Phonetics, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics2. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?- Phonetics focuses on the physical sounds of language, while phonology deals with how those sounds function in a particular language.3. Define syntax.- Syntax is the study of sentence structure and how words are combined to form meaningful sentences.4. What is the relationship between language and culture?- Language and culture are closely intertwined, as language reflects the beliefs, values, and norms of a particular culture.5. What is the purpose of semantics?- Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey different shades of meaning.6. Explain the difference between a morpheme and a phoneme.- A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language, while a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound.7. What is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) used for?- The IPA is a standardized system for representing the sounds of language, making it easier to study and compare different languages.8. Describe the difference between a declarative and an interrogative sentence.- A declarative sentence makes a statement, while an interrogative sentence asks a question.9. What is pragmatics?- Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, including how speakers convey meaning through tone, gesture, and social cues.10. Give an example of a language register.- Formal register: "I am delighted to make your acquaintance."- Informal register: "Nice to meet you!"That's it for the study guide answers! I hope this helps you all with your English language studies. Good luck, and keep practicing!篇2Hi, everyone! Are you ready to learn about the New Concise English Linguistics Study Guide 2nd Edition? Let's dive right in!First of all, this book is super cool because it teaches you all about the English language and how it works. You'll learn about things like grammar, phonetics, and syntax – all those fancy words that linguists use to talk about language.One of the best parts of this book is the exercises and activities. They help you practice what you've learned and make sure you really understand it. Plus, there are lots of fun gamesand puzzles to help you remember all those tricky linguistic terms.Another awesome thing about this book is that it's really clear and easy to understand. The authors explain everything in a way that's simple and straightforward, so you won't get confused. And if you do have questions, there's a handy glossary at the back of the book to help you out.But wait, there's more! The Study Guide also includes tips and tricks for improving your English skills, like how to study effectively and how to write better essays. So not only will you learn about linguistics, but you'll also become a better English speaker and writer.So, if you want to become a language expert and impress your friends with your linguistic knowledge, make sure to grab a copy of the New Concise English Linguistics Study Guide 2nd Edition. Happy learning!篇3Hi guys, today I’m going to share with you some answers to the study guide for the New Edition of the Concise English Language Studies. This book can be a bit tricky, but don’t worry, I’ve got your back! Let’s get started:1. What is the definition of linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of grammar, syntax, phonetics, and semantics.2. How many main branches make up the field of linguistics?There are six main branches of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.3. What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar?Descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers, while prescriptive grammar dictates how language should be used according to traditional rules.4. What is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) used for?The International Phonetic Alphabet is used to represent sounds of spoken languages in a standardized way, making it easier to transcribe and study different languages.5. Explain the difference between a morpheme and a phoneme.A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language, while a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning between words.I hope these answers help you with your studies. Remember, learning English can be challenging, but with practice and determination, you’ll get the hang of it! Good luck, everyone!篇4Hello everyone, I'm so excited to share with you the study guide for "A New Introduction to English Language Teaching2nd Edition". This book may seem a bit tough at first, but don't worry, I'll break it down for you in a fun and easy way!Chapter 1: What is Language?In this chapter, we learn that language is a way for us to communicate with each other. It can be spoken, written, or signed. We also learn about the different parts of speech, like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Remember, practice makes perfect, so try to use different words in your sentences!Chapter 2: The Sounds of LanguageThis chapter talks about phonetics and phonology, which are fancy words for the sounds we make when we talk. Rememberwhen your teacher taught you how to pronounce words like "cat" and "dog"? That's phonetics! Make sure to practice saying words out loud to improve your pronunciation.Chapter 3: The Structure of WordsWords are like building blocks that make up sentences. In this chapter, we learn about morphology, which is the study of how words are formed. Break down words into prefixes, suffixes, and roots to understand their meanings better.Chapter 4: Sentences and MeaningSentences are like puzzles that convey meaning. In this chapter, we learn about syntax, which is how words are put together to form sentences. Pay attention to the order of words in a sentence to understand the intended meaning.Chapter 5: Language VariationLanguages can vary based on where you are or who you're talking to. In this chapter, we learn about dialects, accents, and regional variations. Embrace the diversity of language and learn from different people's ways of speaking.Chapter 6: Language ChangeLanguages evolve over time, just like how your favorite video game updates with new features. In this chapter, we learn about language history and how words change meaning over time. Keep up with the latest slang and trends to stay current!So there you have it, a simplified guide to "A New Introduction to English Language Teaching 2nd Edition". Remember to have fun while studying and don't be afraid to ask questions. Happy learning, everyone!篇5Hey guys! Today I'm going to give you all the answers to the Study Guide of "New Concise English Language Learning Tutorial 2nd Edition". Are you ready? Let's get started!Chapter 1: Introduction to English Language Learning1. Describe the importance of learning English as a global language.- Learning English is important because it is spoken by millions of people all around the world. It can help you communicate with people from different countries and cultures.2. List the four main skills in language learning.- The four main skills in language learning are listening, speaking, reading, and writing.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology1. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?- Phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech, while phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in language.2. Give an example of a minimal pair.- An example of a minimal pair is the words "pat" and "bat". The only difference between these two words is the initial sound (/p/ in "pat" and /b/ in "bat").Chapter 3: Morphology and Syntax1. Define morphology and syntax.- Morphology is the study of the structure and formation of words, while syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences.2. What is the difference between inflection and derivation?- Inflection is the modification of a word to indicate grammatical information like tense, number, and gender, whilederivation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes or suffixes.Chapter 4: Semantics and Pragmatics1. Explain the difference between semantics and pragmatics.- Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences, while pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context to achieve certain goals.2. Give an example of a semantic field.- An example of a semantic field is the words related to animals, such as cat, dog, and bird.I hope these answers help you with your studies! Keep practicing and don't forget to have fun learning English! Good luck!篇6Hello everyone! Today I'm going to share with you the study guide for the New Edition of Brief English Linguistics Tutorial 2.First of all, make sure to read the textbook carefully and understand the key concepts. It's important to pay attention tothe examples and explanations given in the book to help you grasp the information better.Secondly, practice is key to mastering any language skill. Try to do the exercises at the end of each chapter and review the grammar and vocabulary regularly. You can also find additional exercises online or make flashcards to help you memorize the new words.Don't forget to listen to English audio materials such as podcasts, songs, or news broadcasts. This will help you improve your listening skills and get used to the natural rhythm and pronunciation of English.When it comes to speaking, try to practice speaking English with your friends, family, or classmates. You can also join a language exchange group or find a language partner to practice speaking with.Lastly, have fun while learning English! Watch English movies, read English books or comics, and explore different aspects of English language and culture. Remember, practice makes perfect, so keep practicing and don't give up!I hope these tips will help you improve your English language skills and have fun learning along the way. Good luck and happy studying!篇7Hey guys, have you started studying the New Edition of A Concise English Language Course Book 2? It might feel a bit tricky at first, but don't worry, I'm here to help you out with a study guide that will make things much easier for you!First off, make sure you understand the key concepts in each chapter before moving on to the exercises. Pay attention to the explanations and examples given in the book, as they will help you grasp the material better.When it comes to doing the exercises, don't rush through them. Take your time to read the instructions carefully and think about your answers before writing them down. If you're unsure about something, don't hesitate to ask your teacher or a classmate for help.Make good use of the practice tests and drills provided in the book. They will help you reinforce what you've learned and identify any areas where you might need to improve.Remember to review your notes regularly and test yourself on the vocabulary and grammar rules you've learned. This will help you retain the information better and be better prepared for exams.Lastly, don't forget to have fun while studying! Learning a new language can be challenging, but it can also be a lot of fun. So keep a positive attitude and stay motivated.Good luck with your studies, and I'm sure you'll do great in your English language course! Keep up the good work!篇8Hey guys! Today I'm going to give you all the answers to the "New Edition Concise English Linguistics Course 2" study guide. Get ready to ace your test with these answers!1. What is the definition of linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including grammar, syntax, semantics, and phonetics.2. What are the different branches of linguistics?There are several branches of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.3. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of speech, while phonology is the study of how those sounds are used in a particular language to create meaning.4. What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how they are formed, including prefixes, suffixes, and roots.5. What is syntax?Syntax is the study of sentence structure and how words are arranged to create meaning in a sentence.6. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey information and how meaning can change in different contexts.7. What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in real-life situations, including the social and cultural factors that influence communication.8. How can linguistics help us understand language better?Studying linguistics can help us understand how language works, why languages are structured the way they are, and how language shapes our thoughts and behaviors.So there you have it, all the answers to the "New Edition Concise English Linguistics Course 2" study guide. Good luck on your test, and keep on learning about language!篇9Hello everyone! Today I'm gonna share with you the answers to the study guide of "A New Introduction to English Language Study, 2nd edition". So let's dive in and check out the answers together!Chapter 1: Introduction to English Language Study1. What is linguistics?Answer: Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure.2. What are the four main branches of linguistics?Answer: The four main branches of linguistics are phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax.3. What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar?Answer: Descriptive grammar describes how people actually use language, while prescriptive grammar dictates how people should use language according to established rules.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology1. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?Answer: Phonetics focuses on the physical sounds of speech, while phonology studies the patterns of sounds in language.2. What is a phoneme?Answer: A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning in a language.3. Give an example of a minimal pair.Answer: Ship and sip are an example of a minimal pair, as changing the initial sound changes the meaning of the word.Chapter 3: Morphology and Syntax1. What is morphology?Answer: Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how they are formed.2. What is a morpheme?Answer: A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.3. What is syntax?Answer: Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences.I hope these answers help you with your studies! Keep up the good work and have fun learning about the English language!篇10Title: A Fun Guide to Learning English from New Edition of Concise English Language Learning GuideHey guys! Are you ready to dive into the exciting world of learning English with the new edition of the Concise English Language Learning Guide? In this guide, we will explore the basics of English language study and provide you with some awesome tips and tricks to help you improve your English skills.First and foremost, it's important to understand that learning English is all about practice and consistency. Make sure to set aside some time each day to study and review the material in theguide. Whether it's reading, writing, speaking, or listening, make sure to practice all four language skills to become awell-rounded English speaker.One helpful tip is to keep a vocabulary notebook to write down new words you learn. You can also use flashcards to help you memorize and review vocabulary regularly. Remember, repetition is key when it comes to learning new words and phrases!Another great way to improve your English skills is to watch English movies or TV shows, and listen to English songs. This will help you get used to the sounds and rhythms of the English language. You can also try practicing speaking with a friend or classmate to improve your pronunciation and fluency.In addition, don't be afraid to make mistakes! Learning a new language is a journey, and it's completely normal to make errors along the way. Take risks, practice, and don't be afraid to speak up and use your English skills in real-life situations.Overall, the key to success in learning English is to stay motivated, practice regularly, and have fun with it! With the help of the new edition of the Concise English Language Learning Guide, you'll be on your way to mastering English in no time. Good luck, and happy learning!。
简明教程第二版练习题.答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答:Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答:The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics语音学: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology音韵学: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology构词法: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged andcombined to form words;(4) syntax句法学: it studies the rules which govern how wordsare combined to form grammatically permissiblesentences in languages;(5) semantics语义学: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics语用学: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答:The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答:In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguisticcommunication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation andanalysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答:Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答:First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答:The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. Th is means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答:Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For ex ample: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答:V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答:The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differe ntly from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcriptionthe diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transc ription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答:English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答:V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with theexception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that somefront vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答:A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ?] (5) [?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [p h] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答:(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because oneof the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [p h] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答:Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological featurein English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e.[d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic willinclude the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function inconveying meaning?答:The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答:a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答:(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexample s : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “o pposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counter productive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act agai nst and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivationalaffixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule:XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can becoordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A(以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分,未画树形图, 仅供参考)8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.(划底线的为动词的修饰语,斜体的为名词的修饰语)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.(划底线的为并列的范畴)a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.(划底线的为补语从句)a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structuretrees for each of these sentences.(划底线的为关系从句)a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答:(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答:The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples(略)3. Explain with examples “homonymy”,“polysemy”, and。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答: Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and datawithout being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答: The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答: The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答: In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, itwould be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答:Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答:First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答:The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. 9. What are the major functions of language? Think ofyour own examples for illustration.答:Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.” The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答: Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答: The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild],and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound isunaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答: English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答: Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and openvowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答:A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p] B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolarliquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答:(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Becauseone of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答:Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the nextsound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varyingpronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the co nsonant that follows it. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, andparadigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答:a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays,motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答:(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexample s : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic we apons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counter productive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the headN, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can becoordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed. Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existenceis implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure? There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N d) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A(以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分,未画树形图, 仅供参考)8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PP b) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of varioustypes. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.(划底线的为动词的修饰语,斜体的为名词的修饰语)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. (划底线的为并列的范畴)a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. (划底线的为补语从句)a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the Englishexam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. (划底线的为关系从句)a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure) Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答:(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speakerutters it and the response it calls fort h in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答:The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples(略)3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答:(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling,。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答:Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答:The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to formgrammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答:The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答:In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of humanlanguage for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is o nly the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答:Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答:First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答:The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the spe aker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答:Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答:Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答:The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答:English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答:Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], arerounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答:A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答:(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differfrom each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related toa phoneme?答:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答:Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the c onsonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letterg. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答:The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答:a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答:(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.T o determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure).The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A(以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分,未画树形图, 仅供参考)8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.(划底线的为动词的修饰语,斜体的为名词的修饰语)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. (划底线的为并列的范畴)a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. (划底线的为补语从句)a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structureand the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. (划底线的为关系从句)a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答:(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答:The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples(略)3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答:(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. (3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word。
新编简明英语语言学答案【篇一:新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习题参考答案】chapter 1 introduction1. how do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.答: linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. in order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. in linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. what are the major branches of linguistics? what does each of them study?答: the major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答: the general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.4. is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why?答: in modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. for what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答: speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. even in todays world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. and also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. for modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech whilewritten language is only the “revised” record of speech. thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. how is saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to chomskys distinction between competence and performance?答: saussures distinction and chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in that saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. what characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答: first of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. what are the main features of human language that have been specified by c. hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答:the main features of human language are termed design features. they include:1) arbitrarinesslanguage is arbitrary. this means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. a good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) productivitylanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. this is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) dualitylanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. but the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) displacementlanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. in other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. this is what “displacement” means.5) cultural transmissionwhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with theability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. what are the major functions of language? think of your own examples for illustration.答: three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.the descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. for example: “china is a large country with a long history.”the expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. for example: “i will never go window-shopping with her.”the social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . for example: “we are your firm supporters.”chapter 2 speech sounds1. what are the two major media of linguistic communication? of the two, which one is primary and why?答: speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. what is voicing and how is it caused?答: voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in english. it is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答: the transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. the latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together withthe diacritics is called narrow transcription. this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. with the help of the diacritics theycan faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.another example is the consonant [p]. we all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. in the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. in the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. this difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transc ribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. how are the english consonants classified?答: english consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. in terms of manner of articulation the english consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. in terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. what criteria are used to classify the english vowels?答: vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. tofurther distinguish members of each group, we need to applyanother criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. a third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. in english, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. it should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. a. give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopb. give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w]5) [?] 6) [?]答:a. (1) [?](2) [ f ](3) [d ](4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]b. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7. how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? why?答: (1) both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. but while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) a phonologist will be more interested in it. because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. what is a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?答: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it isrepresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. for example, the phoneme /l/ in english can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答: rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.there are many such sequential rules in english. for example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. that is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in english. they have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. when we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. this “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.we all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in english, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. but this does not mean that vowels in english are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. for example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. this is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].the assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. the rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. we know that in english the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. but the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. it is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. so we can see that while pronouncing the sound*n+, we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it. deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. we have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. but in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. the rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. what are suprasegmental features? how do the major suprasegmental features of english function in conveying meaning?答:the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. the location of stress in english distinguishes meaning. there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. for example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. tones are pitch variations which can【篇二:新编简明英语语言学试卷精粹(10套卷)】>i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decidewhich one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the1、as modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior,it is said to be ___.a、 prescriptiveb、 sociolinguisticc、 descriptived、 psycholinguistic2、of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.a、 mouthb、 lipsc、 tongued、 vocal cordsa、 bound morphemeb、 bound formc、 inflectional morphemed、 free morpheme4、a ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word thatintroduces the embedded clause.a、 coordinatorb、 particlec、 prepositiond、 subordinator主从连词5、can i borrow your bike? ___ you have a bike.a、 is synonymous withb、 is inconsistent withc、 entailsd、 presupposes6、the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.a、 semanticsb、 pragmaticsc、 sociolinguisticsd、 psycholinguistics7、grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization泛化.a、 elaborationb、 simplification精简c、 external borrowingd、 internal borrowing8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.a、 lingua franca通用语b、 creolec、 pidgind、 standard language标准语言9、psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ .a、 brocas area, wernickes area and the angular gyrus角回b、 brocas area, wernickes area and cerebral cortexc、 brocas area, wernickes area and neuronsd、 brocas area, wernickes area and exners area10、according to krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconcious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.a、 learningb、 competencec、 performanced、 acquisition第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not allowed to change the11、chomsky defines competence as the ideal users k of the rules of his language.12、the four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b .13、m is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.14、a s is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command.15、synonyms that are mutually substitutable under allcircumstances are called c synonyms.16、the illocutionary point of r is to commit the speaker tosomethings being the case, to the truth of what has been said.17、words are created outright to fit some purpose. such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c .18、wherever the standard language can use a contraction (he+is→hes), black english can d the form of be.19、the basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the c period for first language acquisition.20、as a type of linguistic system in 12 learning, i is a product of l2 training, mother tongue intereference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true orfalse. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of eachstatement. if you think a statement is false, you must explain why you()21、in modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.()22、voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in bothchinese and english.()23、the compound word bookstore is the place where books are sold. thisindicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaningsof its components.()24、syntactic categories refer to sentences (s) and clauses (c) only.()25、dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialectssuch as british english and american english but cannot be found withinthe variety itself, for example, within british english or americanenglish.()26、only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violatedand the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversationalimplicatures arise.()27、the territory in which the indo-european languages are mainly spokentoday also includes languages that are not indo-european.()28、in most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speechsituations known as domains.()29、according to the strong version of the sapir-whorf hypothesis,speakers perceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.()30、all normal children have equal ability to acquire their firstlanguage.iv. directions: explain the following terms, using one or two examples for31、duality32、diachronic linguistics33、broad transcription34、morphological rules35、phrase structure rule36、relational opposites37、componential analysis38、context39、euphemism40、brain lateralization41、explain how the inventory of sounds can change, giving some examples inenglish for illustration.42、briefly discuss the individual factors which affect the acquisition of a second language.英语语言学试题(2)一、单项选择题(在每小题的四个备选答案中,选出一个正确答案,并将正确答案的序号填在题干的括号内。
Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement ofelements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflection and distribution. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. Words of different categories take different inflection. Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)a category at any level can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?3 elements: head, specifier, complement.The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.Head: Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier: Specifer has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement: Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure: The first one is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.The second one is corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surfacestructure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.1) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Adv2) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det NAdv V P Det N3) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N4) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrase include a head, a complement , and in some case a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrases.a. rich in mineralsAPA PPP NPNRich in mineralsb. often read detective stories.VPQual V NPA NOften read detective storiesc. the argument against the proposals.NPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalsd. already above the windowPPQual P NPDet Nalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a. A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N None pst V NP PPA Det N P NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b. A huge moon hung in the black sky.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N V PPA P NPDet AP NAA huge moon hung in the black skyc. The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet N pst V NP Adv AdvDet NThe man examined his car carefully yesterday.d. A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N PP V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a. Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.Infl P(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb. Helen put on her clothes and went out.Infl P(=S)NP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc. Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Infl P(=S)NP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentence.a. You know that I hate war.SNP VPN V CPC SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warSb. Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.NP VPN VP NPV NP CPDet N C SNP VPN V NPDet A NGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c. Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPN V A CPC SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det Nhis father bought himd. The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPDet N VP CPV P C SNP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and surface structure for each of these sentences.a. The essay that he wrote was excellent.CPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S PNP NP Infl VPN N V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellent(surface structure)CPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essayhe wrote thatwas excellent. (deep structure)b. Herbert bought a house that she lovedCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP NP VPN N V NPNHerbert bought a loved e(surface structure)CPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved that. (deep structure)c. The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.CPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP NP VPN N V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics (surface structure)CPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP VPN V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguistics (deep structure)13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a. Would you come tomorrow?CPC SNP VPN Infl V AdvPAdv(surface structure) you Would come tomorrowCPC SInfl NP VPN Infl V AdvPAdv(deep structure) Would you e come tomorrowb. What did Helen bring to the party?CPC SNP VPN Infl V NP PPN P NPDet N (surface structure) Helen did bring what to the partyCPNP C SInfl NP VPN Infl V NP PPN P NPDet N (deep structure) what did e to thec. Who broke the window?(surface structure)CPC SNP NP Infl VPN Pst NPVe broke the window(deep structure)CPC SNP VPDet N Infl VThe window was broken。
《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答: Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答: The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答: The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答: In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答: Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答: First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答: The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答: Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答: Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答: Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答: The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答: English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答: Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答: A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答: (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答: a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答: (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答: (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答: (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答:( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答,则要加上:Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).(以下几题只作初步的的成分区分,未画树形图,仅供参照)7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.(斜体的为名词的修饰语,划底线的为动词的修饰语)extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.(划底线的为并列的范围)a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.(斜体的为深层构造,一般字体的为表层构造)a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答: (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。
简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案This manuscript was revised by the office on December 10, 2020.《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答: Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study 答: The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答: The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答: In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答: Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as thenatural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way inwhich every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is on ly the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, whichthey regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differat least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答: First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specifiedby C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答:The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答: Three main functions are often recognized of language: thedescriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答: Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing,for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答: Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答: The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pitis transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答: English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can beclassified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答: Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答:A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答: (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs thedistribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by acertain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the e ase of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as avelar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound althoughit is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme/g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentsare called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” betw een each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答:a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each. Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures,etc.” translator, “one who translates”答:(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmet ric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sexor sex organs”答:(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons andpower”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customsof an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is aninflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答:(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答:(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答:(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答,则要加上:Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, weare attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nounslike moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectiveslike frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word'scategory is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such asshould stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as verycool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the sametype with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that canappear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each elementplayA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles.Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head.Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information aboutentities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning ofthe head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).(以下几题只作初步的的成分划分,未画树形图, 仅供参考)7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and aspecifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement(against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (thewindow)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For eachsentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.(斜体的为名词的修饰语,划底线的为动词的修饰语)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw atree structure for each of the sentences.(划底线的为并列的范畴)a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of thesesentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversiontransformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. (斜体的为深层结构,普通字体的为表层结构)a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the partyHelen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the windowwho broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning答:(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English。