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TPO-28GroundwaterMost of the world’s potable water----freshwater suitable for drinking----is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.Aquifers, Porosity and PermeabilityGroundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorly sorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is ,the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks----the most common rock type near the surface----are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.The Water TableThe water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the wate r table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersect the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, weather to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.[Glossary]Sediment: materials (such as sand or small rocks) that are deposited by water, wind, or glacial ice.Topography: the shape of a surface such as Earth’s, including the rise and fall of such features as mountains and valleys.Paragraph 1: Most of the world’s potable water----freshwater suitable for drinking----is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.1.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention “the pressure of the overlying rock”?O To show how water can be forced deep under Earth’s surfaceO To show why groundwater is more plentiful than surface freshwaterO To correct a commonly made error about the location of groundwaterO To explain why most groundwater lies near Earth’s surface2.According to paragraph 1, groundwater differs from the water in rivers and lakes in terms of itsO portabilityO usefulnessO abundanceO costParagraph 2: Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from whichwater can is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through thefluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.e is closest in meaning toO usedO pouredO removedO kept outO consideredO calledO limited toO caused by5.According to paragraph 2, what does porosity determine?O The rate at which the aquifer’s water overcomes resistance to flowO The amount of water that the aquifer can holdO The likelihood that fractures and joints will occur in the aquiferO The depth underground at which the aquifer lies6.According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity?O The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability.O Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have high porosity but low permeability.O If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity.O Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa.Paragraph 3: Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorlysorted or the more a sediment is ,the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks----the most common rock type near the surface----are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.O hardO compressedO heavyO deeply buried8.According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer?O When it has many connected fracturesO When it lies next to metamorphic rockO When it lies relatively near the surfaceO When it is crystallineParagraph 4: The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is theleaving behind a of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.O streamO barrierO amountO layer10.Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the roots of plants?O They prevent water from reaching the vadose zone.O They mark the boundary between the vadose zone and the water tableO They do not typically get their water from the water table.O They help keep the water table from dropping farther.Paragraph 5: Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls withGroundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.O Groundwater only flows out of the ground if the water table intersects the land surface.O If the land surface and the water table intersect, groundwater can flow underground.O Groundwater may be drained if springs occur where the water table intersects the land surface.O Where the water table meets the land surface, groundwater flows out through surface springs.12.Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the level of the waterO It may rise or fall from year to year, depending on annual rainfall.O It does not vary in arid regions.O It rarely intersects the land surface of most regions.O It is unrelated to the rate at which groundwater flows.Paragraph 4: The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. ■Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. ■The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. ■Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. ■Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.This is a consequence of the slow rate of movement of the groundwater, which often prevents the water table from attaining a flat (horizontal) level.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Most of the world’s potable water is stored as groundwater in the pores and fractur es of underground rock, much of it at depths of less than 1,000 meters.●●●Answer ChoicesO Sedimentary rock may make poor aquifers because of tightly compacted sediment, which reduces porosity and permeability.O Porosity is a measure of the empty space within rock while permeability measures the degree to which water can flow freely through rock.O In arid regions, the water tables remain at a constant level far below the surface, preventing stream-beds from filling up even during wet years.O Groundwater reservoirs are characterized by the porosity and permeability of the rock in which theylie, and these factors vary according to the type of rock.O The vadose zone is typically dry because water does not stay in it, but instead percolates down to aquifers below or drains out through springs and streams.O Although the water table usually follows the contours of the land surface, its level may vary from year to year and may intersect to the surface in places.参考答案1.○42.○33.○34.○25.○26.○27.○18.○29.○410.○311.○412.○113.○314. Porosity is a measure of the…In arid regions, the water …Although the water table usually …。
污染环境中萘的修复技术研究进展钱翌;谢晓梅【摘要】综述了污染环境中萘的物理修复、化学修复、植物修复和微生物修复技术，并阐述了各修复技术的原理、效能、影响因素及优缺点，重点论述了微生物修复技术的降解机理和影响因素，并展望了萘修复技术的发展方向。
%The remediation technologies of naphthalene in contaminated environment have been comprehen-sively summarized,including physical remediation,chemical remediation,phytoremediation,and microbial reme-diation.In allusion to various technologies,the principle,efficacy,effect factors,merits and demerits are intro-duced,especially the degradation mechanism and effect factors of microbial remediation technologies.An outlook on developing trend of naphthalene remediation technologies is also proposed.【期刊名称】《化学与生物工程》【年(卷),期】2015(000)002【总页数】7页(P1-7)【关键词】萘;污染环境;物理修复;化学修复;植物修复;微生物修复【作者】钱翌;谢晓梅【作者单位】青岛科技大学环境与安全工程学院，山东青岛 266042;青岛科技大学环境与安全工程学院，山东青岛 266042【正文语种】中文【中图分类】X131.3萘［1］是简单多环芳烃的代表物，具有“三致”效应，广泛存在于环境中，主要分布在大气、土壤、水体和动植物中。
2014年3月地 球 学 报 Mar. 2014第35卷 第2期: 156-162Acta Geoscientica SinicaVol.35No.2: 156-162 www.地球学报.com本文由中国地质调查局地质调查项目(编号: 1212011220979)资助。
收稿日期: 2013-10-14; 改回日期: 2014-02-17。
责任编辑: 张改侠。
第一作者简介: 李立军, 男, 1982年生。
工程师。
主要从事水文地质环境地质工作。
通讯地址: 130021, 吉林省长春市建设街2838号。
E-mail:*****************。
吉林省松原市地下水污染评价及污染因素分析李立军, 马 力, 张 晶, 赵彦宁, 陈初雨, 王怀远, 宇庆华, 孙 春吉林省地质环境监测总站, 吉林长春 130021摘 要: 松原市是我国北方以石油化工为主的新兴工业城市, 石化产业的发展对区内地下水造成了一定程度的污染。
本文在区域水文地质调查的基础上, 采用单因子评价和叠加指数法对该区的地下水污染现状进行评价, 并对地下水污染影响加以分析。
评价区地下水中Fe 、Mn 和NH 4+超标严重, 主要与原生环境背景含量高有关, 全区的大部分地区为轻微污染, 严重和较重污染的局部区域多以点状或带状分布。
地下水中总硬度和矿化度超标也较严重, 在局部污染严重地区, 水中Cl 、SO 42–、NO 3–、COD(高锰酸盐指数)、挥发酚等均有超标现象。
导致地下水污染的原因除生活污染外, 与石油开采、炼制、加工和运输关系密切。
关键词: 地下水污染; 污染现状评价; 叠加指数法中图分类号: X523; P641.8 文献标志码: A doi: 10.3975/cagsb.2014.02.05Groundwater Contamination Assessment and Analysis ofContamination Factors of Songyuan City in Jilin ProvinceLI Li-jun, MA Li, ZHANG Jing, ZHAO Yan-ning, CHEN Chu-yu,WANG Huai-yuan, YU Qing-hua, SUN ChunJilin Institute of Geological Environment Monitoring , Changchun , Jilin 130021Abstract: Songyuan is a new city of petrochemical industry base in northern China. The development of petrochemical industry has caused a certain degree of contamination of groundwater in the area. On the basis of regional hydrogeological investigation, the authors assessed present situation of groundwater contamination by using single factor evaluation and superposition index method and analyzed the influence of contamination on the groundwater. The concentrations of Fe, Mn and NH 4+ in the groundwater are much higher than their standards, mainly associated with high background values of the original environment. Most areas of the city have been slightly polluted, and local seriously and relatively heavily polluted districts assume point or zonal distribution. The total hardness and mineralization degree of groundwater also seriously exceed the standard values. In local heavily polluted places, the concentrations of Cl, SO 42–, NO 3–, COD and volatile phenol in the water also exceed the standard values. The groundwater pollution is closely related to the oil extraction, refining, processing and transportation in addition to human life pollution.Key words: groundwater contamination; contamination status assessment; superposition index method地下水是松原市工农业生产和居民生活用水的主要水源。
Unit 4 Physical and Chemical Properties of MaterialsPhysical properties are those that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. The general properties of matter such as color, density, hardness, are examples of physical properties.Properties that describe how a substance changes into a completely different substance are called chemical properties. Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance are examples of chemical properties.The difference between a physical and chemical property is straightforward until the phase of the material is considered. When a material changes from a solid to a liquid to a vapor it seems like them become a difference substance. However, when a material melts, solidifies, vaporizes, condenses or sublimes, only the state of the substance changes. Consider ice, liquid water, and water vapor, they are all simply H2O. Phase is a physical property of matter and matter can exist in four phases: solid, liquid, gas and plasma.In general, some of the more important physical and chemical properties from an engineering material standpoint include phase transformation temperatures, density, specific gravity, thermal conductivity, linear coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical conductivity and resistivity, magnetic permeability, and corrosion resistance, and so on.Phase Transformation TemperaturesWhen temperature rises and pressure is held constant, a typical substance changes from solid to liquid and then to vapor. Transitions from solid to liquid, from liquid to vapor, from vapor to solid and visa versa are called phase transformations or transitions. Since some substances have several crystal forms, technically there can be solid to another solid from phase transformation.Phase transitions from solid to liquid, and from liquid to vapor absorb heat. The phase transition temperature where a solid changes to a liquid is called the melting point. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals 1 atm (101.3 kPa) is called the boiling point. Some materials, suchas many polymers, do not go simply from a solid to a liquid with increasing temperature. Instead, at some temperature below the melting point, they start to lose their crystalline structure but the molecules remain linked in chains, which results in a soft and pliable material. The temperature at which a solid, glassy material begins to soften and flow is called the glass transition temperature.DensityMass can be thinly distributed as in a pillow, or tightly packed as in a block of lead.The space the mass occupies is its volume, and the mass per unit of volume is its densityMass (m) is a fundamental measure of the amount of matter. Weight (w) is a measure of the force exerted by a mass and this force is produced by the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, on the surface of the earth, the mass of an object is determined by dividing the weight of an object by 9.8 m/s2 (the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth). Since we are typically comparing things on the surface of the earth, the weight of an object is commonly used rather than calculating its mass.The density (r) of a material depends on the phase it is in and the temperature (the density of liquids and gases is very temperature dependent). Water in the liquid state has a density of 1g/cm3 =1000g/m3 at 4 °C. Ice has a density of 0.917 g/cm3 at 0 °C, and it should be noted that this decrease in density for the solid phase is unusual. For almost all other substances, the density of the solid phase is greater than that of the liquid phase. Water vapor has a density of 0.051 g/cm3.Some common units used for expressing density are grams/ cubic centimeter, kilograms/cubic meter, grams/milliliter, grams/liter, pounds for cubic inch and pounds for cubie inch and pounds per cubic foot; but it should be obvious that any unit of mass per any unit of volume can be used.Specific GravitySpecific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance compared to the density of fresh water at 4 °C. At this temperature the density of water is atits greatest value and equal to 1 g/mL. Since specific gravity is a ratio, so it has no units. An object will float in water if its density is less than the density of water and sink if its density is greater than that of water. Similarly, an object with specific gravity less than 1 will float and those with a specific gravity greater than one will sink. Specific gravity values for a few common substances are: Au, 19.3; mercury, 13.6; alcohol, 0.7893; benzene, 0.8786. Note that since water has density of 1 g/cm3, the specific gravity is the same as the density of the material measured in g/cm3.Magnetic PermeabilityMagnetic permeability or simply permeability is the ease with which a material can be magnetized. It is a constant of proportionality that exists between magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity. This constant is equal to approximately 1.257 x10-6 Henry per meter (H/m) in free space (a vacuum). In other materials it can be much different, often substantially greater than the free-space value, which is symbolized μ0.Materials that cause the lines of flux to move farther apart, resulting in a decrease in magnetic flux density compared with a vacuum, are called diamagnetic. Materials that concentrate magnet flux by a factor of more than one but less than or equal to ten are called paramagnetic; materials that concentrate the flux by a factor of more than ten are called ferromagnetic. The permeability factors of some substances change with rising or falling temperature, or with the intensity of the applied magnetic field.In engineering applications, permeability is often expressed in relative ,rather than in absolute, terms. If μ0 represents the permeability of free space and μrepresents the permeability of the substance in question (also specified in henrys per meter), then the relative permeability.For non-ferrous metals such as copper, brass, aluminum etc., the permeability is the same as that of "free space”, i. e. the relative permeability is one. For ferrous metals however the value of μr may beseveral hundred. Certain ferromagnetic materials, especially powdered or laminated iron, steel, or nickel alloys, have μr that can range up to about 1,000,000. Diamagnetic materials have μr less than one. In addition, permeability can vary greatly within a metal part due to localized stresses, heating effects, etc.When a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic core is inserted into a coil, the inductance is multiplied by μr compared with the inductance of the same coil with an air core. This effect is useful in the design of transformers and eddy current probes.。
序号全称简称中文刊名语种1Annual review of earth and ANNU REV EART地球与行星科学年评英语2Reviews of geophysics REV GEOPHYS地球物理学评论3Global Ecology and Biogeogr GLOBAL ECOL B全球生态学与生物地理学英语4Global biogeochemical cycle GLOBAL BIOGEO全球生物地球化学循环英语5Earth-science reviews EARTH-SCI REV地学评论英语6Quaternary science reviews QUATERNARY SC第四纪科学评论英语7Earth and Planetary Science Letters地球与行星科学通讯德语，法语，8Journal of petrology J PETROL岩石英语9Geology地质学英语10Geochimica et cosmochimica GEOCHIM COSMO地球化学与宇宙化学学报英语11Journal of Biogeography J BIOGEOGR生物地理学杂志12Paleoceanography古海洋学美国地质学会通报英语13The Geological Society of America bulle14Precambrian research前寒武纪研究15Chemical geology CHEM GEOL化学地质学英语16Contributions to mineralogy CONTRIB MINER矿物学与岩石学论文集英语17Geobiology地球生物学英语18Geotextiles and Geomembrane GEOTEXT GEOME土工用纺织物与土工用膜19Astrobiology天体生物学英语地质标准与地质分析研究德语，法语，20Geostandards and geoanalytical research英语21Journal of geophysical research:space p地球物理学研究杂志-空间物理地球物理学研究杂志-大地英语21Journal of geophysical research:solid e地球物理学研究杂志-行星21Journal of geophysical research:planets21Journal of geophysical research:oceans地球物理学研究杂志-海洋英语21Journal of geophysical research:atmosph地球物理学研究杂志-大气英语地球物理学研究杂志-地表英语21Journal of geophysical research:earth s22Lithos国际矿物学、岩石学与地球化英语23Biogeosciences生物地球科学英语24Journal of metamorphic geology变质地质学杂志英语25Geophysical research letters地球物理学研究快报英语26The journal of geology地质学杂志英语27Biogeochemistry生物地球化学英语28Journal of quaternary scien J QUA TERNARY第四纪科学杂志英语29Turkish Journal of Earth Sc TURKJ EATTH S土耳其地球学杂志英语30Tectonics 构造地质学英语31Progress in Physical Geogra PROG PHYS GEO物理地理学进展英语32American journal of science AM J SCI美国科学杂志33Meteoritics&Planetary Scien METEORIT PLAN陨星学与行星科学34Geochemistry,geophysics,geosystems地球化学，地球物理学，地球英语35Marine and petroleum geology海洋与石油地质学英语36IEEE transactions on geoscience and remIEEE地学与遥感汇刊英语37The Holocene全新世英语38Global and planetary change地球和行星的变化英语39Basin research盆地研究英语40Journal of the Geological society地质学会志英语41Journal of the paleolimnology古湖沼学杂志英语42Hydrology and earth system sciences水文学与地球系统科学英语43Elements元素英语44Quaternary research第四纪研究英语45American mineralogist美国矿物学家46Reviews in mineralogy and geochemistry矿物学和地球化学评论英语古地理学、古气候学、古生态学47Palaeogeography,palaeoclimatology,palae48Journal of hydrology水文学杂志英语49Organic geochemistry有机地球化学50Geophysical journal international国际地球物理学杂志英语51Bulletin of volcanology火山学通报英语52Terra nova地球新星英语53Boreas国际第四纪研究杂志德语，法语，54Landscape Ecology景观生态学德语，法语，地球与行星内部物理学英语55Physics of the earth and planetary inte56Marine geology海洋地质学英语57Palaios古代58Earth surface processes and landforms地球表面变化过程与地形英语59Seismological Research Letters 地震学研究快报英语60Journal of sedimentary research沉积研究杂志英语62Applied clay science应用粘土科学63Geomorphology地貌学英语64Journal of contaminant Hydr J CONTAM HYDR污染物水文学杂志英语65Geochemical transactions地球化学汇刊英语国际地理信息科学杂志英语66International journal of geographical i67Earth Interactions EARTH IN TERA地球相互作用英语68Acta geologica Sinica中国地质学报69Economic geology and the bulletin of th经济地质学与经济地质学家学英语70Journal of marine systems海洋系统杂志英语71Sedimentary geology沉积地质学英语72Applied geochemistry应用地球化学英语美国地震学会通报英语73Bulletin of the seismological society o火山学与地热研究杂志德语，法语，74Journal of volcanology and geothermal r75Tectonophysics地壳构造物理学德语，法语，国际地球科学杂志德语，法语，76International journal of earth sciences77Journal of Asian earth sciences亚洲地学杂志英语78Sedimentology沉积学英语79Journal of structural geology结构地质学杂志英语80Geomicrobiology journal地质微生物学杂志英语81Journal of Nuclear Material J NUCL MATER核材料杂志英语82Journal of Geodesy J GEODESY大地测量学杂志英语83Landscape and Urban Plannin LANDSCAPE URB园林与城市规划英语84Permafrost and periglacial processes永久冻土与冰缘过程85International journal of coal geology国际煤炭地质学杂志英语86Geological magazine地质学杂志英语87Journal of Atmosphere and S J ATMOS SOL-T大气与日地物理学杂志英语88International geology review国际地质学评论英语89Geodinamica acta地球动力学报法语90Geografiska Annaler: Series GEOGR ANNA法语91Quaternary International国际第四纪研究法语92Ground water地下水英语93Journal of Archaeological S J ARCHAEOL SC考古科学杂志英语美国水资源协会志英语94 Journal of the American Water Resource95Annales Geophysicae ANN GEOPHYS-G地球物理层编年史英语96Aquatic geochemistry水地球化学英语97GeoArabia中东石油地球科学杂志英语98Clays and clay minerals粘土与粘土矿物英语99Gondwana research冈瓦纳研究英语100CATENA专业丛书英语101Geofluids地热流体英语103Nonlinear Processes in Geop NONL IN EAR P地球物理学的非线性进程英语104Dynamics of Atmospheres and DYNAM ATMOS O大气与海洋动力学英语105AAPG bulletin美国石油地质学家学会通报英语106Mineralogical magazine矿物学杂志英语107Antarctic science南极科学英语108Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie地球形态学杂志英语109Mineralium deposita矿床英语110Physics and chemistry of minerals矿物物理学与矿物化学111Gems & gemology宝石与宝石学英语112Australian journal of earth sciences澳大利亚地球科学杂志英语113European journal of mineralogy欧洲矿物学杂志德语，法语114Geologica Acta地质学报德语，法语115Earth, planets and space地球、行星与太空英语116Chemie der Erde地球化学德语，英语117Quaternary geochronology第四纪地质年代118Surveys in geophysics地球物理学综论英语119Geophysics地球物理英语120Radiocarbon放射性碳英语121Geosynthetics International国际土工合成材料学英语122IEEE Xplore: Geoscience and IEEE GEOSCI R IEEE地学与遥感汇刊英语123Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering地震工程通报英语124Hydrogeology journal水文地质学杂志法语，英语国际摄影测量和遥感学会志英语125ISPRS journal of photogrammetry and rem摄影测量工程与遥感126Photogrammetric engineering and remote127Journal of petroleum geology石油地质学杂志128Journal of African Earth Sc J AFR EARTH S非洲地学杂志英语128Journal of African earth sciences非洲地学杂志法语，英语矿物,金属材料科学学会杂志法语，英语129Journal of the Minerals Metals & Materi131Petrology+岩石学法语，英语132SpaceWeather空间气象法语，英语133The Canadian mineralogist加拉大矿物学者法语，英语134 The Canadian mineralogist加拉大矿物学者法语，英语自然灾害与地球系统科学英语135Natural hazards and earth system scienc136Geophysical and Astrophysic GEOPHYS ASTRO地球物理与天体物理流体动力英语137Geological journal地质学杂志英语138Natural Hazards NAT HAZARDS自然风险139Journal of caves and karst studies洞穴与岩溶研究杂志英语140Mineral Processing and Extr MINER PROCESS矿物处理和提取冶金英语141Facies相英语142Ore geology reviews矿物地质学评论143Landslides滑坡144Near Surface Geophysics近地表地球物理145Radio science无线电科学国际矿物处理杂志英语146International journal of mineral proces147Arctic, antarctic, and alpine research北极、南极与高山研究148Canadian journal of earth sciences加拿大地球科学杂志法语，英语149Engineering geology工程地质学德语，法语，150Norwegian Journal of Geology挪威地质学杂志151Geomagnetism and Aeronomy国际地磁学与高空科学协会152Minerals Engineering矿物工程154Geothermics地热155Mineralogy and petrology矿物学和岩石学156Computers & geosciences计算机与地学英语157The photogrammetric record摄影测绘记录英语158Archaeometry考古定年学英语159Cold Regions Science and Technology寒冷地区科学160Comptes Rendus Geosciences C R GEOSCI161Arctic北极南美地学杂志英语162Journal of South American earth science矿物与岩石学杂志英语163Journal of mineralogical and petrologic164Episodes幕英语165Geoinformatica地学信息英语166Pure and applied geophysics理论与应用地球物理学英语167Proceedings of the geologists associati地质学家协会会报 英语168Petroleum geoscience石油地质科学169The island arc岛弧170Netherlands Journal of Geosciences荷兰地学杂志171Russian Geology and Geophysics俄罗斯地质学与地球物理学172Geo-marine letters地质海洋快报英语173Resource geology地质资源174New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geop新西兰地质学与地球物理学杂志爱丁堡地学皇家学会事物175Transactions of the Royal Society of Ed176Acta geologica Polonica波兰地质学报177Polar research极地研究178Advances in Space Research空间研究进展179Journal of seismology地震学杂志英语180Mathematical Geology数学地质英语181Journal of Geophysics and Engineering地球物理学与工程学英语法国地质学会通报法语，英语182Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de Fr183Journal of Environmental Engineering Ge环境与工程地球物理学杂志土工技术与地质环境工程杂志英语184Journal of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmen185Computational geosciences计算地球科学英语国际岩石力学与采矿科学杂志英语186International journal of rock mechanics187Studia geophysica et geodaetica地球物理学与大地测量学研究德语，法语，188Geophysical prospecting地球物理勘探德语，法语，189Environmental geology环境地质学英语190Scottish journal of geology苏格兰地质学杂志 英语191Geoarchaeology地质考古学英语英语中国科学D辑：地球科学（英文191Science in China. series D earth scienc192Geological quarterly地质学季刊英语193Ofioliti蛇绿岩195Clay minerals粘土矿物英语石油科学和石油工程杂志英语196Journal of petroleum science & engineer197Marine geophysical researches海洋地球物理研究英语工程地质学季刊 英语198Quarterly journal of engineering geolog地层学及地质学的相互关系199Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation200Geochemical journal地球化学杂志英语201Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae英语202Geochronometria英语203Chinese Journal of Geophysi CHINESE J GEO地球物理学报204Archaeological Prospection考古学展望205Physics and chemistry of the earth地球物理学与地球化学土壤动力学与地震工程206Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineerin207Journal of Cultural Heritage文化遗产杂志208South African journal of geology南非地质学杂志英语209Journal of geochemical exploration地球化学勘探杂志英语210Revista mexicana de ciencias geologicas211Geotechnique土工英语矿物学新年鉴. 论文辑德语，法语，212Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Abhandl213Computers and geotechnics计算机与土工学214Revista geologica de Chile智利地质杂志西班牙语，英215Geosciences journal地球科学杂志英语丹麦地质学会通报德语，法语216Bulletin of the geological society of D217Journal of Earthquake Engineering地震工程杂志218Soils and Foundations地基及基础219Earth, Moon, and Planets地球，月球及行星220Geotectonics大地构造地质学221Bollettino della Societa Geologica Ital意大利地质学通报英语222Canadian geotechnical journal加拿大土工杂志英语223Astronomy and Geophysics天文学与地球物理学英语224Journal of Cold Regions Engineering寒冷地区工程杂志英语225Geologica Carpathica喀尔巴阡山地质学英语226Geologiska Foreningens i St GFF瑞典地质学会汇刊德语，法语，227Geochemistry International国际地球化学德语，法语，228Rock mechanics and rock engineering岩石力学与岩石工程英语229Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia英语英语230Journal of earth system science印度科学院会刊 ：地球与行星231Geotechnical Testing Journal土工试验杂志英语工程地质学与环境通报法语，英语232Bulletin of engineering geology and the233Izvestiya Physics of the Solid Earth法语，英语234Doklady Earth Sciences法语，英语235Physical Geography自然地理法语，英语陆地，大气，海洋科学法语，英语236Terrestrial, atmospheric and oceanic sc237Geology of Ore Deposits矿床地质学法语，英语238Geologica Belgica比利时地质239Journal of coastal research海岸研究杂志英语240Lithology and mineral resources岩相学与矿物资源英语印度地质学会志英语241Journal of the geological society of In242SPE reservoir evaluation & engineering石油工程师协会油藏评估与工英语243Mountain Research and Development山区研究与开发英语244Nuovo Cimento Societa Intaliana di Fisi诺沃西门托会刊意大利迪记事英语北京科技大学学报：矿物冶金英语245Journal of University of Science and Te246Annals of geophysics地球物理学纪事英语247Minerals & Metallurgical Processing矿产及冶金加工英语248Coal Preparation备煤英语249Journal of Mining Science采矿科学杂志英语250Environmental & engineering geoscience环境与工程地质科学英语251Newsletters on stratigraphy地层学通讯地球化学：探索，环境，分析252Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment,253Journal of seismic exploration地震探测杂志英语254Petrophysics岩石物理学英语约克郡地质学会会报英语255Proceedings of the Yorkshire geological256Carbonates and evaporites碳酸盐与蒸发岩英语英国太阳系内杂志英语257Journal of the British Interplanetary S258Marine georesources and geotechnology海洋地资源与土工学英语259Proceedings of the Institution of Civil知名土木工程师议程：地球应用技术工程260Geotimes地质时代英语261Survey review测量评论英语丹麦和格陵兰岛地质勘测期刊英语262Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenl南非采矿与冶金学会志英语263Journal of the South African Institute264Canadian mining journal加拿大采矿杂志英语265Engineering and mining journal工程与采矿杂志英语266Advances in Geophysics地球物理学发展英语267Swiss Journal of Geoscience瑞士地学杂志类别ISSN影响因子年发文数自然科学0084-65977.73224自然科学8755-1209 6.925自然科学1466-822X 4.43577自然科学0886-6236 4.33596地质学0012-8252 4.3141地质学0277-3791 4.11205自然科学0012-821X 3.873503自然科学0022-3530 3.80686地质学0091-7613 3.754285地质学0016-7037 3.665395自然科学0305-0270 3.5391590883-8305 3.391760016-7606 3.35495地质学0301-9268 3.24796地质学0009-2541 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257 Chapter 12Physical and Chemical GroundwaterRemediation TechnologiesKrishna R. Reddy ∗Abstract Groundwater is the main source of drinking water as well as agricultural and industrial usage. Unfortunately, groundwater quality has been degraded due to improper waste disposal practices and accidental spillage of hazardous chemicals. Therefore, it is critical that the groundwater contamination be prevented and the contaminated groundwater at numerous sites worldwide be remediated in order to protect public health and the environment. This chapter provides an overview of relevant regulations, general remedial approach, and most commonly used physical and chemical groundwater remediation technologies. The remediation technologies include pump-and-treat, in-situ air sparging, in-situ flushing, and permeable reactive barriers. The process description, applicability, limitations and a case study for each of these technologies are also presented.Keywords Groundwater, contamination, remediation, pump-and-treat, air sparging, flushing, permeable reactive barriers12.1 IntroductionAbout 40% of the drinking water comes from groundwater, about 97% of the rural population drinks groundwater, and about 30–40% of the water used for agriculture comes from groundwater (Sharma and Reddy, 2004). Therefore, groundwater is a valuable resource and it must be protected from any pollution. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) estimated that there are thousands of sites that have been contaminated in the United States and over 217,000 these sites require urgent remedial action. These sites include:________________Krishna R. ReddyDepartment of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago,∗ To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: kreddy@842 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607, U.S.A.© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008C.J.G. Darnault (ed.), Overexploitation and Contamination of SharedGroundwater Resources.K.R. Reddy 258•National Priorities List (Superfund) sites;•Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Corrective Action sites; •Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) sites;•Department of Energy (DOE) sites;•Department of Defense (DOD) sites;•Various Civilian Federal Agencies sites;•State and private parties (including brownfields) sites.Contamination of groundwater has been a major concern at these sites. The contaminants encountered at these sites include organic compounds, heavy metals, and radionuclides. DOE sites contain mixed wastes, including radioactive wastes, while DOD sites contain explosives and unexploded ordnance.The cost to cleanup these sites is estimated to exceed US $270 billion. This chapter provides an overview of regulatory framework, general remedial approach, and different common physical and chemical remediation technologies for cleanup of polluted groundwater.12.2 Relevant RegulationsThe assessment and remediation of previously contaminated sites and the proper management of newly created hazardous wastes have been regulated through the passage of major environmental laws and regulations (Sharma and Reddy, 2004). In 1980, the United States Congress established the Superfund program, also known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liabilities Act (CERCLA), to provide the financial assistance needed for the remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites that pose serious risk to the health and safety of the public as well as the welfare of the environment. The Superfund program is administered by the USEPA in cooperation with regional governmental agencies. In order to determine which sites are eligible to receive federal aid under the Superfund program, a ranking system has been established to allow for a quanti-tative rating of sites across the United States. Sites that score high enough on the USEPA’s hazard ranking system are placed on the National Priorities List (NPL). The National Priorities List is a published list of hazardous sites that require exten-sive and long-term remediation, and that are deemed eligible to receive funding from the Superfund program. Superfund sites must comply with the stringent remediation codes, liability standards, and documentation required by the Superfund program. According to this program, purchasers of contaminated sites may be held responsible for damage caused by previous owners even if these sites were contaminated by legal activities at the time of occurrence. Additionally, Superfund regulations require that a contaminated site be remediated to very low contaminant levels such that risk to public health is minimized. Such an approach is often inflexible and does not take into account the intended use of the rehabilitated site.12 Groundwater Remediation 259In 1980, the United States Congress also promulgated the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to control newly created hazardous waste from the “cradle-to-grave”. These regulations provide criteria for defining hazardous waste, generator responsibilities, transporter’s requirements, manifest systems, and treat-ment, storage and disposal facility (TSDF) requirements. The regulations also address problems that could result from underground tanks storing petroleum and other hazardous substances.Many state governments are also assisting in cleanup of contaminated sites. Nearly half of the states in the United States offer some type of voluntary remedi-ation program. The purpose of such programs is to encourage remediation of sites with possible contamination while preventing any increased liability for partici-pating parties. When a remediation project is completed, many states will issue a statement releasing the participants from state liability for any contamination that may exist at the site. Often state agencies will offer assistance to project participants if they are subject to federal liability.12.3 General Remedial ApproachA systematic approach for the assessment and remediation of contaminated sites is necessary in order to facilitate the remediation process and avoid undue delays. The most important aspects of the approach include site characterization, risk assessment, and selection of an effective remedial action (Sharma and Reddy, 2004). Innovative integration of various tasks can often lead to a faster, cost-effective remedial program.12.3.1Site CharacterizationSite characterization is often the first step in a contaminated site remediation strategy. It consists of the collection and assessment of data representing conta-minant type and distribution at a site under investigation. The results of a site characterization form the basis for decisions concerning the requirements of remedial action. Additionally, the results serve as a guide for design, implementation, and monitoring of the remedial system. Each site is unique; therefore, site chara-cterization must be tailored to meet site-specific requirements. An inadequate site characterization may lead to the collection of unnecessary or misleading data, technical misjudgment affecting the cost and duration of possible remedial action, or extensive contamination problems resulting from inadequate or inappropriate remedial action. Site characterization is often an expensive and lengthy process; therefore, it is advantageous to follow an effective characterization strategy to optimize efficiency and cost.K.R. Reddy 260An effective site characterization includes the collection of data pertaining to site geology, including site stratigraphy and important geologic formations; site hydrogeology, including major water-bearing formations and their hydraulic properties; and site contamination, including type, concentration, and distribution. Additionally, surface conditions both at and around the site must be taken into consideration. Because little information regarding a particular site is often known at the beginning of an investigation, it is often advantageous to follow a phased approach for the site characterization. A phased approach may also minimize financial impact by improving the planning of the investigation and ensuring the collection of relevant data. Phase I consists of the definition of investigation purpose and the performance of a preliminary site assessment. A preliminary assessment provides the geographical location, background information, regional hydrogeologic information, and potential sources of contamination pertaining to the site. The preliminary site assessment consists of two tasks, a literature review and a site visit.Based on the results of the Phase I activities, the purpose and scope of the Phase II exploratory site investigation need to be developed. If contamination was detected at the site during the course of the preliminary investigation, the exploratory site investigation must be used to confirm such findings as well as obtain further data necessary for the design of a detailed site investigation program. A detailed work plan should be prepared for the site investigations describing the scope of related field and laboratory testing. The work plan should provide details about sampling and testing procedures, sampling locations and frequency, a quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) plan, a health and safety (S&H) plan, a work schedule, and a cost assessment. Phase III includes a detailed site investigation in order to define the site geology and hydrogeology as well as the contamination profile. The data obtained from the detailed investigation must be adequate to properly assess the risk posed at the site as well as to allow for effective designs of possible remedial systems. As with the exploratory investi-gations, a detailed work plan including field and laboratory testing programs as well as QA/QC and S&H plans should be outlined. Depending on the size, accessi-bility, and proposed future purpose of the site, this investigation may last anywhere from a few weeks to a few years. Because of the time and the effort required, this phase of the investigation is very costly. If data collected after the first three phases is determined to be inadequate, Phase IV should be developed and imple-mented to gain additional information. Additional phases of site characterization must be performed until all pertinent data has been collected.Depending on the logistics of the project, site characterization may require regulatory compliance and/or approval at different stages of the investigation. Thus, it is important to review the applicable regulations during the preliminary site assessment (Phase I). Meetings with regulatory officials may also be beneficial to insure that investigation procedures and results conform to regulatory standards. This proactive approach may prevent delays in obtaining the required regulatory permits and/or approvals. Innovative site characterization techniques are increasingly12 Groundwater Remediation 261 being used to collect relevant data in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Recent advances in cone penetrometer and sensor technology have enabled contaminated sites to be rapidly characterized using vehicle-mounted direct push probes. Probes are available for directly measuring contaminant concentrations in-situ, in addition to measuring standard stratigraphic data, to provide flexible, real-time analysis. The probes can also be reconfigured to expedite the collection of soil, groundwater, and soil gas samples for subsequent laboratory analysis. Noninvasive, geophysical techniques such as ground-penetrating radar, cross-well radar, electrical resistance tomography, vertical induction profiling, and high-resolution seismic reflection, produce computer-generated images of subsurface geological conditions and are qualitative at best. Other approaches such as chemical tracers are used to identify and quantify contaminated zones, based on their affinity for a particular contaminant and the measured change in tracer concentration between wells employing a combination of conservative and partitioning tracers.12.3.2Risk AssessmentOnce site contamination has been confirmed through the course of a thorough site characterization, a risk assessment is performed. A risk assessment is a systematic evaluation used to determine the potential risk posed by the detected contamination to human health and the environment under present and possible future conditions. If the risk assessment reveals that an unacceptable risk exists due to the conta-mination, a remedial strategy is developed to assess the problem. If corrective action is deemed necessary, the risk assessment will assist in the development of remedial strategies and goals necessary to reduce the potential risks posed at the site.The USEPA and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) have developed comprehensive risk assessment procedures. The USEPA procedure was originally developed by the United States Academy of Sciences in 1983. It was adopted with modifications by the USEPA for use in Superfund feasibility studies and RCRA corrective measure studies (USEPA, 1989). This procedure provides a general, comprehensive approach for performing risk assessments at contaminated sites. It consists of four steps:1.Hazard identification.2.Exposure assessment.3.Toxicity assessment.4.Risk characterization.The ASTM Standard E 1739-95, known as the Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action (RBCA), is a tiered assessment originally developed to help assess sites that contained leaking underground storage tanks containing petroleum (ASTM, 2002).K.R. Reddy 262Although the Standard is geared toward such sites, many regulatory agencies use a slightly modified version for non-UST sites. This approach integrates risk and exposure assessment practices with site assessment activities and remedial measure selection. The RBCA process allows corrective action activities to be tailored for site-specific conditions and risks and assures that the chosen course of action will protect both human health and the environment.12.3.3Remedial ActionWhen the results of a risk assessment reveal that a site does not pose risks to human health or the environment, no remedial action is required. In some cases, however, monitoring of a site may be required to validate the results of the risk assessment. Corrective action is required when risks posed by the site are deemed unacceptable. When action is required, remedial strategy must be developed to insure that the intended remedial method complies with all technological, economic, and regulatory considerations. The costs and benefits of various remedial alternatives are often weighed by comparing the flexibility, compatibility, speed, and cost of each method. A remedial method must be flexible in its application to ensure that it is adaptable to site-specific soil and groundwater characteristics. The selected method must be able to address site contamination while offering compatibility with the geology and hydrogeology of the site.Generally, remediation methods are divided into two categories: in-situ remedi-ation methods and ex-situ remediation methods. In-situ methods treat contaminated groundwater in-place, eliminating the need to extract groundwater. In-situ methods are advantageous because they often provide economic treatment, little site disruption, and increased safety due to lessened risk of accidental contamination exposure to both on-site workers and the general public within the vicinity of the remedial project. Successful implementation of in-situ methods, however, requires a thorough understanding of subsurface conditions. Ex-situ methods are used to treat extracted groundwater. Surface treatment may be performed either on-site or off-site, depen-ding on site-specific conditions. Ex-situ treatment methods are attractive because consideration does not need to be given to subsurface conditions. Ex-situ treatment also offers easier control and monitoring during remedial activity implementation.12.4 Remedial TechnologiesIf groundwater contamination is confirmed and remedial action is deemed necessary following a thorough site characterization and risk assessment, one of many remedial technologies may be utilized for corrective action. The most common physical and chemical remediation technologies are pump and treat, in-situ air12 Groundwater Remediation 263 sparging, in-situ flushing, and permeable reactive barriers. The most common biotechnologies include monitored natural attenuation, bioremediation, and phyto-remediation, but these methods are not within the scope of this chapter. Contain-ment methods such as slurry walls and grout curtains are also used to control contaminant plumes within groundwater but are not discussed within this chapter (USEPA, 1995). Containment methods such as these are often used as interim measures prior to the final selection and implementation of a remedial method. Actual remedial methods are varied in their applications and their limitations; thus, it is essential to evaluate the benefits, drawbacks, and economic impact of each method as well as the site-specific soil, hydrogeologic, and contaminant conditions.12.4.1Pump and TreatUntil recently, the most conventional method for groundwater remediation has been the pump and treat method. With pump and treat as shown in Figure 12.1, free-phase contaminants and/or contaminated groundwater are pumped directly out of the surface. Treatment occurs above ground, and the cleaned groundwater is either discharged into sewer systems or re-injected into the subsurface (Cohen et al., 1997). Pump and treat systems have been operated at numerous sites for many years. Unfortunately, data collected from these sites reveals that although pump and treat may be successful during the initial stages of implementation, performance drastically decreases at later times. As a result, significant amounts of residual contamination can remain unaffected by continued treatment. Due to these limitations, the pump and treat method is now primarily used for free product recovery and control of contaminant plume migration.Fig. 12.1 Pump-and-treat systemK.R. Reddy 264Pump and treat requires simple equipment and it is effective for source zone removal where free-phase contamination is present. Some concerns with pump and treat include lingering residual contamination due to tailing and/or rebound, long time required to achieve remediation, biofouling of extraction wells and associated treatment stream that can severely affect system performance, high cost of treating large quantities of wastewater, and high operation and maintenance costs (USEPA, 1996). Tailing and rebound are attributed to presence of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), contaminant desorption, contaminant precipitation-dissolution, matrix diffusion, and groundwater velocity variation. The removal of NAPLs during pumping is attributed to dissolution of residual and pooled free-product, desorption and solubilization, and dissolution kinetics.Numerous case studies are reported in the literature documenting the design and performance of pump-and-treat systems for groundwater remediation (FRTR, 1998a,b). For example, Fairchild Semiconductor Company in California manu-factured chips, mother boards, and circuits for the emerging computer industry in the late 1960s. To maintain ultra clean conditions as a part of their manufacturing process, hundreds of gallons of solvent were used daily. Accidentally, hundreds of gallons of solvent have been spilled into the soil and underlying groundwater. The site soils consisted of alluvial deposits that are heterogeneous mixture of sand and gravel interbedded with silts and clays. The deposits are up to 1,500 ft thick. The upper aquifer zone occurs from the top of the saturated zone to the depth of approximately 165 ft below ground surface. Contaminants in the groundwater were TCE (trichloroethene), chloroform, 1, 1-dichloroethene, 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane, and vinyl chloride. The risk-based remedial objectives were:•TCE: 5 µg/l for shallow aquifers;•TCE: 0.8 µg/l for deep aquifers;•Chloroform: 100 µg/l;•1,1- dichloroethene: 6 µg/l;•1,1,1-trichloroethane: 200 µg/l;•Vinyl Chloride: 0.5 µg/l.A network of extraction wells were designed to extract the groundwater. The groundwater was pumped to the surface and treated through an activated carbon process and re-injected into the ground to enhance hydraulic control and to flush the contamination zone. The extraction and treatment systems run continuously from January 1 through December 3, with the exception of brief shut downs for carbon change or routine maintenance. Monitoring the treatment included measuring groundwater elevations and collecting groundwater samples for analysis. Monitoring the pump system aims at maintaining a steady flow through extraction wells. The contaminant concentrations are steadily declining, but do not reached the remedial objectives. The remedial system is still in operation and the developments in Silicon Valley sparked the interest of Netscape Communications to lease 38.5 acres of the site.12 Groundwater Remediation 265 12.4.2 In-situ Air SpargingAir sparging, also known as biosparging, is an emerging remediation technology useful in the treatment of volatile organic contaminants. During the implementation of air sparging as shown in Figure 12.2, a gas, usually air, is injected into the saturated soil zone below the lowest known level of contamination. Due to the effect of buoyancy, the injected air will rise towards the surface. As the air comes into contact with the contamination, it will, through a variety of mechanisms, strip the contaminant away or assist in in-situ degradation. Eventually, the contaminant-laden air encounters the vadose zone, where it is often collected using a soil vapor extraction system and treated on-site (Reddy et al., 1995; Reddy and Adams, 2001).This technology has been very popular because it causes minimal site disruption and reduces worker exposure to contaminants, it does not require removal, storage, or discharge consideration for groundwater, the equipment needed is simple and easy to install and operate, it requires short treatment time (1–3 years), and the overall cost is significantly lower than the conventional remediation methods such as pump and treat. However, there are several limitations of this technology. Contamination in low permeability and stratified soils poses a significant technical challenge to air sparging remediation efforts. Confined aquifers cannot be treatedby this remediation technique. Air flow dynamics and contaminant removal or Fig. 12.2 In-situ air sparging systemK.R. Reddy 266degradation processes are not well understood. If not properly designed, it could cause spreading of the contaminants into clean areas. It requires detailed data and pilot testing prior to its application.Air sparging is based on the principles of air flow dynamics and contaminant transport, transfer and transformation processes (Reddy and Adams, 2001). Injected air moves through aquifer materials in the form of either bubbles or microchannels. In coarser soils such as fine gravels, air flow has been observed to be in the bubble form. In finer soils such as sands, the air flow has been observed to be in microchannel form. The density of bubbles or microchannels is found to be depended on the injected air flow rate. Soil heterogeneities are found to significantly affect the air flow patterns and the zone of influence. The transport mechanisms include advection, dispersion, and diffusion. The mass transfer mechanisms include volatilization, dissolution, and adsorption/desorption. Besides these, biodegradation is enhanced due to increased dissolved oxygen that can promote aerobic biodegradation.Many sites have been successfully remediated using air sparging (Reddy and Adams, 2001). For example, Eaddy Brothers was a gasoline service station located in Hemingway, South Carolina. In September 1998, a release was reported from the station’s underground storage tanks. Soil and groundwater at the site were found to be contaminated with MTBE, BTEX, and naphthalene. Concentrations are: MTBE 5,110,000 µg/L; benzene 226,000 µg/L; toluene 301,000 µg/L; ethylbenzene 280,000 µg/L, xylene 278,000 µg/L; and naphthalene 2,700 µg/L. Subsurface soils at the site consists of silty clays with inter-fingered thin clayey-sand lenses, and no confining units have been identified. The average hydraulic gradient is 0.005 with a calculated seepage velocity of 0.138 ft/year. The depth to groundwater is 2.5–17.9 ft below ground surface.The risk-based remedial objectives were:•MTBE: 646 µg/L;•Benzene: 191 µg/L;•Toluene: 11,938 µg/L;•Ethylbenzene: 9,426 µg/L;•Xylene: 78,496 µg/L;•Naphthalene: 418 µg/L.Air sparging and soil vapor extraction units were installed. Ten vertical air sparging wells at a depth of 26 ft with 5 ft well screen were installed. Wells were connected to Kaeser SK-2 air sparge compressor operating at 70 psi.A total of 28 wells (on- and off-site) were used to monitor groundwater. Within a year, concent-ration dropped to 99% for MTBE, 99% for BTEX, and 96% for naphthalene. It took almost another year to drop the concentration of MTBE, benzene, and napthalene to the desired level. Air sparging was effective, fast, and easy to imple-ment and monitor. The total cost for the cleanup of this site is US$ 197,515 which is relatively low compared to other means of remediation.12.4.3In-situ FlushingSoil flushing involves pumping flushing solution into groundwater via injection wells as shown in Figure 12.3. The solution then flows down gradient through the region of contamination where it desorbs, solubilizes, and/or flushes the conta-minants from the soil and/or groundwater. After the contaminants have been solubilized, the solution is pumped out via extraction wells located further down gradient. At the surface, the contaminated solution is treated using typical wastewater treatment methods, and then recycled by pumping it back to the injection wells (USEPA, 1991; Roote, 1997). Plain water or carefully developed solution (e.g., surfactant/cosolvent) are used as flushing solutions. However, one must select the type and concentration of flushing solution to optimize contaminant desorption and solubilzation.Fig. 12.3 In-situ flushing systemIn-situ flushing causes less exposure of the contaminants to clean-up personnel and the environment. It is a simple and easy operation as compared to other technologies. It is applicable for a wide variety of contaminants, both organic and inorganic contaminants. It may be a slow process when heterogeneities such as soil layers or lenses of less permeable (less than 10–5 cm/s) or organic materials are located within the soil horizon. Since the contaminants are solubilized into the solution, they may be transported beyond the extraction well and unintentional spreading of the contamination may occur. Remediation times may be long and the effectiveness of the process largely depends on solution, contaminant, soil orgroundwater interaction.Remediation depends strongly on the ability of the solution to desorb and solubilize the contaminant. The process may be costly with conta-mination located at large depths or with expensive solutions and long remediation times.Marine Corps Base Camp LeJeune, Site 88, Building 25 was the location of a central dry cleaning facility. The site was contaminated with PCE and Varsol from storage and use during dry cleaning operations. PCE was present in groundwater at the site as DNAPL. Varsol—a petroleum distillate—was present as LNAPL.A demonstration of the surfactant-enhanced aquifer remediation system (SEAR) was performed under the U.S. Department of Defense Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). The target was to treat DNAPL in groundwater.Shallow surficial aquifer existed at a depth of 16–20 ft. An order of magnitude difference existed in permeability between the shallower, more permeable zone (hydraulic conductivity of 10−4 cm/s) and the basal low permeability zone (hydraulic conductivity of 10−5 cm/s). The majority of DNAPL was present in a low permeability silty layer at base of the shallow aquifer, with about 105 gallons of DNAPL estimated to be present in the test zone. Contaminants found at the site include chlorinated solvents and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH); PCE was present as DNAPL, and Varsol was present as LNAPL. PCE concentrations in groundwater as high as 54 mg/L were monitored.The test area was 20 ft wide by 30 ft long and 20 ft deep. Flushing solution consisted of surfactant, calcium chloride, and isopropyl alcohol. It was injected through three injection wells at a rate of 0.133 gallons per minute per well for 58 days. Six extraction wells removed subsurface liquids at a combined rate of 1 gpm. Above-ground treatment included gravity separation to remove separate phase DNAPLs. Evaporation to remove dissolved-phase contaminates, and ultra filtration (UF) to reconcentrate surfactant fluid prior to reinjection were implemented. Surfactant flush was followed by a 74 day water flush to remove injected chemicals and solubilized or mobilized contaminates. Partitioning inter-well tracer test (PITT) was performed to demonstrate DNAPL removal and recovery of injected solution.A total of 76 gallons of PCE was recovered during the demonstration with 32 gallons recovered as solubilized DNAPL and 44 gallons as free-phase DNAPL. DNAPL was effectively removed from the more permeable layer with DNAPL at a rate of 92–96%. DNAPL recovery from entire test zone (both layers) was 72%. Above-ground treatment system removed greater than 95% of extracted PCE, recovered 77% of surfactant and recovered 88% of isopropyl alcohol.The project reached an estimated 90% success level based on their initial goals. DNAPL was effectively removed from the more permeable layer with DNAPL remaining mostly in the lower permeable layer.The results of the demonstration showed that aquifer heterogeneity has a strong influence on the performance of SEAR and that DNAPL source zone characteri-zation is important because of the sensitivity of the technology to permeability。
