句法的定义
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句子一、定义:1、句子由词或词组按一定的语法规则组成,具有一定的语调,并表达一个完整的意思。
2、句子成分:句子有主要成分,主语,谓语,次要成分,表语,宾语,定语,状语,独立成分,感叹词,呼语,语气词和插入语。
二、句子成分1、主语:主语是句子的主体,说明所说的是“谁”或“什么”主语的表现形式:主语是由名词、代词、数词、不定式(短语)、动名词(短语)、名词化的其他词类及从句承接。
2、谓语(1)定义:谓语表示主语所作的动作,具有的特征或所处的状态,谓语又称谓语动词。
(2)谓语的表现形式:谓语有简单谓语,由一个动词或动词短语承担,如;what__happened? I doubt it , The plane took off at ten. 复合谓语,分为4种形式A.情态动词+动词原形。
I can afford to buy a flat , B,动词+不定式 He seems to know about it .She appears to be conscious of her mistakes. C, Be +形容词+to do. He is likely to attend .the meeting D, 联系动词+表语, The milk tastes sour, Her dream has come true.3. 表语,表语位于联系动词之后,说明主语的身份,特征,属性或状态。
表语的表现形式;表语由名词,代词,数词,形容词,不定式(短语),分词,副词介词短语,和从句承担。
4,宾语(1)定义;宾语表示动作的对象或行为的承受者。
及物动词或相当于及物动词的短语动词必须带宾语,与借此一起构成短语的那个部分称为介词宾语。
(2)宾语的分类:宾语分为:直接宾语、间接宾语、介词宾语、保留宾语、同源宾语、符合宾语。
(3)宾语的表现形式:宾语为名词、代词、数词、名词化的其他词类,不定式(短语)、动名词(短语)、复合结构和从句承担。
句法结构成分之间的结构关系与语义关系
1、句法是指句子的语法结构,即:一句话内部各个语法成分之间的组合关系。
它设计了语言词汇及句子的使用规则,在句子中形成一种层次紧凑的结构。
2、句法通常分为两大类:一类是语言结构——即它指出句子内部元素的排列
和特定形式的句式;二者则是指在句法形式之上的语义关系,如词语的搭配、句子的意义等。
3、句法的主体是句子,其中包括主要分辨结构、宾语从句、状语从句及介词
短语四部分。
主体的主谓宾是基本的句法单位,只有用正确的构词方式把它们组合起来,才能把思想事物清楚、连贯地表达出来。
4、句法还包括文法,即指句法有关的语法规则,语法规则建立在句法结构之上,是句法发展的一个重要部分。
它定义了各词语、句型及句子之间的客观联系。
二、语义
1、语义指的是句子的语义,是普通语言的意思,它是语言的内在意义,是表
达概念的细节,它可表示对对象、能动及情感的品位。
2、语义是一种自然语言系统中最重要的属性之一,尤其是构成语义网络、解
析用户输入和搜索信息时尤为重要,可以理解用户输入,了解所搜索信息的意义。
3、语义也是翻译过程中重要的一环,它可以帮助提供了解原始语句语境的基础,而翻译则是将这种语义转换成外语的艺术,把语义翻译成另一种语言。
4、句法与语义之间的关系是密不可分的,不同的句法结构可以表达不同的语义,而不同的语义也会影响句法结构。
句法涉及了句子的形式构成,而语义是句子内容的表达,只有两者合在一起,才能使句子清楚、自然地表达出思想和事实。
语法与句法解析语法和句法是语言学中重要的概念,它们对于理解和分析语言结构至关重要。
本文将深入探讨语法和句法的含义、作用以及在语言学领域中的应用。
一、语法的定义与作用语法是研究语言规则和结构的学科,它关注的是语言中词汇、短语、句子等的组织方式。
语法规定了一门语言的句子构成方式、单词的形态变化和词汇的用法等。
在语言学中,语法有两个主要分支:短语结构语法和依存语法。
1. 短语结构语法短语结构语法是一种描述句子的成分和它们之间关系的语法理论。
它通过短语结构规则来分析句子的组成结构,这些规则说明了句子是如何由词汇和短语组合而成的。
短语结构语法通常使用语法树来展示句子结构,其中树的分支代表了不同的短语,树的叶子代表了词汇。
2. 依存语法依存语法是一种基于语言单位之间的依存关系来描述句子结构的语法理论。
依存语法认为句子中的每个成分都与其他成分存在某种依存关系,通过这些依存关系可以构建出整个句子的结构。
依存语法通过依存关系图来表示句子结构,句子中的每个单词都被赋予一个头部,并且与其他单词的依存关系通过有向弧线进行表示。
二、句法的定义与作用句法是语法的一个重要分支,研究的是句子的结构和组成方式。
句法关注的是句子中成分的类别、顺序、功能等。
句法分析是指对句子进行结构上的分析和描述,以便更好地理解句子的意义和表达方式。
一般来说,句法分析可以分为基于规则的句法分析和基于统计的句法分析。
1. 基于规则的句法分析基于规则的句法分析是通过应用预定义的句法规则来分析句子的结构。
这种方法需要事先定义好一系列的句法规则,然后根据这些规则去分析句子的成分以及它们之间的关系。
虽然基于规则的句法分析具有一定的准确性,但是它在处理复杂句子和多义词时可能会遇到困难。
2. 基于统计的句法分析基于统计的句法分析是一种利用大规模语料库进行句法分析的方法。
它通过统计语言模型和机器学习算法来推测句子中的句法结构。
基于统计的句法分析方法不需要事先定义句法规则,而是从语料库中学习并总结句法规则。
英语句法基础知识句法的定义:句法是研究句⼦的个个组成部分和它们的排列顺序。
句法研究的对象是句⼦。
句⼦的定义: 句⼦是⽤来描述⼀件事情, 表达⼀个思想, 提出⼀个问题, 它是有⼀定的语法结构排列组成的。
The football is in the box. ⾜球在箱⼦⾥放着。
I'm interested in English. 我对英语感兴趣。
What would you like? 你想要点什么?句⼦的分类: 句⼦可以从两种⾓度来分类:1)根据句⼦的⽤途来分, 英语的句⼦有下列⼏种: ⼀)陈述句: ⽤来陈述, 讲明⼀件事情,⼀个情况。
I like music. 我喜欢⾳乐。
Mr.Dix came to our university to teach English. 迪克斯先⽣来我们学校教英语。
⼆)疑问句: 向对⽅(听众)提出问题的句⼦就叫疑问句, ⼀般需对⽅作出回答。
What do you want? I want a book. 你要什么?我要⼀本书。
How old are you? I'm ten tears old. 你⼏岁啦?我⼗岁。
三)祈使句: ⽤来向对⽅(听众)发出请求,命令的句⼦叫祈使句。
祈使句⼀般需对⽅作出⾏为动作。
Come here, please. 请过来。
Come to my office immediately. 马上到我的办公室来。
四)感叹句: ⽤来表⽰⾃⼰的⼀种强烈感情的句⼦叫感叹句。
What an interesting story it is! 多有趣的故事啊!I work here.我在这⼉⼯作How beautiful your sweater is!2)根据句⼦的结构来分 , 句⼦可分为下列⼏种 :⼀)简单句句中只含有⼀个主语或并列主语和⼀个谓语或并列谓语的句⼦叫做简单句。
I study English every day. 我天天学习英语。
句法的定义
1. 句法呀,不就是句子的结构方式嘛!就像搭积木一样,得有个规则才能搭出好看的造型。
比如说“我喜欢你”,这就是一个简单的句法结构呢!
2. 句法的定义很简单呀,就是怎么把字词组合成有意义的句子呗!好比做菜,各种食材得按一定方法搭配才能做出美味佳肴,像“他跑得飞快”就是一种句法呀!
3. 句法啊,那可是语言的框架呢!就像盖房子得有框架支撑一样。
比如“她在唱歌”,这就是一种常见的句法呀,你说是不是?
4. 句法,其实就是句子的排列规则呀!就好像跳舞要有舞步一样。
像“小鸟在天空中飞翔”,这就是符合句法的句子呀!
5. 句法的定义不难理解吧?就是句子怎么构造呀!就跟拼图似的,得按规则拼。
“他们在公园里玩耍”,这就是个很好的例子呀!
6. 句法呀,不就是决定句子长成啥样的东西嘛!就像人的长相各有特点。
比如“太阳升起来了”,这就是一种特定的句法呢!
7. 句法的定义很重要哦,它就是让句子有规矩可循呀!好比走路得有路线。
像“汽车开得很快”,不就是遵循了某种句法嘛!
8. 句法啊,就是语言的规则手册呀!就像游戏有规则一样。
“猫躺在沙发上”,这就是按照句法来的呀,你难道不这么觉得?
9. 句法的定义,其实就是句子的构建法则呀!就像盖大楼要有设计图。
比如“我今天很开心”,这就是符合句法的表达呀!
10. 句法呀,就是让语言有秩序的那个东西呀!就跟排队一样整齐。
像“风在吹,树在摇”,这也是一种句法呢!
我觉得句法就是语言的基础,掌握了句法才能更好地理解和运用语言呀!。
句法名词解释
句法(Syntax)是语言学的一个分支领域,研究语言中的句子结构和句子内各个成分之间的关系。
句法研究关注如何形成和解释句子,包括句子的语法结构、语序、成分的排列和功能。
句法的主要元素和概念包括:
1.词汇:句法研究中考虑到词汇的分类和作用,如名词、动词、形容词等。
2.短语:短语是由多个词组成的语言单位,如名词短语、动词短语等。
3.句子:句子是语言的基本单位,句法研究句子的结构和组成成分,包括主语、谓语、
宾语等。
4.句子成分:句子中的各个成分,如主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。
5.语法规则:语法规则定义了构成正确句子的结构和顺序,它们规定了句子成分之间
的关系。
6.句法树:句法树是一种图形表示,用于显示句子中不同成分之间的层次结构和依存
关系。
7.语法范畴:语法范畴是指不同句法成分的分类,如名词范畴、动词范畴等。
句法研究有助于理解语言的结构和规则,包括语法规则、句子的生成和分析,以及语法结构对句子意义的影响。
这对于理解和翻译不同语言、开发语言处理技术、以及教授语言和写作都非常重要。
句法学的定义
句法学是研究语言的结构和组织的学科,它涉及到词语、短语和
句子的形态、语法和语义等方面,是语言学和计算语言学领域中的重
要分支。
句法学主要关注的是语法结构的规则和形式,通过分析语言结构
中的语言单元之间的关系,来揭示语言表达的规律和特点。
在句法学中,最常见的研究方法是进行语法分析,通过对句子的组成部分进行
分类和分析,从而揭示出语法规则和句法结构。
句法学的研究领域包括词汇、句子和篇章等层面,其中句子的分
析是句法学最为基础和核心的研究内容。
句法学的研究方法有依存句法、成分句法、关系句法等多种,其中依存句法强调的是语言单元之
间的依存关系,成分句法则更注重结构和形式。
从应用的角度来看,句法学在自然语言处理、计算机语音识别、
机器翻译等领域具有广泛的应用。
其中,自然语言处理是句法学的重
要应用领域之一,它利用句法学的理论和方法,来构建计算机程序,
使计算机能够自然地理解和生成语言。
总之,句法学是一门重要的语言学分支,它通过对语言结构和形
式的研究,揭示语言表达的规律和特点,在自然语言处理、计算机语
音识别、机器翻译等领域中具有广泛的应用价值。
对于语言学者和自
然语言处理工程师来说,掌握句法学的基本理论和方法是十分必要的。
第四章句法:从语词到篇章复习笔记I.句法1.定义句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
2.句法关系(1)位置关系位置关系或词序指的是一门语言中词语的排列顺序。
位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系,也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可理解性的要求。
(2)替代关系替代关系指在相同的句子结构中,语法上可以互相代替的词类或语词的集合,它还可指由多个词组成的词组,语法上代替特定集合中的单个语词。
(3)同现关系共现关系指不同词类的不同词汇集合允许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一特定成分。
II.传统语法学派传统语法认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究,例如词类是对词进行的分类,主语、谓语是对词的功能的描写等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
1.数、性和格(1)数是用来分析词类的语法范畴,有单数、双数和复数等。
在英语中,数主要是名词的范畴,包括两种形式:单数和复数。
数还体现在代词和动词的屈折变化上。
(2)性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类别的语法范畴。
性主要也是名词和代词的范畴。
在英语中,性的差别是自然的,由动物本身的生理性别决定。
然而准确地讲,性在这里指的是语法性,语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。
(3)格主要是名词的屈折范畴,它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。
在英语中,代词一般有三种格。
即:主格、宾格和属格;名词只有两种格:普通格和属格。
2.时态与体时态与体是动词的两个重要范畴,传统语法没有对它们加以区分。
时态与体之间的区别在于:时态是指示性的,也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关;体则不是指示性的,指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系,却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间相关。
3.一致关系与支配关系一致关系是指在一个给定的语言结构中,词和短语之间利用至少它们中的一个所携带的屈折形式互相匹配的句法关系。
支配关系是指句法结构中某些词的形式受另一种其他类型词的控制。
⏹句法的定义;句法关系;向心结构;离心结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性、数、格)。
⏹The traditional approach传统学派⏹-The structural approach 结构主义学派⏹-The generative approach 生成语法⏹-The functional approach 功能学派⏹-Systemic-functional grammar 系统功能语法⏹1. Education is no longer free as it use to be.2. For example, the computer that is used everywheretoday to increase efficiency and save the cost of labour .3.In our country we vote for our government, the nextfederal election is coming again.⏹ 4. The river will flood again next year unless we willbuild a better dam.5. Many people are dishonest with government. Althoughthey are married, but they don‘t want to declare they are married.⏹6. Three hundred dollars are what we must pay.⏹7.How do you think of my boyfriend,dad?the girlask.8. Winter storms that bring ice,sleet,and snow theycan cause traffic problem.9. The cake was suppose to be tasty.⏹10. If I would have trained for the race,I might havewon.⏹11. Because our car was overheating,it came as no surprisethat it broke down just as it began to run.12. The moon, along with Venus, are visible in the night sky.13. The candidate felt unusual energetic.14. People feared that they would no longer be able to happilylive in peace.1.1 What is syntax ?It’s a kind of micro linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.⏹Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways differentconstituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.⏹句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
1.2 The basic units --- phrase,clause and sentence⏹a nice day⏹What I have read is interesting.⏹I like it because it is fashionable1.3 What is a sentence?⏹It is structurally independent unit that usually comprises anumber of words to form a complete statement, question or command.⏹It is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form.⏹It is also called a maximum free form.--- L. Bloomfield2. Syntactic relations⏹Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:⏹relations of position⏹relations of substitutability⏹relations of co-occurrence2.1 Positional relation⏹Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to thesequential arrangement of words in a language. For example,⏹The boy kicked the ball⏹*Boy the ball kicked the⏹*The ball kicked the boy⏹Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect ofSyntagmatic Relations (横组合关系)observed by F. de Saussure.⏹They are also called Horizontal Relations (横向关系)or simply Chain Relations(链状关系).⏹Word order is among the three basic ways (word order,genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world:⏹English belongs to SVO type.2.2 Relation of Substitutability⏹The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets ofwords substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure._ ________ will go tomorrow.SheTheyMaryThe boy⏹This is also called Associative Relations (联想关系)bySaussure, and Paradigmatic Relations(纵聚合关系)by Hjemslev.⏹To make it more understandable, they are calledVertical Relations or Choice Relations(纵向关系或选择关系).2.3 Relation of Co-occurrence⏹It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.⏹同现关系指小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。
Question:Do the syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation exist at the phonological or morphological level?Key:a. at the phonological level[seif]: [s][ei][f][sei_]: [seif][seiv]b. at the morphological levelcareless: care + lesscare-: carelesscarefulc. at the sentential level3. Grammatical construction and its constituents3.1 Grammatical Construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.语法结构或建构用来指语言中被赋予一种或多种功能的任何句法建构,包括在语言学上该建构所拥有的常规意义和用法。
3.2 Constituents and Phrase Structure⏹Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Severalconstituents together form a construction:⏹the boy (NP)⏹ate the apple (VP)⏹the boy ate the apple (S)⏹Immediate Constituent: If two constituents are joinedto form a hierarchically higher constituent, then theconstituents are said to be the immediate constituentsof the a hierarchically higher constituent. Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis(直接成分分析)This notion was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield(布龙菲尔德)in his Language(first published in 1933).Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate (words) constituents are reached.Any sentence can be divided into two parts (Immediate Constituents), then continue until the smallest units( ultimate constituents).The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with slashes, labeled square brackets or be more easily shown with a tree diagram.Word-level PhrasalN=noun NP=noun phraseA=adjective AP=adjective phraseV=verb VP=verb phraseP=preposition PP=preposition phraseDet=determiner S=sentence or clauseAdv=adverbConj=conjunction⏹Exercises:⏹Draw the appropriate tree structure for each example.⏹Into the tree⏹Fixed the telephone⏹Full of mistakes⏹A film about pollution⏹Perhaps earn the money⏹More towards the window⏹The teacher often organized a discussion.⏹The manager may offer a raise.⏹That shelf will fall.⏹The student always loses the debate.The advantages of IC Analysis: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.E.g. Tony is a dirty street fighter.my small child’s toyVisiting aunts can be boring.SNP VPNP SAunts who visit can be boringSomeone to visit aunts can be boringThe disadvantages of the IC analysis:a. Binary divisions: any constructions, at any level, will be cut intotwo parts. It is not always possible, e.g.the tall man and womanb.Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. e.g.What do you do?c. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g.the shooting of the huntersDeep structure and surface structure⏹Deep structure: By XP rule which determines the internalstructure of the phrasal categories.⏹E.g A boy found a book.⏹Surface structure: By appropriate transformations thatcorrespond to the final syntactic form of the sentence⏹ E.g . What languages can you speak ?you can speak what languages3.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions(向心结构和离心结构)Endocentric construction is one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalent, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headedconstruction (中心结构).Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases or adjective phrases, e.g.these popular Chinese singers us youthhas been overworkedreally remarkably wittyExocentric construction is a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.Typical exocentric constructions are :the basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) constructionin the cornerwhen it rainsThe man cried.fly a kiteseem angry3.4 Coordination and Subordination 并列关系和从属关系Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .⏹Coordination of VPs:⏹[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]⏹Subordination refers to the process or result of linkinglinguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.⏹The subordinate constituents are words whichmodify the head. Consequently, they can be calledmodifiers.⏹two dogsHead⏹(My brother) can drink (wine).Head⏹Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head⏹(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head⏹Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There arethree basic types of subordinate clauses:⏹complement clauses⏹adjunct (or adverbial) clauses⏹relative clauses4. Syntactic Function⏹The syntactic function shows the relationship between alinguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.⏹Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects,objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.1 Subject⏹In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in thenominative case.⏹In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be theagent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.⏹This definition seems to work for these sentences:⏹Mary slapped John. ■ A dog bit Bill.⏹but is clearly wrong in the following examples:⏹John was bitten by a dog.⏹John underwent major heart surgery.⏹In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice,we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).⏹Another traditional definition of the subject is “what thesentence is about” (i.e. topic).⏹Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as⏹Bill is a very crafty fellow.⏹but fails in others, such as⏹(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.⏹As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises veryseriously.⏹All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we couldsay that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.⏹The above sentences make it clear that the topic is notalways the grammatical subject.⏹What characteristics do subjects have?Word orderPro-formsAgreement with the verbContent questionsTag question4.2 Predicate⏹Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.⏹It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that referto the subject.⏹The boy is running. (process)⏹Peter broke the glass. (action)⏹Jane must be mad! (state)⏹The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbsincluded in a predicate.4.3 Object⏹Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally,subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.⏹Mother bought a doll.⏹Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO⏹Question:What is the relation between classes and functions ?5. Category⏹Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill thesame or similar functions in a particular language.Traditionally, category is termed as “parts of speech”.Major lexical categories and minor lexical categoriesExamples of some lexical categories⏹The term category refers to the defining properties of thesegeneral units:⏹Categories of the noun: number, gender, case andcountability⏹Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice⏹5.1 Number⏹5.2 Gender⏹5.3 Case⏹5.4 Agreement6. Phrase, Clause and Sentence6.1 Phrase⏹the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)⏹has been doing(verbal phrase)⏹extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)⏹to the door (prepositional phrase)⏹very fast(adverbial phrase)6.2 Clause。