English consonants

1. F. de. Saussure is a (n) __________linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianSwiss linguist. The founder of structural linguistics, he declared that there is only an arbitrary relationship between a linguistic sign and that which it signifies. The posthumously published collection of his lectures,Course in General Linguistics (1916), is a seminal work of modern linguistics.索绪尔，费迪南德·德：(1857-1913) 瑞士语言学家，结构主义语言的创始人，他声称在语言符号和其所指含义之间仅有一种模糊的关系。

他死后，他的讲演集出版为《普通语言学教程》（1916年），是现代语言学的开山之作2.N. Chomsky is a(n) ______linguist.Canadian B. American C. French D. SwissAmerican linguist who revolutionized the study of language with his theory of generative grammar, set forth inSyntactic Structures (1957).乔姆斯基，诺阿姆：(生于1928) 美国语言学家，他在《句法结构》（1957年）一书中所阐述的关于生成语法的理论曾使语言学研究发生突破性进展3.___________is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference totheir distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A.PhonologyB. Lexicography 词典编纂C. lexicology词典学D.Morphology词态词态学音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布，包括某一特定语言里的语音和音位分部和结合的规律。

2003年英语专八人文知识真题31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America.[A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day32. The university of Dublin was not founded until .[A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898.[A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to .[A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century[C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the fifth century, the seventh century35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens?[A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times[C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period.[A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.[A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.[A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent[C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government39. studies the sound systems in a certain language.[A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called .[A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism2004年英语专八人文知识真题31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT .[A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year.[A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992.[A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream".[A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr[C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style.[A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson[C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .[A] international theme [B] waste-land imagery[C] local color [D] symbolism37. Hemingway's writing style, together with his theme and the hero, is greatly and permanently influenced by his experiences .[A] in his childhood [B] in the war [C] in America [D] in Africa38. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. in terms of .[A] manner of articulation [B] openness of mouth[C] place of articulation [D] voicing39. Which of the following words can correct two clauses in a coordinate sentence?[A] Through. [B] When. [C] But. [D] If.40. is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.[A] Word [B] Morpheme [C] Allomorph [D] Root2005年英语专八人文知识真题31. is the capital of Canada.[A] Vancouver [B] Ottawa [C] Montreal [D] York32. U.S. presidents normally serve a (n) term.[A] two-year [B] four-year [C] six-year [D] eight-year33. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S.?[A] Huston. [B] Boston. [C]Baltimore. [D] Philadelphia.34. is the state church in England.[A] The Roman Catholic Church [B] The Baptist Church[C] The Protestant Church [D] The Church of England35. The novel Emma is written by .[A] Mary Shelley [B] Charlotte Brontë [C] Elizabeth C. Gaskell [D] Jane Austen36. Which of the following is NOT a romantic poet?[A] William Wordsworth. [B] George Elliot.[C] George C. Byron. [D] Percy B. Shelley.37. William Sidney Porter, known as O. Henry, is most famous for .[A] his poems [B] his plays [C] his short stories [D] his novels38. Syntax is the study of .[A] language functions [B] sentence structures [C] textual organization [D] word formation39. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?[A] Arbitrariness. [B] Productivity.[C] Cultural transmission. [D] Finiteness.40. The speech act theory was first put forward by .[A] John Searle [B] John Austin [C] Noam Chomsky [D] M.A.K. Halliday参考答案：BBADA BCBDB2006年英语专八人文知识真题31. The President during the American Civil War was .[A] Andrew Jackson [B] Abraham Lincoln [C] Thomas Jefferson [D] George Washington32. The capital of New Zealand is .[A] Christchurch [B] Auckland [C] Wellington [D] Hamilton33. Who were the natives of Australia before the arrival of the British settlers?[A] The Aborigines. [B] The Maori. [C] The Indians. [D] The Eskimos.34. The Prime Minister in Britain is head of .[A] the Shadow Cabinet [B] the Parliament [C] the Opposition [D] the Cabinet35. Which of the following writers is a poet of the 20th century?[A] T. S. Eliot. [B] D.H. Lawrence. [C] Theodore Dreiser. [D] James Joyce.36. The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is written by .[A] Scott Fitzgerald [B] William Faulkner [C] Eugene O'Neill [D] Ernest Hemingway37. is defined as an expression of human emotion which is condensed into fourteen lines.[A] Free verse [B] Sonnet [C] Ode [D] Epigram38. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of .[A] reference [B] meaning [C] antonymy [D] context39. The words "kid, child, offspring" are examples of .[A] dialectal synonyms [B] stylistic synonyms[C] emotive synonyms [D] collocational synonyms40. The distinction between parole and langue was made by .[A] Halliday [B] Chomsky [C] Bloomfield [D] Saussure参考答案BCADA DBDBD2007年英语专八人文知识真题31. The majority of the current population in the UK are decedents of all the following tribes respectively EXCEPT .[A] the Anglos [B] the Celts [C] the Jutes [D] the Saxons32. The Head of State of Canada is represented by .[A] the Monarch [B] the President [C] the Prime Minister [D] the Governor-general33. The Declaration of Independence was written by .[A] Thomas Jefferson [B] George Washington[C] Alexander Hamilton [D] James Madison34. The original inhabitants of Australia were .[A] the Red Indians [B] the Eskimos [C] the Aborigines [D] the Maoris35. Which of the following novels was written by Emily Brontë?[A] Oliver Twist. [B] Middlemarch. [C] Jane Eyre. [D] Wuthering Heights.36. William Butler Yeats was a(n) poet and playwright.[A] American [B] Canadian [C] Irish [D] Australian37. Death of a Salesman was written by .[A] Arthur Miller [B] Ernest Hemingway[C] Ralph Ellis on [D] James Baldwin38. refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.[A] Phonology[B] Morphology[C] Semantics[D] Sociolinguistics39. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT .[A] lexical[B] syntactic[C] phonological [D] psycholinguistic40. The word "tail" once referred to "the tail of a horse", but now it is used to mean "the tail of any animal." This is an example of .[A] widening of meaning [B] narrowing of meaning[C] meaning shift [D] loss of meaning参考答案CDACD CABDA2008年英语专八人文知识真题31. The largest city in Canada is .A. VancouverB. MontrealC. TorontoD. Ottawa32. According to the United States Constitution, the legislative power is invested in .A. the Federal GovernmentB. the Supreme CourtC. the CabinetD. the Conress33. Which of the following is the oldest sport in the United States?A. Baseball.B. Tennis.C. Basketball.D. American football.34. The head of the executive branch in New Zealand is .A. the PresidentB. the Governor-GeneralC. the British monarchD. the Prime Minister35. The Caterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, is an important poetic work by .A. Willian LanglandB. GeoffreyC. William ShakespeareD. Alfred Tennyson36. Who wrote The American?A. Herman Melville.B. Nathaniel Hawthorne.C. Henry James.D. Theodore Dreiser.37. All of the following are well-know female writers in 20th-century Britain EXCEPT .A. George EliotB. Iris Jean MurdochC. Doris LessingD. Muriel Spark38. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Displacement.C. Duality.D.Diachronicity.39. What type of sentence is "Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry"?A simple sentence. B. A coordinate sentence. C. A complex sentence. D. None of the above.40. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called .A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. PolysemyD.homonymy参考答案BCADBBDACD2009年英语专八人文知识真题31. The Head of State of New Zealand is .[A] the governor-general [B] the Prime Minister[C] the high commissioner [D] the monarch of the United Kingdom.32. The capital of Scotland is .[A] Glasgow [B] Edinburgh [C] Manchester [D] London33. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence and later became the U.S. President?[A] Thomas Jefferson. [B] George Washington. [C] Thomas Paine. [D] John Adams.34. Which of the following cities is located on the eastern coast of Australia?[A] Perth. [B] Adelaide. [C] Sydney. [D] Melbourne.35. Ode to the West Wind was written by .[A] William Blake [B] William Wordsworth[C] Samuel Taylor Coleridge [D] Percy B. Shelley36. Who among the following is a poet of free verse?[A] Ralph Waldo Emerson. [B] Walt Whitman.[C] Herman Melville. [D] Theodore Dreiser.37. The novel Sons and Lovers was written by .[A] Thomas Hardy [B] John Galsworthy [C] D.H. Lawrence [D] James Joyce38. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is .[A] corpus linguistics [B] sociolinguistics[C] theoretical linguistics [D] psycholinguistics39. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called .[A] dialect [B] idiolect [C] pidgin [D] register40. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing .[A] an illocutionary act [B] a perlocutionary act [C] a locutionary act [D] none of the above答案31、D the monarch of the United Kingdom 32、B Edinburgh. 33、AThomas Jefferson. 34、C Sydney 35、D Percy B. Shelley36、B Walt Whitman. 37、C D.H. Lawrence. 38、D psycholinguistics.39、C pidgin. 40、A an illocutionary act.2010年英语专八人文知识真题31. Which of the following is INCORRECT?A. the British Constitution includes the Magna Carta of 1215B. the British Constitution includes Parliamentary actsC. the British Constitution includes decisions made by courts of law答案D：The British Constitution includes one single written constitution32. The first city ever founded in Canada isA. QuebecB. VancouverC. TorontoD. Montreal答案A：Quebec33. When did the Australian Federation officially come into being?A. B. 1788C. 1900D. 1901答案D：190134. The Emancipation Proclamation to end the plantation slavery in the south of US was issued byA. Abraham LincolnB. Thomas PaineC. George WashingtonD. Thomas Jefferson答案A：Abraham Lincoln35.Who was best known for the technique of dramatic monologue in his poems?A. Will BlakeB. W.B.YeatsC. Robert BrowningD. William Wordsworth答案C：Robert Browning36. The Financier was written byA. Mark TwainB. Henry JamesC.答案D：Theodore Dreiser37. In literature a story in verse or prose with a double meaning is defined asA. allegoryB. sonnetC. blank verseD. rhyme答案A：Allegory38.____ refers to the learning and development of a languageA. language acquisitionB. language comprehensionC. language productionD. language introduction答案A：language acquisition39. The word “motel”comes from “motor –hotel”. This is an example of “…”in morphology.A. backformationB. conversionC. blendingD. acronym答案C：blendingnguage is tool of communication, the symbol “highway closed”servesA. B.C. a performative function D. a persuasive function答案B：informative function2011年英语专八人文知识真题31. The northernmost part of Great Britain is _______.A. Northern IrelandB. WalesC. EnglandD. ScotlandTIP：选D。

英语系语言学考研讲解注意事项语言学是考研比较头疼的课程，以下几个复习中需要注意的问题，供你参考：第一，要注意基本概念和基本理论。

基本概念要烂熟于心，做到能见到概念就知道它属于哪个章节，基本内容是什么，对这个概念不同的语言学流派有什么不同的理解，你个人的见解又是什么。

基本理论要清楚，要知道在对待同一个问题时不同的理论是如何处理的，它们的哲学基础是什么？它们的理论前提是什么？它们的优势和弊端都是什么？你对这些理论有什么评价？第二，要注意对于基本理论的应用。

比如在音位学章节里，用区别性特征理论的研究结果来描写音位；在形态学里，用派生形态学的理论来解释构词法；在句法学里，用直接成分分析法和树形图来解释歧义句等等。

这些经典理论的运用在考试中是经常出现的。

第三，要注意语言学和其他学科的联系。

虽然在考试中主要考察语言学的核心学科，可是语言学和其它学科的交叉有时也占有一定的比例。

所以建议大家多看看相关的章节，掌握一下那个章节的概貌：比如说，社会语言学、二语习得、计算语言学、历史比较语言学等等。

第四，要注意创造性地理解和解释新现象。

在考试题目中，总会有些平时复习没有见过的语言材料让你来分析。

这时不要紧张，要仔细思考那其中所包含的信息，并检索自己知识系统中的相关理论去解释它。

要有创造性的见解。

第五，要多做练习。

英语语言学概论重点难点提示第一章概论语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第一章测试1.We should learn how to use the movable articulators such as _______________ allof which are very active in the active in the articulation of speech sounds.A:the lipsB:the vocal cordsC:the tongueD:the soft palate答案:ABCD2. A language consists of three important elements, namely _________________ .A:grammarB:vocabularyC:pronunciationD:listening答案:ABC3.The field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three subdisciplines:____________________ phonetics.A:auditoryB:acousticC:articulatoryD:phonology答案:ABC4.The vocal tract is formed by ________________ .A:mouthB:pharynxC:larynxD:nose答案:ABD5.Because British people tend to pronounce post-vocalic r sound, RP is rhotic.A:对B:错答案:B6.If phonetics deals with the physical reality of speech sounds, then phonology,on the other hand, is primarily concerned with how we interpret andsystematize sounds.A:错B:对答案:B7.The back rounded /ɔ/ is heard in British English in word such as not. In GA,this vowel sound is replaced with /a:/ .A:错B:对答案:B8.GA speakers use a great deal of weak forms to pronounce the unstressedsyllables, while RP speakers tend to pronounce both stressed and unstressed syllables very clearly.A:对B:错答案:B9.When we pronounce vowels and voiced consonants the vocal cords are keptapart and do not vibrate.A:对B:错答案:B10.Suprasegment features are features of speech which generally apply togroups of segments, or phonemes.A:错B:对答案:B第二章测试1.All consonants are voiced, while vowels can be voiced or voiceless.A:对B:错答案:B2.Schwa is a reduced vowel in stressed syllables, especially if syllabicconsonants are not used.A:对B:错答案:B3.In terms of syllable structure, vowels form the nucleus of the syllable. Theconsonants, on the other hand, occupy the onset or coda position.A:错B:对答案:B4.When a diphthong is pronounced, the first vowel sound is shorter, lower andweaker than the second one.A:对B:错答案:B5.There are five vowels in the alphabets, which represent all vowel sounds inEnglish language.A:对B:错答案:A6.All the speech sounds in the language can be classified into 4 groups: vowels,monophthongs, diphthongs and consonants.A:错B:对答案:A7.According to the distinctive feature theory, /ɔ/ and /a:/ differ from eachother by __________ .A:tongue positionB:tongue heightC:lengthD:lip posture答案:D8.The distinction between primary and secondary cardinal vowels is based onthe _______ position.A:vocal cordsB:soft palateC:lipsD:tongue答案:C9.Closing diphthongs end with a glide toward _______ or _______ .A:/ə/B:/ɔ/C:/i/D:/u/答案:CD10.The description of vowels relates to ________________ .A:tongue positionB:lengthC:lip postureD:tongue height答案:ABCD第三章测试1.In which word the letter b is not silent?A:doubleB:debtC:lambD:doubt答案:A2.English consonants can be classified in three ways, they are ( ).A:by the place of articulationB:by the manner of articulationC:by voicingD:by the loudness of sound答案:ABC3.[k] and [g] are pronounced by blocking the breath-stream with the back ofthe tongue and soft palate, building up the pressure, and suddenly releasing it.A:对B:错答案:A4.The consonants [f]，[v]，[t] ，[d] are fricatives.A:错B:对答案:A5.According to the features of consonants, [s] can be described as ( ).A:fricativeB:dentalC:aspiratedD:voiceless答案:ACD6.An affricate is a combination of a plosive and a ( ).A:lateralB:approximantC:fricativeD:nasal答案:C7. When pronouncing [ts], the tongue first sticks to the gums, blocks theairflow, and then raises.A:对B:错答案:B8.Which word does not contain the sound /m/?A:kindB:lambC:summerD:some答案:A9.There is no difference between English consonant /l/ and Chinese consonant/l/.A:对B:错答案:B10.Which of the following phonemes are approximant?A:/j/B:/l/C:/w/D:/r/答案:ACD第四章测试1. A syllable contains one and only one consonant.A:错B:对答案:A2.Secondary stress is more prominent than primary stress.A:对B:错答案:B3.Primary stress is often conveyed by changes in length, loudness, and pitch.A:对B:错答案:A4. A rhythm group contains more than one stressed syllable, together withunstressed syllables clustering about it or none.A:错B:对答案:A5.The notion of rhythm comes from the unstressed syllables. Word andsentence stress combine to create the rhythm of an English utterance.A:错B:对答案:A6.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: I am reading avery interesting novel?A:I, am, reading, novelB:readingC:very, interestingD:reading, very, interesting, novel答案:D7.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: Twenty isenough?A:is, enoughB:Twenty, is, enoughC:TwentyD:Twenty, enough答案:D8.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: The book that Ihave just read is hers?A:book, readB:book, justC:book, have, read, hersD:book, just, read, hers答案:D9.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: Who was that onthe phone?A:who, that, phoneB:who, wasC:who, was, that, phoneD:phone答案:A10.Which of the following words have their stress on the second syllable?A:AmericaB:introductionC:historicalD:sentence答案:AC第五章测试1.Progressive assimilation refers to the sounds assimilated are affected by thepronunciation of the preceding sounds.A:对B:错答案:A2.When /n/ is followed by /p/, /b/ or /m/, it becomes /ŋ/.A:对B:错答案:A3.It is a cluster of consonants. It could be two or three consonants.( )A:错B:对答案:B4. Gifts is initial consonant cluster. ( )A:对B:错答案:B5.Pronunciation is really about（）.A:throatB:tongueC:all of the aboveD:lips答案:C6.She sells seashells by the seashore. is ( ) in English.A:tongue twisterB:folk songC:sayingD:none of the above答案:A7.In the phrase “give me” which sound can be elided?( )A:/i/B:/v/C:/m/D:/g/答案:B8.Squeezing letters is the phenomenon of ( )A:consonant clusterB:incomplete explosionC:liasionD:elision答案:A9.Squeezing words is the phenomenon of ( )A:incomplete explosionB:elisionC:consonant clustersD:liasion答案:B10.Consonant clusters has_________.A:final clusterB:initial clusterC:medial clusterD:first cluster答案:ABC第六章测试1.What is the purpose of the speaker by saying “could you give me the ”?A:It is attracting attention.B:It is a polite request.C:It sounds like a command; the answer “yes” is expected.D:This is a question asking for information.答案:B2.Choose the standard intonation for the following sentences: 1. Can you try itout?2. When will you be ready?3. Come to the blackboard.4. Did he see hisfriend?A:rising, falling, rising, risingB:falling, falling, rising, fallingC:rising, falling, falling, risingD:falling, rising, falling, rising答案:C3.Which part carries maximal prominence in an intonation unit?A:nucleusB:pre-headC:tailD:head答案:A4.Which type of intonation is not the typical types of English intonation?A:falling intonationB:rising-falling intonationC:falling-rising intonationD:rising intonation答案:B5.The nucleus of the following sentence “I am WRIting a LETter to him.”is .A:ter to himB:LETC:WRIting aD:I am答案:B6. A nucleus is the first fully stressed syllable in an intonation unit.A:对B:错答案:B7.The focusing function of intonation is to show what information in anutterance is new and what is already know.A:错B:对答案:B8. A special question with falling intonation asks for information, while aspecial question with rising intonation usually signals more interest on the part of the speaker.A:对B:错答案:A9.In the sentence “The man works very hard, /doesn’t he?”, the speaker is surethat the man works very hard, and expects you to agree.A:对B:错答案:B10.The sentence “I have to buy bananas, apples, lemons and pears” should bespoken in rising intonation.A:错B:对答案:A。

12 maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant. it is put into the onset rather than the coda. . The correct syllabification of the word country should be第一章，填空1.The study of the meaning of lingustic words, phrases is callesde mantics.2.Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wild range of things free from barriers caused by4.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.6.Chomsky defines “ competencaes ”the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.nguage is a means of verbal communication. It is informative in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.8.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter ofnguage is distinguished from traffic lights in that the former has the designing feature of duality.10.In linguistics research, bothq uantity and quality approaches are preferred. 判断：11.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech, thus there are still many languages in today's have no √12.According to Chomsky, the word compentoetn lcime it”ed itso the ability of an ideal native speaker to construct and recognize. ×13.Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design features of human language.×14.Chomsky's competence' and performance are similar in meaning to Saussure 's langue and parole.√15,An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “bestauthors ”√for languag16.In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a of reasons. √17.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.× chochronic共时的ngue and parole is the fundamental distinction discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory ofdistinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Parole and language√.20. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been √选择:1.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior, it is said to bed escriptive2.I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago. This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of displacement.3.“ Don' t end a sentence with a preposition.thisp irse sacnr iepxtiavme rpulele os.f4.Which of the following is most referred to as a branch of the study of meaning in5.The synchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.6.The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentencesis calledp ragmatics.7.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is A 没照下图片arbitrary8.The descriptive of a language as it changes through time is dai achronic study.9.题目没照下来。

Chapter 1.1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific科学的、系统的study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.Why is linguistics a scientific study?Systematic Investigation of linguistic data, conducted with some general linguistic theories.1.3 Important distinctions in linguistics判断1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive规范性和描述性Descriptive---- describe / analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive----lay down rules for “corr ect and standard” behaviour in using language. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive•Don’t say X.•People don’t say X.The distinction: Describing how things arePrescribing how things ought to beModern linguistics vs. grammarModern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Grammar: to set models for language users to follow.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it "correct" or not.Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic同步性和历时性会定义Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.Synchronic or Diachronic?1.The change of vocabulary since China’s reform and opening up.2.The study of Internet language in 21st century.3.Pejorative Sense Development in English.4.The Categories and Types of Present-day English Word-Formation.1.3.4. Langue and parole语言和言语会概念(F. de Saussure:1857--1913 )Langue---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete.Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.1.3.5 Competence and performance 会定义(Chomsky)Competence-----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Similarity and difference between Saussure‟s distinction and that of ChomskySimilarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Difference: Chomsky’s competence-performance is from psychological point of view. Saussure’s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 要懂！判断就是下面四个Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2.2 design features of language 必须要会！Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity多产性Duality双重性Displacement位移性Cultural transmission 文化传播Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang…)Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixedrepertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desiresDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, fora far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be groupedand regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Cultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows thatlanguage is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.Chapter 2 phonology2.2 Phonetics2.2．1 What is phonetics?必须要会三个分支也要会Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language in isolation.It is concerned with production, transcription音译and classification of speech sounds.The production and perception of speech soundsSpeakerProduction Sound Waves Hearer Perception Articulatory Phonetics Acoustic Phonetics Auditory Phonetics发音语音学声学语音学听觉语音学（语音学的三个分支）2.2.3Orthographic正字法，拼字正确的representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcriptions 大致意思要懂Towards the end of 19th century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized andinternationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being.Exercise: Transcription of speech wordsTask: Write the phonetic symbol for the first sound in each word according to your pronunciation.Example: zoo /z/ psycho /s/a. Judge / /b. Thomas / /c. Phone / /d. Easy / /e. Usual / /The two sounds /t/ in “Student ”are really the same?The first “t” is unaspirated (不送气)The second “t” is aspirated (送气的)./ s t j u: d ən th /The four sounds /l/ are the same?Leaf /li:f/; feel /fi:l/; build /bild/; health /helθ/Clear [l] dark [ l ] dental [l]The aspirated /h/, the dark / / are both calledDiacritics (变音符号)Two Transcriptions 严式标音记到什么程度，宽式记音记到什么程度要懂Broad transcription: The letter-symbols only.宽式标音/ /Narrow transcription: The letter-symbols+diacritics严式标音[]2.4 Classification of English Speech sounds 音素的分类要知道Vowels [元音]Consonants [辅音] 元音和辅音放一起叫做音段音位，语调，音调和重音叫做超音段音位The difference between consonants and vowelsV owels: with no obstruction through the speech organsConsonants: with obstruction through the speech organs2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 要知道辅音的发音分类有哪几种English consonants can be classified in two ways:1. manner of articulation根据发音方式来分类2. place of articulation. 根据发音部位来分类2.3 PhonologyThe difference between phonetics & phonology 明白各自是干嘛的Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one,phonetic features; language universalPhonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific2.3.2Phone, Phoneme and allophone 理解含义判断题Phone音系: 1) a phonetic unit 是语音学的一个片段2) not necessarily distinctive of meaning 不需要区分意思3) physical as perceived 物理上能感知4) marked with [ ]Phoneme音位: 1) a phonological unit 是音系学的一个片段2) distinctive of meaning 要区分意思3) abstract, not physical 抽象，不能物理上区分4) marked with / /Allophone音位变体Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.在不同的语音学环境中代表着一个音素StudentPhones: [t] [th]Phoneme: /t/Allophone: [t] [th]Exercise(How many phones, phonemes and allophones?)Pit Spit TipLeaf, Feel, HealthBut May Rest2.3.3 phonetic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 要知道什么叫互补分布Complementary distributionComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. [t] [th] Two allophones2.3.4 some rules in phonology 3条规则要明白是什么意思判断题2.3.4.1 sequential rules 序列规则There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called Sequential rules (序列规则)1.What are possible sequences if 3 consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word?2.3.4.2 assimilation rule 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. （同化规则）3. Give examples to show how the assimilation rule works in English.2.3.4.3 deletion rules 省略规则Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. Deletion /g/ occurs before a final nasal consonant. Sign design…比如l r 后面只允许出现元音这是什么规则在约束它是同化规则在约束它错@！应该是序列规则在约束它要知道序列规则该怎么写2.3.5 suprasegmental features ----stress tone声调intonation语调只需知道超音段音位包括哪些就可以了英语中tone算不算超音段音位？不算所谓是音位，需要能够区分意义5. List different types of stress patterns that can distinguish meaning. (Task)1)To distinguish some nouns from their related verbs.` import (n.) —im` port (v.)`record (n.) —re`cord (v.)2) To distinguish compounds from noun phrases.`hotdog (n.) — hot `dog (phrase)3)To distinguish the compound combinations of -ing modifiers and nouns and the phrasalcombinations of-ing forms for the action and nouns for the doer.`sleeping car (compound) —ֽsleeping `boy (phrase)4)To distinguish content words from function words in sentences.He is `driving my `car.5)To emphasize to a certain part of a sentence.I prefer `small apples, those are far too large.7. What is the difference between tone and intonation?1)Tone refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is related to differences in wordmeaning.2)Intonation refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related todifferences in word meaning.Chapter 3 morphology 形态学morphology 的概念要会3.1 Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed. 词的内部结构的学习和词形成的规则3.2 open class and closed class 开放词类和封闭词类需要注意既不是开放的也不是封闭的词Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.封闭词类和开放词类就语法功能来说，词可分为：封闭词类（Closed Class）和开放词类（Open Class）。