English consonants

1. F. de. Saussure is a (n) __________linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianSwiss linguist. The founder of structural linguistics, he declared that there is only an arbitrary relationship between a linguistic sign and that which it signifies. The posthumously published collection of his lectures,Course in General Linguistics (1916), is a seminal work of modern linguistics.索绪尔，费迪南德·德：(1857-1913) 瑞士语言学家，结构主义语言的创始人，他声称在语言符号和其所指含义之间仅有一种模糊的关系。

他死后，他的讲演集出版为《普通语言学教程》（1916年），是现代语言学的开山之作2.N. Chomsky is a(n) ______linguist.Canadian B. American C. French D. SwissAmerican linguist who revolutionized the study of language with his theory of generative grammar, set forth inSyntactic Structures (1957).乔姆斯基，诺阿姆：(生于1928) 美国语言学家，他在《句法结构》（1957年）一书中所阐述的关于生成语法的理论曾使语言学研究发生突破性进展3.___________is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference totheir distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A.PhonologyB. Lexicography 词典编纂C. lexicology词典学D.Morphology词态词态学音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布，包括某一特定语言里的语音和音位分部和结合的规律。

2003年英语专八人文知识真题31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America.[A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day32. The university of Dublin was not founded until .[A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898.[A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to .[A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century[C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the fifth century, the seventh century35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens?[A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times[C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period.[A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.[A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.[A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent[C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government39. studies the sound systems in a certain language.[A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called .[A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism2004年英语专八人文知识真题31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT .[A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year.[A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992.[A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream".[A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr[C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style.[A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson[C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .[A] international theme [B] waste-land imagery[C] local color [D] symbolism37. Hemingway's writing style, together with his theme and the hero, is greatly and permanently influenced by his experiences .[A] in his childhood [B] in the war [C] in America [D] in Africa38. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. in terms of .[A] manner of articulation [B] openness of mouth[C] place of articulation [D] voicing39. Which of the following words can correct two clauses in a coordinate sentence?[A] Through. [B] When. [C] But. [D] If.40. is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.[A] Word [B] Morpheme [C] Allomorph [D] Root2005年英语专八人文知识真题31. is the capital of Canada.[A] Vancouver [B] Ottawa [C] Montreal [D] York32. U.S. presidents normally serve a (n) term.[A] two-year [B] four-year [C] six-year [D] eight-year33. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S.?[A] Huston. [B] Boston. [C]Baltimore. [D] Philadelphia.34. is the state church in England.[A] The Roman Catholic Church [B] The Baptist Church[C] The Protestant Church [D] The Church of England35. The novel Emma is written by .[A] Mary Shelley [B] Charlotte Brontë [C] Elizabeth C. Gaskell [D] Jane Austen36. Which of the following is NOT a romantic poet?[A] William Wordsworth. [B] George Elliot.[C] George C. Byron. [D] Percy B. Shelley.37. William Sidney Porter, known as O. Henry, is most famous for .[A] his poems [B] his plays [C] his short stories [D] his novels38. Syntax is the study of .[A] language functions [B] sentence structures [C] textual organization [D] word formation39. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?[A] Arbitrariness. [B] Productivity.[C] Cultural transmission. [D] Finiteness.40. The speech act theory was first put forward by .[A] John Searle [B] John Austin [C] Noam Chomsky [D] M.A.K. Halliday参考答案：BBADA BCBDB2006年英语专八人文知识真题31. The President during the American Civil War was .[A] Andrew Jackson [B] Abraham Lincoln [C] Thomas Jefferson [D] George Washington32. The capital of New Zealand is .[A] Christchurch [B] Auckland [C] Wellington [D] Hamilton33. Who were the natives of Australia before the arrival of the British settlers?[A] The Aborigines. [B] The Maori. [C] The Indians. [D] The Eskimos.34. The Prime Minister in Britain is head of .[A] the Shadow Cabinet [B] the Parliament [C] the Opposition [D] the Cabinet35. Which of the following writers is a poet of the 20th century?[A] T. S. Eliot. [B] D.H. Lawrence. [C] Theodore Dreiser. [D] James Joyce.36. The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is written by .[A] Scott Fitzgerald [B] William Faulkner [C] Eugene O'Neill [D] Ernest Hemingway37. is defined as an expression of human emotion which is condensed into fourteen lines.[A] Free verse [B] Sonnet [C] Ode [D] Epigram38. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of .[A] reference [B] meaning [C] antonymy [D] context39. The words "kid, child, offspring" are examples of .[A] dialectal synonyms [B] stylistic synonyms[C] emotive synonyms [D] collocational synonyms40. The distinction between parole and langue was made by .[A] Halliday [B] Chomsky [C] Bloomfield [D] Saussure参考答案BCADA DBDBD2007年英语专八人文知识真题31. The majority of the current population in the UK are decedents of all the following tribes respectively EXCEPT .[A] the Anglos [B] the Celts [C] the Jutes [D] the Saxons32. The Head of State of Canada is represented by .[A] the Monarch [B] the President [C] the Prime Minister [D] the Governor-general33. The Declaration of Independence was written by .[A] Thomas Jefferson [B] George Washington[C] Alexander Hamilton [D] James Madison34. The original inhabitants of Australia were .[A] the Red Indians [B] the Eskimos [C] the Aborigines [D] the Maoris35. Which of the following novels was written by Emily Brontë?[A] Oliver Twist. [B] Middlemarch. [C] Jane Eyre. [D] Wuthering Heights.36. William Butler Yeats was a(n) poet and playwright.[A] American [B] Canadian [C] Irish [D] Australian37. Death of a Salesman was written by .[A] Arthur Miller [B] Ernest Hemingway[C] Ralph Ellis on [D] James Baldwin38. refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.[A] Phonology[B] Morphology[C] Semantics[D] Sociolinguistics39. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT .[A] lexical[B] syntactic[C] phonological [D] psycholinguistic40. The word "tail" once referred to "the tail of a horse", but now it is used to mean "the tail of any animal." This is an example of .[A] widening of meaning [B] narrowing of meaning[C] meaning shift [D] loss of meaning参考答案CDACD CABDA2008年英语专八人文知识真题31. The largest city in Canada is .A. VancouverB. MontrealC. TorontoD. Ottawa32. According to the United States Constitution, the legislative power is invested in .A. the Federal GovernmentB. the Supreme CourtC. the CabinetD. the Conress33. Which of the following is the oldest sport in the United States?A. Baseball.B. Tennis.C. Basketball.D. American football.34. The head of the executive branch in New Zealand is .A. the PresidentB. the Governor-GeneralC. the British monarchD. the Prime Minister35. The Caterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, is an important poetic work by .A. Willian LanglandB. GeoffreyC. William ShakespeareD. Alfred Tennyson36. Who wrote The American?A. Herman Melville.B. Nathaniel Hawthorne.C. Henry James.D. Theodore Dreiser.37. All of the following are well-know female writers in 20th-century Britain EXCEPT .A. George EliotB. Iris Jean MurdochC. Doris LessingD. Muriel Spark38. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Displacement.C. Duality.D.Diachronicity.39. What type of sentence is "Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry"?A simple sentence. B. A coordinate sentence. C. A complex sentence. D. None of the above.40. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called .A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. PolysemyD.homonymy参考答案BCADBBDACD2009年英语专八人文知识真题31. The Head of State of New Zealand is .[A] the governor-general [B] the Prime Minister[C] the high commissioner [D] the monarch of the United Kingdom.32. The capital of Scotland is .[A] Glasgow [B] Edinburgh [C] Manchester [D] London33. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence and later became the U.S. President?[A] Thomas Jefferson. [B] George Washington. [C] Thomas Paine. [D] John Adams.34. Which of the following cities is located on the eastern coast of Australia?[A] Perth. [B] Adelaide. [C] Sydney. [D] Melbourne.35. Ode to the West Wind was written by .[A] William Blake [B] William Wordsworth[C] Samuel Taylor Coleridge [D] Percy B. Shelley36. Who among the following is a poet of free verse?[A] Ralph Waldo Emerson. [B] Walt Whitman.[C] Herman Melville. [D] Theodore Dreiser.37. The novel Sons and Lovers was written by .[A] Thomas Hardy [B] John Galsworthy [C] D.H. Lawrence [D] James Joyce38. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is .[A] corpus linguistics [B] sociolinguistics[C] theoretical linguistics [D] psycholinguistics39. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called .[A] dialect [B] idiolect [C] pidgin [D] register40. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing .[A] an illocutionary act [B] a perlocutionary act [C] a locutionary act [D] none of the above答案31、D the monarch of the United Kingdom 32、B Edinburgh. 33、AThomas Jefferson. 34、C Sydney 35、D Percy B. Shelley36、B Walt Whitman. 37、C D.H. Lawrence. 38、D psycholinguistics.39、C pidgin. 40、A an illocutionary act.2010年英语专八人文知识真题31. Which of the following is INCORRECT?A. the British Constitution includes the Magna Carta of 1215B. the British Constitution includes Parliamentary actsC. the British Constitution includes decisions made by courts of law答案D：The British Constitution includes one single written constitution32. The first city ever founded in Canada isA. QuebecB. VancouverC. TorontoD. Montreal答案A：Quebec33. When did the Australian Federation officially come into being?A. B. 1788C. 1900D. 1901答案D：190134. The Emancipation Proclamation to end the plantation slavery in the south of US was issued byA. Abraham LincolnB. Thomas PaineC. George WashingtonD. Thomas Jefferson答案A：Abraham Lincoln35.Who was best known for the technique of dramatic monologue in his poems?A. Will BlakeB. W.B.YeatsC. Robert BrowningD. William Wordsworth答案C：Robert Browning36. The Financier was written byA. Mark TwainB. Henry JamesC.答案D：Theodore Dreiser37. In literature a story in verse or prose with a double meaning is defined asA. allegoryB. sonnetC. blank verseD. rhyme答案A：Allegory38.____ refers to the learning and development of a languageA. language acquisitionB. language comprehensionC. language productionD. language introduction答案A：language acquisition39. The word “motel”comes from “motor –hotel”. This is an example of “…”in morphology.A. backformationB. conversionC. blendingD. acronym答案C：blendingnguage is tool of communication, the symbol “highway closed”servesA. B.C. a performative function D. a persuasive function答案B：informative function2011年英语专八人文知识真题31. The northernmost part of Great Britain is _______.A. Northern IrelandB. WalesC. EnglandD. ScotlandTIP：选D。

英语系语言学考研讲解注意事项语言学是考研比较头疼的课程，以下几个复习中需要注意的问题，供你参考：第一，要注意基本概念和基本理论。

基本概念要烂熟于心，做到能见到概念就知道它属于哪个章节，基本内容是什么，对这个概念不同的语言学流派有什么不同的理解，你个人的见解又是什么。

基本理论要清楚，要知道在对待同一个问题时不同的理论是如何处理的，它们的哲学基础是什么？它们的理论前提是什么？它们的优势和弊端都是什么？你对这些理论有什么评价？第二，要注意对于基本理论的应用。

比如在音位学章节里，用区别性特征理论的研究结果来描写音位；在形态学里，用派生形态学的理论来解释构词法；在句法学里，用直接成分分析法和树形图来解释歧义句等等。

这些经典理论的运用在考试中是经常出现的。

第三，要注意语言学和其他学科的联系。

虽然在考试中主要考察语言学的核心学科，可是语言学和其它学科的交叉有时也占有一定的比例。

所以建议大家多看看相关的章节，掌握一下那个章节的概貌：比如说，社会语言学、二语习得、计算语言学、历史比较语言学等等。

第四，要注意创造性地理解和解释新现象。

在考试题目中，总会有些平时复习没有见过的语言材料让你来分析。

这时不要紧张，要仔细思考那其中所包含的信息，并检索自己知识系统中的相关理论去解释它。

要有创造性的见解。

第五，要多做练习。

英语语言学概论重点难点提示第一章概论语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第一章测试1.We should learn how to use the movable articulators such as _______________ allof which are very active in the active in the articulation of speech sounds.A:the lipsB:the vocal cordsC:the tongueD:the soft palate答案:ABCD2. A language consists of three important elements, namely _________________ .A:grammarB:vocabularyC:pronunciationD:listening答案:ABC3.The field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three subdisciplines:____________________ phonetics.A:auditoryB:acousticC:articulatoryD:phonology答案:ABC4.The vocal tract is formed by ________________ .A:mouthB:pharynxC:larynxD:nose答案:ABD5.Because British people tend to pronounce post-vocalic r sound, RP is rhotic.A:对B:错答案:B6.If phonetics deals with the physical reality of speech sounds, then phonology,on the other hand, is primarily concerned with how we interpret andsystematize sounds.A:错B:对答案:B7.The back rounded /ɔ/ is heard in British English in word such as not. In GA,this vowel sound is replaced with /a:/ .A:错B:对答案:B8.GA speakers use a great deal of weak forms to pronounce the unstressedsyllables, while RP speakers tend to pronounce both stressed and unstressed syllables very clearly.A:对B:错答案:B9.When we pronounce vowels and voiced consonants the vocal cords are keptapart and do not vibrate.A:对B:错答案:B10.Suprasegment features are features of speech which generally apply togroups of segments, or phonemes.A:错B:对答案:B第二章测试1.All consonants are voiced, while vowels can be voiced or voiceless.A:对B:错答案:B2.Schwa is a reduced vowel in stressed syllables, especially if syllabicconsonants are not used.A:对B:错答案:B3.In terms of syllable structure, vowels form the nucleus of the syllable. Theconsonants, on the other hand, occupy the onset or coda position.A:错B:对答案:B4.When a diphthong is pronounced, the first vowel sound is shorter, lower andweaker than the second one.A:对B:错答案:B5.There are five vowels in the alphabets, which represent all vowel sounds inEnglish language.A:对B:错答案:A6.All the speech sounds in the language can be classified into 4 groups: vowels,monophthongs, diphthongs and consonants.A:错B:对答案:A7.According to the distinctive feature theory, /ɔ/ and /a:/ differ from eachother by __________ .A:tongue positionB:tongue heightC:lengthD:lip posture答案:D8.The distinction between primary and secondary cardinal vowels is based onthe _______ position.A:vocal cordsB:soft palateC:lipsD:tongue答案:C9.Closing diphthongs end with a glide toward _______ or _______ .A:/ə/B:/ɔ/C:/i/D:/u/答案:CD10.The description of vowels relates to ________________ .A:tongue positionB:lengthC:lip postureD:tongue height答案:ABCD第三章测试1.In which word the letter b is not silent?A:doubleB:debtC:lambD:doubt答案:A2.English consonants can be classified in three ways, they are ( ).A:by the place of articulationB:by the manner of articulationC:by voicingD:by the loudness of sound答案:ABC3.[k] and [g] are pronounced by blocking the breath-stream with the back ofthe tongue and soft palate, building up the pressure, and suddenly releasing it.A:对B:错答案:A4.The consonants [f]，[v]，[t] ，[d] are fricatives.A:错B:对答案:A5.According to the features of consonants, [s] can be described as ( ).A:fricativeB:dentalC:aspiratedD:voiceless答案:ACD6.An affricate is a combination of a plosive and a ( ).A:lateralB:approximantC:fricativeD:nasal答案:C7. When pronouncing [ts], the tongue first sticks to the gums, blocks theairflow, and then raises.A:对B:错答案:B8.Which word does not contain the sound /m/?A:kindB:lambC:summerD:some答案:A9.There is no difference between English consonant /l/ and Chinese consonant/l/.A:对B:错答案:B10.Which of the following phonemes are approximant?A:/j/B:/l/C:/w/D:/r/答案:ACD第四章测试1. A syllable contains one and only one consonant.A:错B:对答案:A2.Secondary stress is more prominent than primary stress.A:对B:错答案:B3.Primary stress is often conveyed by changes in length, loudness, and pitch.A:对B:错答案:A4. A rhythm group contains more than one stressed syllable, together withunstressed syllables clustering about it or none.A:错B:对答案:A5.The notion of rhythm comes from the unstressed syllables. Word andsentence stress combine to create the rhythm of an English utterance.A:错B:对答案:A6.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: I am reading avery interesting novel?A:I, am, reading, novelB:readingC:very, interestingD:reading, very, interesting, novel答案:D7.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: Twenty isenough?A:is, enoughB:Twenty, is, enoughC:TwentyD:Twenty, enough答案:D8.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: The book that Ihave just read is hers?A:book, readB:book, justC:book, have, read, hersD:book, just, read, hers答案:D9.Which words are usually stressed in the following sentence: Who was that onthe phone?A:who, that, phoneB:who, wasC:who, was, that, phoneD:phone答案:A10.Which of the following words have their stress on the second syllable?A:AmericaB:introductionC:historicalD:sentence答案:AC第五章测试1.Progressive assimilation refers to the sounds assimilated are affected by thepronunciation of the preceding sounds.A:对B:错答案:A2.When /n/ is followed by /p/, /b/ or /m/, it becomes /ŋ/.A:对B:错答案:A3.It is a cluster of consonants. It could be two or three consonants.( )A:错B:对答案:B4. Gifts is initial consonant cluster. ( )A:对B:错答案:B5.Pronunciation is really about（）.A:throatB:tongueC:all of the aboveD:lips答案:C6.She sells seashells by the seashore. is ( ) in English.A:tongue twisterB:folk songC:sayingD:none of the above答案:A7.In the phrase “give me” which sound can be elided?( )A:/i/B:/v/C:/m/D:/g/答案:B8.Squeezing letters is the phenomenon of ( )A:consonant clusterB:incomplete explosionC:liasionD:elision答案:A9.Squeezing words is the phenomenon of ( )A:incomplete explosionB:elisionC:consonant clustersD:liasion答案:B10.Consonant clusters has_________.A:final clusterB:initial clusterC:medial clusterD:first cluster答案:ABC第六章测试1.What is the purpose of the speaker by saying “could you give me the ”?A:It is attracting attention.B:It is a polite request.C:It sounds like a command; the answer “yes” is expected.D:This is a question asking for information.答案:B2.Choose the standard intonation for the following sentences: 1. Can you try itout?2. When will you be ready?3. Come to the blackboard.4. Did he see hisfriend?A:rising, falling, rising, risingB:falling, falling, rising, fallingC:rising, falling, falling, risingD:falling, rising, falling, rising答案:C3.Which part carries maximal prominence in an intonation unit?A:nucleusB:pre-headC:tailD:head答案:A4.Which type of intonation is not the typical types of English intonation?A:falling intonationB:rising-falling intonationC:falling-rising intonationD:rising intonation答案:B5.The nucleus of the following sentence “I am WRIting a LETter to him.”is .A:ter to himB:LETC:WRIting aD:I am答案:B6. A nucleus is the first fully stressed syllable in an intonation unit.A:对B:错答案:B7.The focusing function of intonation is to show what information in anutterance is new and what is already know.A:错B:对答案:B8. A special question with falling intonation asks for information, while aspecial question with rising intonation usually signals more interest on the part of the speaker.A:对B:错答案:A9.In the sentence “The man works very hard, /doesn’t he?”, the speaker is surethat the man works very hard, and expects you to agree.A:对B:错答案:B10.The sentence “I have to buy bananas, apples, lemons and pears” should bespoken in rising intonation.A:错B:对答案:A。

12 maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant. it is put into the onset rather than the coda. . The correct syllabification of the word country should be第一章，填空1.The study of the meaning of lingustic words, phrases is callesde mantics.2.Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wild range of things free from barriers caused by4.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.6.Chomsky defines “ competencaes ”the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.nguage is a means of verbal communication. It is informative in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.8.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter ofnguage is distinguished from traffic lights in that the former has the designing feature of duality.10.In linguistics research, bothq uantity and quality approaches are preferred. 判断：11.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech, thus there are still many languages in today's have no √12.According to Chomsky, the word compentoetn lcime it”ed itso the ability of an ideal native speaker to construct and recognize. ×13.Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design features of human language.×14.Chomsky's competence' and performance are similar in meaning to Saussure 's langue and parole.√15,An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “bestauthors ”√for languag16.In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a of reasons. √17.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.× chochronic共时的ngue and parole is the fundamental distinction discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory ofdistinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Parole and language√.20. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been √选择:1.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior, it is said to bed escriptive2.I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago. This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of displacement.3.“ Don' t end a sentence with a preposition.thisp irse sacnr iepxtiavme rpulele os.f4.Which of the following is most referred to as a branch of the study of meaning in5.The synchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.6.The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentencesis calledp ragmatics.7.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is A 没照下图片arbitrary8.The descriptive of a language as it changes through time is dai achronic study.9.题目没照下来。

Chapter 1.1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific科学的、系统的study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.Why is linguistics a scientific study?Systematic Investigation of linguistic data, conducted with some general linguistic theories.1.3 Important distinctions in linguistics判断1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive规范性和描述性Descriptive---- describe / analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive----lay down rules for “corr ect and standard” behaviour in using language. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive•Don’t say X.•People don’t say X.The distinction: Describing how things arePrescribing how things ought to beModern linguistics vs. grammarModern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Grammar: to set models for language users to follow.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it "correct" or not.Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic同步性和历时性会定义Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.Synchronic or Diachronic?1.The change of vocabulary since China’s reform and opening up.2.The study of Internet language in 21st century.3.Pejorative Sense Development in English.4.The Categories and Types of Present-day English Word-Formation.1.3.4. Langue and parole语言和言语会概念(F. de Saussure:1857--1913 )Langue---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete.Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.1.3.5 Competence and performance 会定义(Chomsky)Competence-----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Similarity and difference between Saussure‟s distinction and that of ChomskySimilarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Difference: Chomsky’s competence-performance is from psychological point of view. Saussure’s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 要懂！判断就是下面四个Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2.2 design features of language 必须要会！Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity多产性Duality双重性Displacement位移性Cultural transmission 文化传播Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang…)Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixedrepertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desiresDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, fora far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be groupedand regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Cultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows thatlanguage is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.Chapter 2 phonology2.2 Phonetics2.2．1 What is phonetics?必须要会三个分支也要会Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language in isolation.It is concerned with production, transcription音译and classification of speech sounds.The production and perception of speech soundsSpeakerProduction Sound Waves Hearer Perception Articulatory Phonetics Acoustic Phonetics Auditory Phonetics发音语音学声学语音学听觉语音学（语音学的三个分支）2.2.3Orthographic正字法，拼字正确的representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcriptions 大致意思要懂Towards the end of 19th century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized andinternationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being.Exercise: Transcription of speech wordsTask: Write the phonetic symbol for the first sound in each word according to your pronunciation.Example: zoo /z/ psycho /s/a. Judge / /b. Thomas / /c. Phone / /d. Easy / /e. Usual / /The two sounds /t/ in “Student ”are really the same?The first “t” is unaspirated (不送气)The second “t” is aspirated (送气的)./ s t j u: d ən th /The four sounds /l/ are the same?Leaf /li:f/; feel /fi:l/; build /bild/; health /helθ/Clear [l] dark [ l ] dental [l]The aspirated /h/, the dark / / are both calledDiacritics (变音符号)Two Transcriptions 严式标音记到什么程度，宽式记音记到什么程度要懂Broad transcription: The letter-symbols only.宽式标音/ /Narrow transcription: The letter-symbols+diacritics严式标音[]2.4 Classification of English Speech sounds 音素的分类要知道Vowels [元音]Consonants [辅音] 元音和辅音放一起叫做音段音位，语调，音调和重音叫做超音段音位The difference between consonants and vowelsV owels: with no obstruction through the speech organsConsonants: with obstruction through the speech organs2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 要知道辅音的发音分类有哪几种English consonants can be classified in two ways:1. manner of articulation根据发音方式来分类2. place of articulation. 根据发音部位来分类2.3 PhonologyThe difference between phonetics & phonology 明白各自是干嘛的Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one,phonetic features; language universalPhonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific2.3.2Phone, Phoneme and allophone 理解含义判断题Phone音系: 1) a phonetic unit 是语音学的一个片段2) not necessarily distinctive of meaning 不需要区分意思3) physical as perceived 物理上能感知4) marked with [ ]Phoneme音位: 1) a phonological unit 是音系学的一个片段2) distinctive of meaning 要区分意思3) abstract, not physical 抽象，不能物理上区分4) marked with / /Allophone音位变体Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.在不同的语音学环境中代表着一个音素StudentPhones: [t] [th]Phoneme: /t/Allophone: [t] [th]Exercise(How many phones, phonemes and allophones?)Pit Spit TipLeaf, Feel, HealthBut May Rest2.3.3 phonetic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 要知道什么叫互补分布Complementary distributionComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. [t] [th] Two allophones2.3.4 some rules in phonology 3条规则要明白是什么意思判断题2.3.4.1 sequential rules 序列规则There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called Sequential rules (序列规则)1.What are possible sequences if 3 consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word?2.3.4.2 assimilation rule 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. （同化规则）3. Give examples to show how the assimilation rule works in English.2.3.4.3 deletion rules 省略规则Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. Deletion /g/ occurs before a final nasal consonant. Sign design…比如l r 后面只允许出现元音这是什么规则在约束它是同化规则在约束它错@！应该是序列规则在约束它要知道序列规则该怎么写2.3.5 suprasegmental features ----stress tone声调intonation语调只需知道超音段音位包括哪些就可以了英语中tone算不算超音段音位？不算所谓是音位，需要能够区分意义5. List different types of stress patterns that can distinguish meaning. (Task)1)To distinguish some nouns from their related verbs.` import (n.) —im` port (v.)`record (n.) —re`cord (v.)2) To distinguish compounds from noun phrases.`hotdog (n.) — hot `dog (phrase)3)To distinguish the compound combinations of -ing modifiers and nouns and the phrasalcombinations of-ing forms for the action and nouns for the doer.`sleeping car (compound) —ֽsleeping `boy (phrase)4)To distinguish content words from function words in sentences.He is `driving my `car.5)To emphasize to a certain part of a sentence.I prefer `small apples, those are far too large.7. What is the difference between tone and intonation?1)Tone refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is related to differences in wordmeaning.2)Intonation refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related todifferences in word meaning.Chapter 3 morphology 形态学morphology 的概念要会3.1 Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed. 词的内部结构的学习和词形成的规则3.2 open class and closed class 开放词类和封闭词类需要注意既不是开放的也不是封闭的词Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.封闭词类和开放词类就语法功能来说，词可分为：封闭词类（Closed Class）和开放词类（Open Class）。

Chapter 3: The Sounds of English. Consonants and Vowels. An Articu-latory Classification and Description. Acoustic Correlates3.1. Consonants and Vowels. Traditional distinctions. Chomsky andHalle’s SPE definition3.2. Criteria for consonant classification. Vocal cord vibration. Sonority3.3. Manner of articulation. Plosives. Fricatives. Affricates3.4. Sonorants. The Approximants: glides and liquids3.5. Oral and nasal articulation3.6. Force of articulation3.7. Place of articulation3.8. The Description of English consonantsA. The ApproximantsB. The English StopsC. The English FricativesD. The English AffricatesCHAPTER 3THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH. CONSONANTSAND VOWELS. AN ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION ANDDESCRIPTIONOF CONSONANTS.DISTRIBUTION.ACOUSTIC CORRELATES3.1. Consonants and Vowels. Traditional distinctions. Chomskyand Halle’s SPE definitionThe previous chapter has provided a brief description of the human phonatory system insisting on the main articulatory organs and differentiating between passive and active articulators. Articulatory phonetics has been defined as that branch of phonetics that studies the sounds of a language from the point of view of their articulation, of the manner in which they come to be produced, uttered by the speaker. The next chapters of this book will give the description and attempt a classification of the sounds of English in articulatory terms, presenting also some acoustic correlates of the major classes of sounds.When trying to describe the sounds of English – or of any language for that matter – one should start with the traditional distinction between two major classes of sounds: vowels and consonants, respectively. There is, of course, no universally accepted definition for either class – is there any subject upon which grammarians will agree, after all? – but we can resort, at last for the beginning, to etymology, to explain what people –in an intuitive rather than scholarly manner – have always understood by the two concepts. The word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, which in its turn derives from vox, vocis, meaning word, voice, (cf. also Rom. vocală) In other words, we always perceive vowels as sound intimately related to the feature of voicedness: a vowel is a sound that must be produced with vocal cord vibration. That this is a feature that characterizes some non-vocalic sounds is something that will be discussed a little bit later. On the other hand, the word consonant suggests – again, on a strictly etymological basis – that the respective sound doesn’t have an articulatory autonomy, or, to put it differently, that it has to sound together (Lat. consonans, present parrticiple of consonare cf. also Lat. consona, Rom.consoană) or be pronounced in association with other sounds. This is again something that we are somehow intuitively aware of, or at least we were taught that this was the case as early as during our first language classes in primary school. That this is a definition that causes some serious problems is again something that will be soon discussed.As pointed out before, these etymological references are not very helpful in understanding the true nature of the differences between the two classes of sounds. Though always voiced, vowels are by no means the only voiced sounds in a language. On the other hand, sounds that don’t have consonantal features, may very well be pronounced together with other sounds. Further difficulties are created by the ambiguous nature of certain sounds that have both vocalic and consonantal features.The somewhat intuitive criteria (seldom explicitly expressed, however)1 had to be replaced by systematic and consistent attempts at defining the true nature of the differences between the two classes.According to Ferdinand de Saussure, what distinguishes vowels from consonantsis the higher degree of aperture of the oral cavity. From an articulatory point of view, the two classes are not, however, essentially different. It is only from an acoustic point of view that distinctions are relevant; the laryngeal sound being amplified by the oral cavity that functions primarily as a resonator in the case of vowels, while in the case of consonants it reduces the resonance of the laryngeal sounds, a noise-like effect being produced by the intercession of oral articulators.2Leonard Bloomfield defines vowels as ”modifications of voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips” while consonants (that include stops, trills, spirants, nasals and laterals) are “the other” sounds. Bloomfield deplores the way in which the two labels, vowels and consonants respectively, are used and argues that in the description of individual languages it is convenient to use the terms in a different way and to supplement this distinction made in articulatory terms.1 Kenneth Pike notes that “frequently for description of single languages the division is assumed, with no attempt to define it. The distinction is often presented as if it were clear-cut, with every sound belonging to one or the other of the groups” (1943: 66)2 La formule d’une voyelle est exactement comparable à celle de n’importe quelle consonne sonore. Au point de vue de l’articulation buccale, il n’y a pas de distinction à faire. Seul l’effet accoustiqueest différent. Passé un certain degré d’aperture, la bouche fonctionne principalement comme résonateur. Le timbre du son laryngé apparaît pleinement et le bruit buccal s’efface. Plus la bouche se ferme, plus le son laryngé est intercepté. (1965: 75)He suggests that the distinction should be refined by adding two more classes: sonants and semivowels. (1935:102)Arguing in favour of a strict delimitation between the phonetic (articulatory and acoustic) descriptions of sounds and their phonemic, contrastive value in a given context, Pike3 distinguishes between contoid and vocoid sounds, a division exclusively based on phonetic characteristics that parallels the distinction consonants/vowels that are “categories of sounds, not as determined by their own phonetic nature, but according to their grouping in specific syllable contextual functions”. According to this interpratation we can talk about universal, purely phonetic features of contoids and vocoids respectively, while each particular language (phonological system) will delineate its own classes of consonants and vowels.Many contemporary linguistic studies follow Chomsky and Halle (The Sound Pattern of English, 1968) in postulating the fact that the main distinction between vowels and consonants consists in the fact that while we utter a vowel the outgoing airstream does not meet any major obstacle or constriction in its way from the lungs out of the mouth, and the articulation of the sound allows spontaneous voicing, whereas the articulation of a consonant always involves some kind of blocking of the airstream.4 Once we have decided that consonants are sounds that involve a stricture (narrowing, which can sometimes lead to a complete obstruction) of the vocal tract, we will easily notice that what we have just decided to call consonants are far from being a homogeneous class. On the other hand, it is obvious that consonants will be more readily described in articulatory terms than vowels since it will be definitely easier to point to the precise organs involved in the process of articulation and to the place where the above mentioned constriction takes place.3 “A phonetic system should be able, within the limits of the accuracy and finesse of its articulatory, acoustic, or imitation-label procedures, to describe any sound in isolation, or in nonsense syllables, or as cut from the continuum of speech, without the necessity of referring to other sounds in the context to find criteria for its classification. A phonetic science should be able to define and describe its own units by its own data… If the phonetician first delimits supposed articulatory classes by phonemic features, how can he then describe the phonemes with articulatory methods? Any such attempt presents a vicious circle of phonemics to phonetics to phonemics, with the phonetician starting at phonemics.” (1943: 78)4 Vocalic sounds are defined as sounds “produced with an oral cavity in which the most radical constriction does not exceed that found in the high vowels [i] and [u] and with vocal cords that are positioned so as to allow spontaneous voicing; in producing nonvocalic sounds one or both of these conditions are not satisfied.” Consonantal sounds are defined as sounds “produced with a radical obstruction in the midsagittal region of the vocal tract; nonconsonantal sounds are produced without such an obstruction” (1968: 302)。

Classification of English ConsonantsGong Bingbing English speech sounds are generally divided into V owels and Consonants. They differ in the way they are articulated: V owels are produced without obstruction of the air stream in the mouth. In producing them there is vibration of the vocal cords, so all vowels are voiced. Consonants are produced by some form of obstruction of the air passage, so they are either voiced or voiceless. This paper mainly deals with the classification of English consonants as to give a clear picture to English teachers who teach English phonetics or consonants proper. English consonants can be classified into sets or classes on the basis of the following three phonetic criteria or features:1) The work of the vocal cords.2) Place of articulation.3) Manner of articulation.2.1 The work of the vocal cords.The larynx contains two cords, or bands which may close off air completely ,or may be kept open, permitting them to vibrate while allowing air to pass through. Certain English consonants are voiced (involving vibration of vocal bands) while others are voiceless(the vocal cords are not vibrating).2.2 Place of articulation.Place of articulation refers to the important parts of the vocal tract which are used in making the sound. These include the lips,various parts of the tongue, the teeth, the alveolar ridge ( the ridge of gum, behind th upper teeth), the soft and hard palates, the vocal cords, and the glottis. BilabialsThe sounds are formed using both upper and lower lips. English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].LabiodentalsThese are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lips. English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].DentalsThese sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth The term interdenta l is sometimes used to describe a manner of pronunciation with the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth . English interdental sounds include [θ]and [ð].AlveolarsAlveolar sounds are formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. English alveolars include: [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l]Alveo-palatalsSounds which are produced with the tongue at the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge, are called alveo-palatals. English alveo-palatal sounds include.[ʃ], [ʒ], [ tʃ]and [dʒ] RetroflexesIn retroflex sounds, the tongue tip is curled up and back. Retroflexes can be classed asapico-postalveolar, though not all apico-postalveolars need to be curled backward enough to count as retroflex. The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is [r]. For most North Americans, the tongue tip is curled back in [r], though not as much as it is in languages that have true retroflexes. Many other North Americans use what is called a "bunched r" -- instead of curling their tongues back, they bunch the front up and push it forward to form an approximant behind the alveolar ridgePalatalsOne sound which is produced with the tongue in the middle of the palate is the [y] sound to be found at the beginning of words like you and yet. This sound is usually described as a palatal. velarsThe active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include [k],[g], and [ŋ].glottalsThis isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere. Glottal sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut off all airflow through the vocal tract. In [h], the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air passing between them creates friction noise.2.3 Manner of articulationIf we wish to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we have placed in the same category, we may use another way of describing sounds in terms of how they are articulated.PlosivesThe air is completely stopped at some point in the mouth by the lips or tongue-tip ortongue-back and then released with a slight explosion. Consonants which are produced in this way are: [p],[b],[t],[d],[k] and [g]FricativesThe manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds involves almost blocking the airstream, and having the air push through the narrow opening. Consonants which are produced in this way are:[f], [v], [θ],[ð],[s], [z]and [h]AffricatesThey are special kind of plosive in which the tongue or lips begin the poison for a plosive, but there is a slow release so that the corresponding fricative is heard after the explosions. Consonants which are produced in this way are: [tʃ],[dʒ],[tr],[dr],[ts]and [dz]NasalsIn articulating all nasal consonants the soft palate is lowered and at the same time the mouth passage is blocked at some point so that all the air is pushed out of the nose. Consonants which are produced in this way are: [m], [n] and [ŋ]LateralOne sound [l] is produced when the tongue-tip slightly touches the teeth ridge while the sides of the tongue are lowered to form a rather wide passage, the passes at the sided of the tongue without friction.ApproximantsIn the set of sounds called approximants, the articulation of each is strongly influenced by the following vowels sound. Indeed, the sound [w] and [y] are sometimes called 'semi-vowels' or'glides', because they are typically produced with the tongue moving, or 'gliding', to or from the position of a nearby vowel.Appendix:English consonants chartbilabial labio-dentaldentalalveolaralveo-palatal retroflexpalatalvelarstopfricativenasalapproximant () r()affricatelateral。

对外经济贸易大学2006年语言学考研真题考试科目：专业英语Section OneMultiple Choice Questions（15points）（1）Virtually every sentence that a person utters or understands is a brand-new combination of words, appearing for the first time in the history of the universe. Therefore, a language cannot be a repertoire of responses; the brain must contain a recipe or program that can build an unlimited set of sentences out of a finite list of words. That program may be called a _______grammar. It should be not confused with ____or____ grammars that are just guides to the etiquette of written prose.a) Proscriptive-teaching-mentalb) Mental-prescriptive-descriptivec) Teaching- descriptive-mentald) Mental-teaching- descriptive（2）The consonant [ s] in the word ―smile‖ can be described as :a) voiceless oral alveolar fricativeb) voiceless nasal bilabial liquidc) voiced oral alveolar plosived) voiced oral bilabial fricative（3）Which of the following is not a minimal pair?a) [li:f] [fi:l] b) [sip] [zip]c) [sai] [sei] d) [leit] [feit]（4）Which of the following words is formed by the process of blending?a) WTO b) Motel c）Bookshelf d) red-faced（5）Deter mine which of the following description is the symptom of Wernicke‘s aphasia?a) The patients are often referred to as agrammatic because of their particularproblems with syntax, especially, with damage to the frontal cortex.b)These patients produce ordinary fluent speech with good intonation andpronunciation, but with many word substitutions.c)These patients produce ungrammatical utterances omitting function wordslike ‗a‘ or ‗the‘ or ‗was‘ and parts of words like the past tense suffix –ed.d) They are characterized by word-finding difficulties and disturbed word order. （6）The statement that supports the argument that human brain is structured in a form of module is________-a) Mental grammar is unconscious.b) People do not have UG when they are born.c) Patients can have split-brains.d)The relationship between sound and meaning of a word is arbitrary.(7) The speech act theory was developed by____________.a)John Searle b)John Austin c) Levinson d) G. Leech(8) In Krashen's monitor theory, "i" in "i + 1" hypothesis of second language acquisition refers to__________.a) interaction b) interference c) input d) intake(9) Wave model is a way created to represent___________.a) sense relations b) semantic fieldc) syntagmatic relations d) language families(10) Which of the following does not belong to the computational linguistics？a) machine translation b) corpus linguisticsc) speech recognition d) empirical study(11) Synonyms in English can be divided into three different categoriesa) noun synonym, verb synonym, adjective synonymb) dialectal synonym, stylistic synonym, relational synonymc)dialectal synonym, complementary synonym, collocational synonymd) dialectal synonym, stylistic synonym, collocational synonym(12) The statement "have never seen the man before" indicates ____________of the illocutionary point.a) directives b) expressives c) representatives d) commissives(13) Which of the following is NOT one of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?a) the maxim of quantity b) the maxim of qualityc) the maxim of manner d) the maxim of strength(14) V ocabulary change in language can include all excepta) addition of new words b) simplification of word formsc) loss of words d) changes of word meaning(15) According to the theory of conversational implicature, in the conversation "A: Shall we get something for the kids? B：Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M, ‗B‘s implicature is____________.a) I don't want the kids to know we are talking about getting them some ice-cream.b) I want to tell the kids how to spell the word before they eat it.c) I agree to get something for the kids, but not the ice-cream.d) I want to emphasize that what the kids will get is ice-cream, not hamberger. Section TwoDetermine whether the following statements are true or false and mark each witha "T" or "F".(10point.)1) English consonants can be classified two categories: voiced and voicelessconsonants.2) Wherever humans exist, language exists.3) All human language utilize a finite set of discrete units to form an infinite set of possible sentences.4) The word of ― impossibility‖ contains four morphemes.5)Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air isforced through a narrow passage.6)The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are allphonemes.7)There are primitive languages—Some languages are more complex and notequally capable of expressing any idea in the world.8)Phonology and grammar are infinite, tightly structured systems, the child does nothave to master them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language.9)loss of identity.10)WA stem is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed withouttotal hen varieties of language are classified in respect of their users, they are called registers.Section ThreeTry to explain in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved. (10 points)a)He looked over the chair.b)I dislike naughty boys and girls.c)They are flying planes.d)He saw a piece of wood.e)She found the drill boring.f)They are lying on the grass.g)They are amazed by those matches.h)The men decided on the train.i)Mary and Jack or Bill frightened the cat.j)They fed her dog biscuits.Section FourTry to improve and write the following sentences by eliminating the redundant words or phrases. (10 points)a)The candidate repeated the answer again.b)His solution was equally as good as hers.c)He expressed a number of clear expressions much to the audience‘s delight.d)The exam was very trying, and I kept trying to finish on time without making toomany errors.e)In many cases students profit from the research paper.f)Her gossip was of a sordid and ugly character.g)In spite of the fact that she is lazy, I like her.h)Speed is also an important factor.i)He glanced at her in a suspicious manner.j) She seldom talks on any subject of controversial nature.Section FiveAnswer the following questions. (35 points)1.Give three examples to show the distinctive function of juncture in English. (5points)2.What are the differences between morphs and allomorphs? Please illustrate withone or two examples. (5 points)3.Try to analysis the following words by IC analysis. (3 points)Undesirable Gentlemanly Replacements4.Think carefully about the following two sentences, A and B. Then answer thequestions that follow. (7 points)A.His crime was killing someone. (He killed someone, and that was a crime.)B.His crime was killing someone. (The crime itself actually killed someone.)a)The main verb is BE in sentenceb)The main verb is transitive in sentencec)―What was his crime?‖ is a question ofd)―What was his crime killing?‖ is a question ofe)―What was his crime doing?‖ is a question off)―His crime wasn‘t killing someone‖ is a negative ofg)The word crime can be replaced by concrete animate nouns likebrother only in5.How many types of style deviations did G. Leech mention in his study of stylistics?Please choose to explain at least five types of them with examples. (5 points)6.In what way are sentence meaning and utterance meaning differ from each other?Give one example to illustrate your points. (5 points)7.Try to understand the following two paragraphs, and describe and comment whattwo contrasting approaches or perspectives of language studies each of the quotes represent. (5 points)a) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know ahuman language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. ( Chomsky )b)It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, butuntil we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. This enables use to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. ( Halliday ).参考答案Section One(1) d (2) a (3) a (4) b (5) a (6) c (7) b (8) c (9) d (10) d(11) d (12) d (13) d (14) d (15) aSection Two(1) T(2) F(At the primitive period of human beings, there wasn't language.)(3) T(4) F("im-" "possibl-" "-ity")(5) F(Bilabial consonant is made with two lips,and the consonant that is producedwhen the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passageis called Fricative. )(6) F(Those are phones.)(7) F(There should be no classification of primitive language and civilized language.)(8) F(9) T(10) F(Registers are varieties of language classified according to the using of Language; while dialects are classified in respect of users.)Section Threea) From the IC analysis, the sequence "looked over the tree" could be illustrated in this way:(looked(over(the tree))) ((looked over)(the tree))Semantically, the different interpretations of the word "over" contribute to the ambiguity of the sentence. It could mean "Above and across from one end or side to the other" and also "Completely through, from beginning to end".b) The IC analysis of the sequence "naughty boys and girls" could be illustrated like this:(naughty(boys and girls)) ((naughty boys)and girls)This makes the sentence interpreted differently as: "I dislike naughty boys and naughty girls "and "I dislike girls and naughty boys".In terms of semantics, the semantic feature of "and" results in the ambiguity of the sentence. It could combine individual words like "boys" and "girls", and also phrases like "naughty boys" and "naughty girls".c) According to Generative Grammar, the sentence can have two different deep structures.d) The verb "see" is semantically polysemous in that it could refer to "to perceive with eyes" and also "to understand". Similarly, the phrase "a piece of wood" could also be interpreted as the actual wood and the metaphorical meaning "a part of the whole thing". Thus, the sentence could be interpreted as "He saw with his eyes a piece of wood" as its literal meaning and "He understood only a small part of the whole" as the metaphorical meaning.e) The ambiguity results in the polysemous words ―drill‖ and ―bore‖ in the sentence. The word ―drill‖ could refer to an implement or a kind of training; and ―bore‖ means ―to make a hole with a drill‖ or ―to make weary by being dull‖. Therefore, the senten ce may probably mean ―She found that the drill was digging‖ and ―She found that the training was tedious‖.f) The polysemous characteristic of word ―lie‖ contributes to the ambiguity of the sentence. Generally speaking, this verb could refer to either ―to be or place oneself at rest in a flat, horizontal, or recumbent position‖ or ―to present false information with the intention of deceiving‖. Thus, the sentence could be interpreted as ―They are not telling the truth on the grass‖.g) The word ―match‖ could be interpreted in different ways: ―A pair, each one of which resembles or harmonizes with the other‖, or ―A game or context‖, or ―A narrow piece, usually of wood or cardboard, coated on one end with a compound that ignites when scratched against a rough o r chemically treated surface.‖ Therefore, the meaning if the sentence is correspondingly ambiguous.h) ―On the train‖ could be interpreted differently due to the nature of ―on‖. One is to interpret this phrase referring to location, and the other is to tak e it ―relating to the train, concerned with the train‖. Correspondingly, the sentence has two different meanings: ―The place he decided was on the train‖ and ―He made a decision about the train‖.i) The ambiguity results in different ways to treat the sequ ence ―Mary and Jack or Bill‖.To illustrated in IC analysis would be like this:(Mary and (Jack and Bill)) ((Mary and Jack) or Bill)In terms of semantics, the semantic feature of ―or‖ results in the ambiguity of the sentence.It could combin e individual words like ―Jack‖ and ―Bill‖, and also phrases like ―Mary and Jack‖ and ―Bill‖.j) The sentence could be interpreted differently in respect of the deep structure.The identicalness of the possessive adjective case and the objective case of the pronoun ―she‖ contributes to the ambiguity of the sentence. When ―her‖ is regarded as the objective case, it would be taken as the indirect object of the verb ―fed‖; when ―her‘ is seen as the possessive adjective case, it then would be take as the modif ier of the noun ―dog‖.Section Foura)The candidate repeated the answer.b)His solution was as good as hers.c)He made a number of clear expressions much to the audience‘s delight.d)The exam was very challenging, and I kept trying to finish on time withoutmaking too many errors.e)Many students profit from the research people.f)Her gossip was of a sordid character.g)In spite that she is lazy, I like her.h)Speed is also important.i)He glanced at her suspiciously.j)She seldom talks on any controversial subjects.Section Five1.English employs four kinds of juncture for differentiating words and phrases.There is close juncture for intra-syllabic segments, syllable juncture between syllable, rhythm juncture between words, and pause juncture. Different junctures reflect different levels in the prosodic structure hierarchy in continuous speech.For example, as to the word ―bird‖ [bə:d], the juncture between [b] and [ə:] makes them realized distinctly and so is the transition from [b] to [ə:]. And the diphthong [iə] reveals the intra-syllabic juncture of the wor d ―here‖[hiə]. Juncture words cause such differences in sound as that created by the pronunciation of blackbird (one word) and black bird (two words).2. A morph is the phonetic realization of a morpheme. In some sense it correspondsto a wordform. A morpheme is manifested as one or more morphs (surface forms) in different environments. These morphs are called allomorphs. Anallomorph is a morph that has a unique set of grammatical or lexical features. For example, /z/ in ―dogs, beds‖; /s/ in ―cats‖; /iz/ in ―garages‖ , all these three morphs are different representations of the same morpheme of plurality. Because they belong to the same morpheme, they are also called allomorphs.3.undesirable gentlemanly replacements4.a)A b) B c) A d) B e) B f) A g) B5.There are certain structural differences between poetic language and standardlanguage. These violations or de-automatizations or foregroundings or differences are called deviations. Leech has classified nine types of deviation.(1) Lexical deviation. Neologism refers to the invention of new words, but we call some new words nonce-formations if they are made up ―for the nonce‖, that is , for a single occasion only, rather than as serious attempts to augment the English word-stock for some new need. For example, in Hopkins‘ poem The Wretch of the Deutschland, ―The widow-making unchilding unfathering deeps.”（2）Grammatical deviation. An example of this type of deviation is illustrated in the repetition of generative construction. ―Our hearts‘ clarity‘s health‘s fire, our thoughts‘chivalry‘s throng‘s Lord.‖(Hopkins, The Wretch of the Deutschland)(3) Phonological deviation.(4) Graphological deviation.(5) Semantic deviation. It is reasonable to translate semantic deviation mentally into ―nonsense‖or ―absurdity‖, so long as we realize that ―sense‖is used in strictly liter-minded way. For example, ―The child is the father of the man‖(a line from Wordsworth.)(6) Dialectal deviation. Dialectism is the borrowing of features of regionally defined dialects. It is quite often used by storytellers and humorists. For example, in The Shepherd‘s Calendar, Spencer uses homely provincial words like ―heydeguys‖ (a type of dance), ―rontes‖ (young bullock), and so on..(7) Deviation of register.(8) Deviation of historical period.(9) The use of foreign language. The use of foreign language may suggest the speaker‘s high education or an attempt to catch fashion. It is often found in literature. For example, many Chinese people use some foreign languages while speaking in Chinese ―见面说hello,来是come,去是go‖.6. 参见北京师范大学2003年“英语语言学”题Ⅴ答案。

Consonants in English (II)Main aims of the lesson:To teach students some skills in articulating the consonant clusters and other difficult sounds so as to help them avoid the tendency of inserting a vowel sound in between. Contents of the lesson & PurposesConsonant clustersTo raise the students awareness that Chinese has very few clusters.To help the students avoid the tendency of inserting a vowel, and to get used to the physical feeling of putting consonant sounds together.Other sound difficultiesTo assist the students to overcome some difficult phonemes resulting from the absence in Chinese sound system.To raise the students awareness of more complex difficulties,as /l/ for /n/ or vice versa Activities and Procedures1. Raise awareness of a pronunciation issue, or as practice of a point which has been investigated and explained in a lesson.2. Study the characteristics of the consonant clusters and point out the problems Chinese learners may have producing them.3. To integrate pronunciation work into communicative activities.4. Design a variety of classroom activities for focusing on consonant clusters and other sound difficulties in the classroom.5. Have the students listen to the tapes, imitate the sound in focus and make a good discrimination of the sounds.6. Deal with a sound in isolation, if necessary, in the classroom and help students towards more successful pronunciation of the particular consonant which is having an effect on communication and intelligibility.7. Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers of English and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.8. Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation duringthe next session.3. Consonant clustersConsonant clusters are the consonant sounds which occur together, as inmatchbox / m bkɒs/) can provide many difficulties for learners, particularly when the cluster in question is not possible in Chinese. English words can have up to three consonants together at the beginning (as in splendid / splend d/) and up to four at the end (as in sixths /s ks s/ or glimpsed / l mpst/). Chinese, by contrast, has very few clusters, and consonant (C) plus vowel (V) sounds tend to occur frequently (CV), withoccasionally nasal sounds at the end to form CVC pattern. Thus, Chinese learners may tend to insert a vowel sound into a consonant cluster, and add a vowel at the end of a word, resulting in realisations such as / s p l d d / for splendid.Chinese learners also find particular clusters difficult, and bring habits across into English, such as incomplete plosion: people, table, lateral plosion: little, needle; nasal plosion: happe, certain, bacon.As clusters are a common feature of English, they will come up very often in daily communication, whether this be within an item of vocabulary, or in the juxtaposition of sounds.3. 1 PlosivesIncomplete plosivesPlosives + Plosivesa ct ive / bla ckb oard / boo kc ase / po st-c ard / Se pt ember / pu t d own / we t g round /nex t d oor / sto p t alking / kee p q uiet / ta ke c are / no t b ad / grea t c oncern / har d t imes / qui te d ifferent / was te t ime / a grea t d ealPlosives + FricativesFriendshi p f irst / ol d f riends / ste p f orward / re d f lags / a brigh t f uture / swee tf lowers / ri pe f ruit / a comple te f ailure / a dv ance / a dv ice / a kin d v oice / a one-side dv iew / firs t v isit / secon d v olume / constan t v igilance / a comple te v ictoryJus t th ink / a thousan d th anks / ge t th rough / ta ke th ree / brigh t th ought / the righ tth ing / abstrac t th eory / bla ck th read / ge t th ere / jus t th en / ta ke th is / as k th emre d s tars / brigh t s ky / firs t s tep / kee p s ilent /shor t s tories / fol k s ongs /dee p s now /a grea t s uccess / a goo d s eason / a bi g z oo / a goo d z ipperBoo ksh elves / firs t sh ift / don’t sh out / loo k sh arp / ma ke s ure / a goo d sh ot /a smar t sh irt / a publi c sh owPlosives + Affricateswh ite ch alk / grea t ch anges / lou d ch eers / a goo d tr y / a goo d ch ild / the firs tch apter / a bi t dr y / a secon d ch oice / a goo d j ob / a bla ck j acket / a bi g tr ee / a bi g j ar /a har d j ourney / excellen t j udgment / a fas t tr ain / a swee t dr eam / a col d dr ink1) Nasal Plosion/ p b / / t d / / k g /o pen cot ton ba conhap pen but ton bro kensu bm it moun tain thickenca bm an sud den si gn alsu bn ormal hid den i gn orantri pe n uts mi dn ight fra gm entsto p n ow no t m ine ta ke m inesto p m oaning goo d m orning dar k n ightkee p m arching atten d m eetings a qui ck m overo b m oney don’t kn ow a bi g m anso b n oisily a t n oon a bi g n osegli b m anners no t n ow a ra g m erchant2) Lateral Plosion/ p b / / t d / / k g /sim ple lit tle ta cklepeo ple bot tle un cleap ple hospi tal twin klecou ple capi tal medi caltri ple den tal surgi caltrou ble mid dle ea gleta ble han dle an glesym bol can dle strug glestum ble noo dle wrig gleu p l ate a t l ast tal k l essste p l ively a t l east a sic k l eaveru b l ightly the secon d l ongest a bi g l adBo b l ied a goo d l eader a fro g l eg2. Deaspiration1) after / s /spell star schoolsport strong scarcespring stand skinexpensive extensive excuseexperience extreme exclusive2) after accented syllableshappy city luckypaper letter ticketsupper after worker1) before accented syllablespolice today collect4) in word linkinglook at it pick it up first of all best of all a lot ofput it up not at all take it away think of it back in a minute4. Other sound difficultiesOther sound difficulties and transferences from Chinese can, of course, alsocause difficulties. Sometimes the difficulties may be due to the absence of a phoneme in Chinese: Chinese, for example, does not have / /, and so, understandably, Chinese learners may have difficulties with this phoneme in English. Sometimes the difficulty is a little more complex: for example, in Chinese, thewritten letter ‘w’is sometimes pronounced as /v/, leading to pronunciations like /v n/, for wine, occasionally the reverse happens, and very might become / weri:/. The exercises in the following can be practised in various ways, whether forraising awareness of a pronunciation issue, or as practice of a point which has been investigated and explained in a lesson.4.1 Nasals1) compare Chinese ‘n’and ‘nŋ’真冷，真正冷，人人都很冷，猛得一阵风，更冷。

English ConsonantsThe Stop Consonants/ p / pick park pork peace pool put top hope lip step / step by step / pay the bill/ b / big but bill bell web rob rub rib / a big park / job after job / push the bike/ t / tea tell take time eat hurt hot wait / tell the time /some hot tea / went on foot/ d / deep dark dog read red sad / read the card / Dick's daughter Diana doesn't like dancing/ k / key king kept cat can cost /Cut your coat according to your cloth. /look for work/ g / get gas gun pig bag beg /A good beginning makes a good ending. /a big bagThe Friction Consonants/ f / feet fit fat left off life laugh cough enough / feel fine / a lovely figure/ v / voice vote victory leave save live / very fast / save the safe / cover the leaves/ ѳ / thin thank third breath bath both / a thousand thanks / the third month/ ð / the this than teethe breathe clothe / neither father nor mother / further and further/ s / set soft side pass piece purse / a soft voice /pass the salt /lost the purse/ z / zeal zero zoo lose has rose / houses and horses / boys and girls/ ∫ / shout show sharp fish wash fresh / show me the fish / a sharp shell/ ʒ / measure treasure vision decision invasion /Mr. Mash sells fish and shellfish fresh from the ocean. / h / hill help hurry hour honest ghost /Hugh has hurt his hand with a heavy hammer./ r / read rat prince press brave bright cream crazy green group free fruit three through The Affricate Consonants/ t∫ / cheap chalk chose each watch reach / a cheap watch / chose a chair / reach the church/ dʒ / join joke jeep large bridge age / the edge of the bridge/ tr / true train try tree treat / dry the straw(稻草) / a train and a truck/ dr / dry dream drink drive drop draw / a strong drink /a strange dream/ ts / seats gets cats lots sorts lets / coats and shorts /lots of kites/dz / beds cards birds words lids / odds and ends (零星杂物) / hundreds of guardsThe Nasal Consonants/ m / meet mix more team harm room / some women / a warm morning /time for home / n / need next north soon learn pain / nine nights / seven men / a new moon/ ŋ / ring singing longer king link angry / sing a song / an English song an angry monkey The Lateral Consonants/ l / leave let look meal call mile oil / live and learn / a little girl / Don't spoil the child. The Semi Vowels/ w / week wait water wide wear what / a quiet queen / when and where / while waiting / j / yet young yesterday use unit unique / a year in Europe / a new yard / New York/ sp / spy speak spark/ st / stay star story/ sk / sky school skate。

英语的辅音分类（双语）英语中有48个因素，按照发音时气流是否受阻，分为元音音素和辅音因素两大类。

其中元音因素有20个，辅音因素有28个。

音标是记录因素的符号。

目前，我国通用的国际音标共有48个，其中，元音音标20个，辅音音标28个。

Classifications of English consonants辅音分类The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.英语的辅音可从四个方面进行分类。

（1）the position of the soft palate:软腭位置（2）the presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration声带的振动与否（3）the place of articulation发音部位（4）the manner of articulation发音方式详细介绍：（1）the position of the soft palate软腭位置：①鼻腔辅音②口腔辅音①Nasal consonants鼻腔辅音：When the soft palate（velum）is lowered,the airstream from the lungs will have access to the nasal cavity as well as to the oral cavity.The consonants produced in this way are called nasal consonants.当软腭降低,来自肺部的气流接近鼻腔以及口腔。

以这种方式产生的辅音叫做鼻腔辅音。

②Oral consonants口腔辅音：When the soft palate（velum）is raised against the back of throat，the airstream can have access only to the oral cavity.The sounds produced in this way are called oral consonants.当软腭提高到喉咙后面,气流可以只能接近口腔。