托福阅读-The Development of Instrumental Music(T58P1)

2018年5月26日托福阅读真题解析2018年5月26日的托福阅读考试终于结束了，同学们是不是非常的兴奋，是不是想了解自己考得怎么样呢？下面就和店铺一起来看看2018年5月26日托福阅读真题解析。

Passage One学科分类：社会题目：Two forces of urban growth内容回忆：首段：首先说城市增长有很多原因，比如经济增长、交通发展、科技进步。

然后除了这些之外引入了两个概念：centrifugal（分散化）和centripetal（中心化）。

（分类讨论）然后介绍manufact uring的发展对于城镇发展的促进作用：蒸汽机解放了产业对于流水的依赖性，早期的制造商人把工厂建造在城镇中心，主要有两个原因：1、城镇有丰富的劳动力，可以解决工厂劳动力来源；2、当时基本交通方式是以步行为主，所以要把工厂建立在人们步行可以达到的地方，这种布置促进了城镇中心化发展。

（第一题是个时间取反的推理题，问蒸汽机发明前制造业怎么样。

）第二段：虽然制造业对于商业发展有促进作用，但是随着社会的进步，经济的发展，零售业和其他行业的发展也集聚在城市中心，这使得城市的地价进一步提升，对于制造业来说成本就越来越高，加上铁路等运输方式的发展，制造业可以分布在城市郊区，这样降低成本，同时只需要修建较短的运输方式就可以和城市中心相连，所以城市开始扩张，制造业分布在市郊。

第三段：对于零售业的发展，零售业必须建在有大量居民的地区，同时因为可以在商店内陈列大量商品，所以零售业的利润一直都很高。

同时混凝建筑的发展、电梯的使用，促进了零售业的垂直分布，可以容纳不断扩张的产品和工作人员。

（出了一个句子简化题）第四段：交通运输业的发展促进了销售和产品生产的分离，人们可以无需面对面沟通，通过电话、电报沟通即可，进一步促进了城市的扩张。

Commercial office可以在市中心，接近人群和各种服务，同时也可以控制生产中心。

词汇题：Respectively=particularlySufficient=enoughProximity=in short distancesThus=in this wayPassage Two学科分类：动物学题目：Storage strategies of squirrels内容回忆：首段：有很多动物有储藏策略，但是松鼠的储藏手段在所有动物中尤其突出。

新托福阅读真题详解范文2份新托福阅读真题详解 1The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jacksonwho swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. Duringhis administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. “The President isthe direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senate when it opposedhim. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With this declaration, Jacksonredefined the character of the presidential office and its relationship to the people.During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually e together to form the Whigparty. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by themarket, banks, and merce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflictbetween "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This"paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for theirown profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculationand thedesire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the marketwithout sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that themarket offered without the petitive, changing society; the plex dealing; thedominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.Whigs, on the other hand, were more fortable with the market. For them, merce andeconomic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict insociety between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on theother. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national e and expandingopportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulated economy thatguaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market but also about howactive the central government should be in people's lives. Despite Andrew Jackson's inclinationto be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limited government. Government'srole in the economy was to promote petition by destroying monopolies' andspecialprivileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government, Democrats also rejected theidea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of government action. Religion and politics, theybelieved, should be kept clearly separate, and they generally opposed humanitarianlegislation.The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should beused to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individualeffort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and petition, the government couldensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting thegeneral welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of theUnited States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfareof the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid toeducation.In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To be petitive in winningvotes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largestgroup in society, and workers. Neither party could win an election by appealing exclusively tothe rich or the poor. TheWhigs, however, enjoyed disproportionate strength among thebusiness and mercial classes. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to financetheir cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell theirsurpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. Democrats attracted farmersisolated from the market or fortable with it, workers alienated from the emergingindustrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open theeconomy to ers like themselves. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, andthose rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democratsdominated areas of semisubsistence farmingthat were more isolated and languishingeconomically.Paragraph 1: The development of the modern presidency in the United States began withAndrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and serveduntil 1837. During his administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. "The President is the direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senatewhen it opposed him. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With thisdeclaration, Jackson redefined the character of thepresidential office and its relationship to thepeople.1. The word immeasurably in the passage is closest in meaning to○Frequently○Greatly○Rapidly○Reportedly2. According to paragraph 1, the presidency of Andrew Jackson was especially significant forwhich of the following reasons?○The President granted a portion of his power to the S enate.○The President began to address the Senate on a regular basis.○It was the beginning of the modern presidency in the United States.○It was the first time that the Senate had been known to oppose the President.Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually e together toform the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changesbrought about by the market, banks, and merce. The Democrats tendedto view society asa continuing conflict be tween "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedyaristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated thebanking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue byencouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wantedthe rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. Theywanted the wealth that the market offered without the petitive, changing society; plex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that camewith it.3. The author mentions bankers and investors in the passage as an example of which of thefollowing?○The Democratic Party's main source of support○The peopl e that Democrats claimed were unfairly ing rich ○The people most interested in a return to a simple agrarian republic○One of the groups in favor of Andrew Jackson's presidency Paragraph 3: Whigs, on the other hand, were more fortable with the market. For them,merce and economic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envisionany conflictin society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople andbankers on the other. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national e andexpanding opportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulatedeconomy that guaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.4. According to paragraph 3, Whigs believed that merce and economic development wouldhave which of the following effects on society?○They would promote the advancement of society as a whole.○They would cause disagreements between Whigs and Democrats○They would supply new positions for Whig Party members.○They would p revent conflict between farmers and workers.5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following describes the Whig Party's view of the roleof government?○To regulate the continuing conflict between farmers and businesspeople○To restrict the changes brought about by the market○To maintain an economy that allowed all capable citizensto benefit○To reduce the emphasis on economic developmentParagraph 4: Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market butalso about how active the central government should be in people's lives. Despite AndrewJackson's inclination to be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limitedgovernment. Government's role in the economy was to promote petition by destroyingmonopolies' and special privileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government,Democrats also rejected the idea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of governmentaction. Religion and politics, they believed, should be kept clearly separate, and they generallyopposed humanitarian legislation.6. The word inclination in the passage is closest in meaning to○Argument○Tendency○Example○Warning7. According to paragraph 4, a Democrat would be most likely to support government action inwhich of the followingareas?○Creating a state religion○Supporting humanitarian legislation○Destroying monopolies○mending particular moral beliefsParagraph 5: The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that itshould be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special rolewhere individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and petition, thegovernment could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of governmentpromoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northernsections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to fosterthe moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reformlegislation and aid to education.8. The word concept in the passage is closest in meaning to○Power○Reality○Difficulty○Idea9. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about variations in political beliefswithin the Whig Party?○They were focused on issues of public liberty.○They caused some members to leave the Whig party.○They were unimportant to most Whigs.○They reflected regional interests.Paragraph 6: In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To petitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant supportamong farmers, the largest group in society, and workers. Neither party could win an electionby appealing exclusively to the rich or the poor. The Whigs, however, enjoyeddisproportionate strength among the business and mercial classes. Whigs appealed toplanters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, tofarmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improvethemselves. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or fortable with it,workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wantedto break monopolies and open the economy to ers like themselves. The Whigs werestrongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated intothe marketeconomy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were moreisolated and languishing economically.10. According to paragraph 6, the Democrats were supported by all of the following groupsEXCEPT○workers unhappy with the new industrial system○planters involved in international trade○rising entrepreneurs○individuals seeking to open the economy to ers11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlightedsentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest parts of the economy becauseDemocrats dominated in other areas.○Whig and Democratic areas of influence were naturally split between urban and rural areas,respectively.○The s emisubsistence farming areas dominated by Democrats became increasingly isolated bythe Whigs' control of the market economy.○The Democrats' power was greatest in poorer areas while the Whigs were strongest in thoseareas where the market was already fully operating.Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually e together toform the Whig party. �Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changesbrought about by the market, banks, and merce. �The Democrats tended to view societyas a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set ofgreedy aristocrats. �This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulatedthe banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue byencouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. �The Democrats wantedthe rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. Theywanted the wealth that the market offered without the petitive, changing society; plex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that camewith it.12. Look at the four squares II that indicate where the following sentence can be added to thepassage.This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and hisparty in a number of importantareas, beginning with the economy.Where would the sentence best fit?13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the mostimportant ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary becausethey express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.The political system of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century was strongly influencedby the social and economic circumstances of the time.●●●Answer Choices1. The Democratic and Whig Parties developed in response to the needs of petingeconomic and political constituencies.2. During Andrew Jackson's two terms as President, he served as leader of both the Democraticand Whig Parties.3. The Democratic Party primarily represented the interests of the market, banks, merce.4. In contrast to the Democrats, the Whigs favored government aid for education.5. A fundamental difference between Whigs and Democrats involved the importance of themarket in society.6. The role of government in the lives of the people was an important political distinctionbetween the two parties.参__：1. ○2This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is immeasurably. It is highlighted in thepassage. Iiznzeasurab2y means "in a manner too big to be measured." So if Jackson enlargedthe president's powers so much that the results can't be measured, he enlarged them"greatly."2. ○3This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 1. The correct answer is choice 3 because the first sentence of the paragraphexplicitly states that this was when the development of the modern presidency began. Theremainder of the paragraph is devoted toexplaining the significant changes in governmentthat this development involved. The result, as stated in sentence 5, was that the nature of thepresidency itself was redefined. Choice 1 is contradicted by the paragraph; Jackson didn't givepresidential power away, he increased it. Choice 2 is not mentioned in the paragraph: it saysJackson addressed the Senate, but not that this was the beginning of regular addresses.Choice 4, which says that this was the first time the Senate opposed the President, is notstated in the passage.3. ○2This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It is asking you why the author mentions "bankers andinvestors" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correctanswer is choice 2. The author is using bankers and investors as examples of people that theDemocrats claimed were "manipulating" the banking system for their own profit. That meansthat they were unfairly ing rich. Choices 1, 3, and 4 are all incorrect because, based uponthe passage, they seem unlikely to be true. Therefore, the author would not use them asexamples.4. ○1This is a Factual Information question asking for specificinformation that can be found inparagraph 3. Choice 1 is the correct answer. The paragraph says that Whigs merce and economic development "would benefit everyone." That means essentially thesame thing as choice 1, which says that Whigs believed economic growth would "promote theadvancement of society as a whole." "Society as a whole" is another way of saying "everyone."Choices 2 and 3 are not mentioned in the paragraph. Choice 4, about conflict between groups,is mentioned but in a different context, so it is not a belief held by Whigs.5. ○3This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 3. The correct answer is choice 3: the Whigs viewed government as responsible formaintaining an economy that allowed all capable citizens to benefit. This is a restatement ofparagraph 3, sentence 5. The paragraph states that Whigs did not envision continuing conflictbetween farmers and business people, so choice 1 is wrong. Whigs favored changes broughtabout b) the market, so choice 2 is wrong. Whigs were in favor of increased emphasis oneconomic development, so choice 4 is incorrect.6. ○2This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inclination. It is highlighted in thepassage. The fact that Jackson had an inclination to be a strong President means that hepreferred being strong to having limited powers. In other words, his "tendency" was to favora strong presidency, so choice 2 is the correct answer.7. ○3This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 4. The correct answer is choice 3, which is explicitly stated in sentence 3 of theparagraph. Sentences 4 and 5 explicitly refute the other choices.8. ○4This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is concept. It is highlighted in thepassage. The passage says that "for Whigs the concept of government was . . ." In otherwords, "the way Whigs thought about government was." That process of thinking representsideas, so choice 4 is the correct answer here.9. ○4This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by paragraph 5. Thecorrect answer is choice 4: variations in Whigs' political beliefs reflected regional differences.Th__ supported by sentence 5 of the paragraph which says that certain beliefs "particularly"reflected the views of northern Whigs. That suggests that Whigs in other regions of thecountry had beliefs that varied from this view and implies that such differences were regional.The other three choices are not mentioned in the passage in connection with "variations" inWhig beliefs, so there is no basis for inferring any of them.10. ○ 2This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can befound in paragraph 6. Choice 2 is the correct answer. Sentence 5 says that it was Whigs, notDemocrats, who had the support of planters involved in international trade. The next sentence,sentence 6, says that in contrast, Democrats had the support of the groups mentioned inchoices 1, 3, and 4 ("workers," "entrepreneurs," and certain other "individuals"). Therefore, allof the groups described in the answer choices, EXCEPT the planters of choice 2, did support theDemocrats.11. ○ 4This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in thepassage is highlighted:The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integratedinto the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming thatwere more isolated and languishing economically. The correct answer is choice 4. Choice"contains all of the essential information in the tested sentence but the order in which it ispresented is reversed. The highlighted sentence describes areas of Whig strength first, andthen the areas where Democrats were strong. The correct answer, choice 4, describesDemocrat strongholds first, and then Whig areas. No meaning has been changed, and noinformation has been left out. Choice 1 is incorrect because it states that Whigs were able toattract support only in the wealthiest areas. The highlighted sentence does not say that; it saystheir support came from places integrated into the market, which can include areas of alleconomic levels.Choice 2 is incorrect because it says that the two parties were split between rural and urbanareas. However, the highlighted sentence says that Whigs were strong in rural areas that wereintegrated into the market economy. In other words, the split between the parties was basedon the degree to which an area was integrated into the market, not whether it was urban orrural.Choice 3 is incorrect because the highlighted sentence makes no mention of how (or if)the Whigs' control of the market economy affected the areas dominated by the Democrats.12. ○ 1This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 2 thatrepresent the possible answer choices here.During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually e together to form the Whigparty. ■ Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about bythe market, banks, and merce. ■ The Democrats t ended to view society as a continuingconflict between "the people “farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. ■This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking systemfor their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouragingspeculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. ■The Democrats wanted the rewardsof the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted thewealth that the market offered without the petitive, changing society; the plexdealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence thatcame with it.The sentence provided, "This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in anumber of important areas, beginning with the economy," is best inserted at square 1. Square1 is correct because the phrase "This new party" refers directly and only to the Whigs, who arefirst mentioned (as a recently formed party) in sentence 1 of this paragraph. Square 2 isincorrect because the sentence before is not limited to the new Whig party. It discusses bothWhigs and Democrats. Squares 3 and 4 are both incorrect because the sentences precedingthem refer to the Democrats (the old party), not the Whigs.13. ○1 5 6This is a Prose Summary question. It is pleted correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 5,and 6. Choices 2, 3, and 4 are therefore incorrect.新托福阅读真题详解 2When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressivebehavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressivebehavior in people.The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structuresand chemicals appear to be involved inaggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli,many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to beinvolved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamustriggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brainsare more plex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is naturaland even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressivebehavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held thatmany more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A strugglefor survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with anadvantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genesto the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Becauseaggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked toaggressive behavior are more likely to betransmitted to subsequent generations.The sociobiology view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that people's capacityto outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor inhuman survival. Another is that there is too much variation among people to believe that theyare dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that innerconflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud,for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations ofdaily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including theirparents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demandsimmediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love,e to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as"steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for futureexplosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed towardparents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, orthey may be expressed towardstrangers later in life.According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be toencourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine __ogy, verbal aggression mayvent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team.Psycho__ysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting ofaggressive impulses as "catharsis." Catharsis is theorized to be a safety valve. But researchfindings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leadsto reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies,however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression lateron.The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by ourvalues, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, peoplewho believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to actaggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust,or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasantfeelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically.Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on thebasis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of otherpeople's motives. Supporting evidence es from research showing that aggressive peopleoften distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean themharm when they do not.Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving oftensions.Paragraph 2: The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear tobe involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response tocertain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamusappears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of thehypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however,whose brains are more plex, other brain structures apparently moderate possibleinstincts.1. According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that。

2016 年托福阅读模拟试题及答案解析 (2)托福阅读试题1.What can be inferred from paragraph 1 aboutBritain's short supply of wood in the eighteenthcentury?A.Wood from Britain’s great forests was beingexported to other countries for profit.B.A growing population had required cutting down forests to increase available land forfarming.rger families required the construction of larger homes made from wood.D.What was left of the great forests after the medieval period was being strictly protected.2.Select TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 1, are true statementsabout Russia’s iron industry in the eighteenth century. To obtain credit, you mustselect TWO answer choices.A.Russia reached its maximum production of iron at the same time as Britain.B.Russia exported much of its iron production to Britain.C.Russia’s appetite for iron increased rapidly after 1740.D.Russia’s energy resourceseventually became insufficient and limited the growth of its iron industry.3.The word "abundant" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.reliableB.plentifulC.well-preservedD.existing4.Why are "beer, glass, soap, and other products" mentioned in the discussion ofBritain’s energy?A.To help explain why the energy crisis was so severeB.To show that despite the energy crisis and as early as 1640, London homes were advancedand well suppliedC.To emphasize that after 1640, British homes required energy for more than heatD.To indicate that coal had been used for the production of certain products before theeighteenth century5.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are ways in which the Savery andNewcomen engines were similar EXCEPT:A.Both became relatively inexpensive after the 1770s.B.Both produced steam by burning coal.C.Both were used to operate pumps.D.Both were very inefficient.6.The word "gifted" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.independentB.talentedC.famousD.ambitious7.According to paragraph 4, what was James Watt’s major achievement?A. He was able to apply his understanding of physics to invent a variety of scientificinstruments and tools for skilled crafts workers.B.He taught university physics courses to outstanding students whose observations led tomany patented inventions.C.He improved the efficiency of Newcomen’s engine by preventing energy from being lost.D.He redesigned Newcomen’s engine so that it no longer needed a separate condenser.8.The word "splendid" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.originalB.necessaryC.magnificentD.popular9.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 5 as a development thatgreatly changed the production of iron?A.The use of coke in the smelting of pig ironB.The invention of a furnace that used coke to refine ironC.The discovery of a method for increasing the production of charcoalD.The invention of powerful machinery that could shape, form, and finish iron10.In paragraph 6, why does the author compare British iron production in 1740 withthat of 1844?A.To contrast the amounts of iron needed in Britain in two different centuriesB.To illustrate how easy it was to make money using Cort’s inventionC.To demonstrate the tremendous growth of the iron industry in BritainD.To demonstrate how inexpensive coal had become11.The word "indispensable" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.advantageousB.essentialC.less costlyD.highly stimulating12.According to the passage, which of the following is true about the development ofsteam power?A.The steam engine’s basic technology can be traced back to medieval Britain when steam-powered machinery was being tried in farming activities.B.Although Russia and Britain developed steam-power technology simultaneously,Britain wasfirst to try it in a large-scale industry due to a greater need for iron.C.Steam-power technology was largely the result of improvements developed to increase thesupply of coal as a primary source of energy.D.Adaptations to steam engines required for their use in cotton-spinning mills led to radicaldevelopments in machinery used in the iron industry.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? Energy had not been aproblem for Britain in the past because it relied on a rich source of energy: its vastforests.By the eighteenth century,Britain was experiencing a severe shortage of energy. ■【A】 Because of the growth of population, most of the great forests of medieval Britain had longago been replaced by fields of grain and hay. ■【B】Wood was in ever-shorter supply, yet itremained tremendously important.■【C】It served as the primary source of heat for allhomes and industries and as a basic raw material.■【D】Processed wood (charcoal) was thefuel that was mixed with iron ore in the blast furnace to produce pig iron (raw iron). The ironindustry’s appetite for wood was enormous, and by 1740 the British iron industry wasstagnating.Vast forests enabled Russia to become the world’s leading producer of iron,much ofwhich was exported to Britain.But Russia’s potential for growth was limited too,and in a fewdecades Russia would reach the barrier of inadequate energy that was already holdingEngland back.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage of thepassage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answerchoices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some answer choicesdo not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented inthe passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This questions is worth 2 points.By the eighteenth century,Britain was experiencing a severe shortage of energy.A.The development of blast furnaces for the manufacture of pig iron made the Britain lessdependent on wood.B.After the medieval period, both Russia and Britain began to look for alternative sources ofenergy, such as steam power, in order to maintain the growth of their iron industries.C.Two inventors designed the first steam engines in order to overcome the disadvantages ofrelying on horses to power the pumps used in mining coal.D.James Watt was able to improve upon the efficiency of the steam engine and make it usefulto several industries.E.The puddling furnace increased the availability of charcoal to a variety of industries fromcotton to iron production.F.Steam power increased coal production,which in turn allowed extraordinary growth of theiron industry and the British economy.托福阅读答案1.B2.BD3.B4.D5.A6.B7.C8.C9.C10.C11.B12.C13.A14.CDF。

托福阅读-TheDevelopmentofInstrumentalMusic（T58P1）The Development of Instrumental Music【Paragraph 1】Until the sixteenth century, almost all music was written for the voice rather than for musical instruments. Even during the Renaissance(from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century), instrumental music was, for the most part, the result of substituting an instrument for a voice in music written for singing or dancing. The seventeenth century marked the rise of music that lacked extramusical meaning. Like a mathematical equation or geometric formula, the instrumental music of the early modern era carried no explicit narrative content--- it was neither a vehicle of religious expression nor a means of supporting a secular (nonreligious) vocalized text. Such music was written without consideration for the associational content traditionally provided by a set of sung lyrics. The idea of music as an aesthetic exercise, composed for its own sake rather than to serve a religious or communal purpose, was a notable feature of the seventeenth century and one that has distinguished modern Western European music from the musical traditions of Asia and Africa.【Paragraph 2】Not surprisingly, the rise of instrumental music was accompanied by improvements in instruments and refinements in tuning. Indeed, instrumental music came to dominate musical composition at the very moment that Western musicians were perfecting such stringed-instruments as the violin, viola, and cello and such keyboard instruments as the organ and harpsichord. By the early eighteenth century, musicians were adopting the system of tuning known as equaltemperament, whereby the octave was divided into twelve half-steps of equal size. Johann Sebastian Bach's Well-T empered Clavier(1722) was an attempt to popularize this system to a skeptical musical public. The new attention paid to improving instruments and systematizing tuning mirrored the efforts of scientists and philosophers to bring precision and uniformity to the tools and methods of scientific inquiry.【Paragraph 3】In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. Transmitted from father to son, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never successfully imitated them. Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments were standardized and refined. Also during this period amateur music making was widespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi inspired the writing of treatises on performance techniques.【Paragraph 4】Three main types of composition---the sonata, the suite, and the concerto—dominated seventeenth-century instrumental music. All three reflect the baroque taste for dramatic contrasts in tempo and texture. The sonata (from the Italian word for "sounded", that is, music played and not sung) is a piece written for a few instruments--often no more than one or two. It usually consisted of three movements of contrasting tempo---fast/slow/fast---each based on a song or dance form of the time. The suite, written for any combination of instruments, is a sequence or series of movements derived fromvarious European court or folk dances--for example, the sarabande, the pavane, the minuet, and gigue, or jig. Henry Purcell (1659-1695) in England, Francois Couperin (1668-1733) in France, and Johann Sebastian Bach(1685-1750)in Germany all contributed to the development of the suite as a musical genre. Finally, the concerto (from the same root as concertato, which describes opposing or contrasting bodies of sound) is a composition consisting of two groups of instruments, one small and the other large, playing in dialogue. The typical baroque concerto, the concerto grosso ("large concerto") featured several movements whose number and kind varied considerably.【Paragraph 5】The leading Italian instrumental composer of the baroque era was Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). Vivaldi wrote some 450 concertos. He systematized the concerto grosso into a three-movement form (fast/slow/fast) and increased the distinctions between solo and ensemble groups in each movement. Of the many exciting compositions Vivaldi wrote for solo violin and ensemble. the most glorious is The Four Seasons, a group of four violin concertos, each of which musically describes a single season.【Paragraph 1】Until the sixteenth century, almost all music was written for the voice rather than for musical instruments. Even during the Renaissance (from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century), instrumental music was, for the most part, the result of substituting an instrument for a voice in music written for singing or dancing. The seventeenth century marked the rise of music that lacked extramusical meaning. Like a mathematical equation or geometric formula, the instrumental music of the early modern era carried no explicit narrative content--- it was neither a vehicle of religious expression nor a means ofsupporting a secular (nonreligious) vocalized text. Such music was written without consideration for the associational content traditionally provided by a set of sung lyrics. The idea of music as an aesthetic exercise, composed for its own sake rather than to serve a religious or communal purpose, was a notable feature of the seventeenth century and one that has distinguished modern Western European music from the musical traditions of Asia and Africa.1. According to paragragh1, all of the following are true of European music written before the seventeenth century EXCEPTA. It was often in the form of songB. it was often used to express religious feelingC. It often featured instruments playing by themselvesD. it often accompanied narrative or story-telling text2. The word explicit in the passage is closest in meaning toA. complexB. obviousC. practicalD. lengthy3. According to paragragh1, what is a notable feature of seventeenth-century music?A. Secular ideas replaced religion as the central resource for new musical ideasB. Instrumental music was composed as an independent means of artistic expressionC. Music combined the musical traditions of Asia, Africa, and EuropeD. Instrumental music was written to serve the needs of the community【Paragraph 2】Not surprisingly, the rise of instrumentalmusic was accompanied by improvements in instruments and refinements in tuning. Indeed, instrumental music came to dominate musical composition at the very moment that Western musicians were perfecting such stringed-instruments as the violin, viola, and cello and such keyboard instruments as the organ and harpsichord. By the early eighteenth century, musicians were adopting the system of tuning known as equal temperament, whereby the octave was divided into twelve half-steps of equal size. Johann Sebastian Bach's Well-T empered Clavier (1722) was an attempt to popularize this system to a skeptical musical public. The new attention paid to improving instruments and systematizing tuning mirrored the efforts of scientists and philosophers to bring precision and uniformity to the tools and methods of scientific inquiry.4. According to paragraph 2, the rise of instrumental music was accompanied by what other changes?A. Mixing of string and keyboard instruments in compositionsB. Improvements to instruments and systems of tuningC. The invention of new stringed instrumentsD. A reduced emphasis on the violin and harpsichord in musical composition5. The word adopting in the passage is closest in meaning toA. relying onB. holding on toC. beginning to useD. influenced by6. The word skeptical in the passage is closest in meaning toA. doubtingB. ignorantC. growingD. serious7. Why does the author mention the activities of "scientists and philosophers" in the passage?A. To indicate that the new emphasis on accuracy and systematization that was taking place in music was also taking place in other fieldsB. To suggest that the study of music was no longer limited to musicians onlyC. To argue that some of the changes in instrumental music originated outside of musical circlesD. To provide an example of professions that supported the new approaches in seventeenth instrumental music【Paragraph 3】In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. Transmitted from father to son, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never successfully imitated them. Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments were standardized and refined. Also during this period amateur music making was widespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi inspired the writing of treatises on performance techniques.8.According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true about the production of violins in the seventeenth century?A. Violins were made at large manufacturing centers in northern ItalyB. Standards of violin design were created and enforced by the great courts of EuropeC. Several families shared design techniques to improve instrument qualityD. Violins were carefully crafted according to specific family traditions9. The word refined in the passage is closest in meaning toA. improvedB. testedC. regulatedD. restored10. According to paragraph 3, all of the following characterized the developments of seventeenth- century European instrumental music EXCEPTA. Instruments of superior quality were producedB. Manuals on performance techniques were writtenC. Individuals accomplished in playing certain instruments gained recognitionD. Amateur musical performances replaced professional performances【Paragraph 4】Three main types of composition---the sonata, the suite, and the concerto—dominated seventeenth-century instrumental music. All three reflect thebaroque taste for dramatic contrasts in tempo and texture. The sonata (from the Italian word for "sounded", that is, music played and not sung) is a piece written for a few instruments--often no more than one or two. It usually consisted of three movements of contrasting tempo---fast/slow/fast---each based on a song or dance form of the time. The suite, written for any combination of instruments, is a sequence or series ofmovements derived from various European court or folk dances--for example, the sarabande, the pavane, the minuet, and gigue, or jig. Henry Purcell (1659-1695) in England, Francois Couperin (1668-1733) in France, and Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) in Germany all contributed to the development of the suite as a musical genre. Finally, the concerto (from the same root as concertato, which describes opposing or contrasting bodies of sound) is a composition consisting of two groups of instruments, one small and the other large, playing in dialogue. The typical baroque concerto, the concerto grosso ("large concerto") featured several movements whose number and kind varied considerably.11.According to paragraph 4. what did sonatas and suites have in common?A. They developed as musical genres before the concerto didB. Their movements did not allow for many combinations of instrumentsC. Their movements were based on dancesD. They were more popular in Italy than in any other European country12. According to paragraph 4. which of the following is a characteristic of a concerto?A. It was generally performed by only one or two instrumentsB. It required more violins than any other type of compositionC. It was invented by three famous composers: Purcell, Couperin, and BachD. It consisted of movements that varied in number and kind13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Some ancient instruments underwent development; for instance, the shawn became the oboe.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.【Paragraph 3】In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. ■Tra nsmitted from father to son, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never successfully imitated them. ■ Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments were standardized and refined. ■ Also during this period amateurmusic making was widespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi inspired the writing of treatises on performance techniques. ■14. A sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choice do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.In the seventeenth century, instrumental music in Western Europe developed in ways that distinguished it from earlier European music and the musical traditions of Asia and Africa.Answer ChoicesA. Before the seventeenth century, instrumental music was based on mathematical and scientific principlesB. The distinctive feature of seventeenth-century instrumental music was its independence of any text, narrative, or extramusical meaningC. The development of instrumental music in the seventeenth century went along with the improvements in design, tuning, and playing of musical instrumentsD. The instrumental music in sonatas, suites, and concertos was characterized by dramatic contrasts of tempo, texture and instrumental groupE. The Baroque period was dominated by composers from a few aristocratic families from northern ItalyF. After the seventeenth century, most baroque instrumental composers wrote concertos more than any other type of compositionThe Development of Instrumental Music【Paragraph 1】Until the sixteenth century, almost all music was written for the voice rather than for musical instruments. Even during the Renaissance (from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century), instrumental music was, for the most part, the result of substituting an instrument for a voice in music written for singing or dancing. The seventeenth century marked the rise of music that lacked extramusical meaning. Like a mathematical equation or geometric formula, the instrumental music of the early modern era carried no explicit narrative content--- it was neither a vehicle of religious expression nor a means of supporting a secular (nonreligious) vocalized text. Such music was written without consideration for the associational content traditionally provided by a set of sung lyrics. The idea of music as an aesthetic exercise, composed for its own sake rather than to serve a religious or communal purpose, was a notable feature ofthe seventeenth century and one that has distinguished modern Western European music from the musical traditions of Asia and Africa.【Paragraph 2】Not surprisingly, the rise of instrumental music was accompanied by improvements in instruments and refinements in tuning. Indeed, instrumental music came to dominate musical composition at the very moment that Western musicians were perfecting such stringed-instruments as the violin, viola, and cello and such keyboard instruments as the organ and harpsichord. By the early eighteenth century, musicians were adopting the system of tuning known as equal temperament, whereby the octave was divided into twelve half-steps of equal size. Johann Sebastian Bach's Well-T empered Clavier(1722) was an attempt to popularize this system to a skeptical musical public. The new attention paid to improving instruments and systematizing tuning mirrored the efforts of scientists and philosophers to bring precision and uniformity to the tools and methods of scientific inquiry.【Paragraph 3】In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. Transmitted from father to son, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never successfully imitated them. Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments were standardized and refined. Also during this period amateur music making was widespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi inspired the writing of treatises onperformance techniques.【Paragraph 4】Three main types of composition---the sonata, the suite, and the concerto—dominated seventeenth-century instrumental music. All three reflect the baroque taste for dramatic contrasts in tempo and texture. The sonata(from the Italian word for "sounded", that is, music played and not sung) is a piece written for a few instruments--often no more than one or two. It usually consisted of three movements of contrasting tempo---fast/slow/fast---each based on a song or dance form of the time.The suite, written for any combination of instruments, is a sequence or series of movements derived from various European court or folk dances--for example, the sarabande, the pavane, the minuet, and gigue, or jig. Henry Purcell (1659-1695)in England, Francois Couperin (1668-1733) in France, and Johann Sebastian Bach(1685-1750)in Germany all contributed to the development of the suite as a musical genre. Finally, the concerto(from the same root as concertato, which describes opposing or contrasting bodies of sound) is a composition consisting of two groups of instruments, one small and the other large, playing in dialogue. The typical baroque concerto, the concerto grosso ("large concerto") featured several movements whose number and kind varied considerably.【Paragraph 5】The leading Italian instrumental composer of the baroque era was Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). Vivaldi wrote some 450 concertos. He systematized the concerto grosso into a three-movement form( fast/slow/fast) and increased the distinctions between solo and ensemble groups in each movement. Of the many exciting compositions Vivaldi wrote for solo violin and ensemble. the most glorious is The Four Seasons, a group of four violin concertos, each of which musicallydescribes a single season.【Paragraph 1】Until the sixteenth century, almost all music was written for the voice rather than for musical instruments. Even during the Renaissance (from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century), instrumental music was, for the most part, the result of substituting an instrument for a voice in music written for singing or dancing. The seventeenth century marked the rise of music that lacked extramusical meaning. Like a mathematical equation or geometric formula, the instrumental music of the early modern era carried no explicit narrative content--- it was neither a vehicle of religious expression nor a means of supporting a secular (nonreligious) vocalized text. Such music was written without consideration for the associational content traditionally provided by a set of sung lyrics. The idea of music as an aesthetic exercise, composed for its own sake rather than to serve a religious or communal purpose, was a notable feature of the seventeenth century and one that has distinguished modern Western European music from the musical traditions of Asia and Africa.1.According to paragragh1, all of the following are true of European music written before the seventeenth century EXCEPT 否定信息题：段首句速读，定位点细读A.It was often in the form of songB.it was often used to express religious feelingC.It often featured instruments playing by themselvesD.it often accompanied narrative or story-telling text2.The word explicit in the passage is closest in meaning to/doc/5a11531501.html,plex 复杂的B.obvious 明显的C.practical 实用的D.lengthy 冗长的3.According to paragragh1, what is a notable feature of seventeenth-century music?A.Secular ideas replaced religion as the central resource for new musical ideasB.Instrumental music was composed as an independent means of artistic expressionC.Music combined the musical traditions of Asia, Africa, and EuropeD.Instrumental music was written to serve the needs of the community【Paragraph 2】Not surprisingly, the rise of instrumental music was accompanied by improvements in instruments and refinements in tuning概述. Indeed, instrumental music came to dominate musical composition at the very moment that Western musicians were细节-1 perfecting such stringed-instruments as the violin, viola, and cello and such keyboard instruments as the organ and harpsichord. By the early eighteenth century, musicians were 细节-2 adopting the system of tuning known as equal temperament, whereby the octave was divided into twelve half-steps of equal size. Johann Sebastian Bach's Well-T empered Clavier (1722) was an attempt to 细节-3 popularize this system to a skeptical musical public. The new attention paid to improving instruments and systematizing tuning mirrored the efforts of scientists and philosophers to 细节-4bring precision and uniformity to the tools and methods of scientific inquiry.4.According to paragraph 2, the rise of instrumental music was accompanied by what other changes?A.Mixing of string and keyboard instruments in compositionsB.Improvements to instruments and systems of tuningC.The invention of new stringed instrumentsD.A reduced emphasis on the violin and harpsichord in musical composition5.The word adopting in the passage is closest in meaning toA.relying onB.holding on toC.beginning to useD.influenced by6.The word skeptical in the passage is closest in meaning toA.doubtingB.ignorantC.growingD.serious7. Why does the author mention the activities of "scientists and philosophers" in the passage? 修辞目的题答案不在定位点，在核心句A. To indicate that the new emphasis on accuracy and systematization that was taking place in music was also taking place in other fieldsB. To suggest that the study of music was no longer limited to musicians onlyC. To argue that some of the changes in instrumental music originated outside of musical circlesD. To provide an example of professions that supported the new approaches in seventeenth instrumental music【Paragraph 3】In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. Transmitted from father toson, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never successfully imitated them. Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments were standardized and refined. Also during this period amateur music making was widespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi技艺超群的人inspired the writing of treatises on performance techniques.8.According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true about the production of violins in the seventeenth century?A. Violins were made at large manufacturing centers in northern ItalyB. Standards of violin design were created and enforced by the great courts of EuropeC. Several families shared design techniques to improve instrument qualityD. Violins were carefully crafted according to specific family traditions9.The word refined in the passage is closest in meaning toA.improvedB.testedC.regulatedD.restored10.A ccording to paragraph 3, all of the following characterized the developments of seventeenth- century European instrumental music EXCEPTA.Instruments of superior quality were producedB.Manuals on performance techniques were writtenC.Individuals accomplished in playing certain instruments gained recognitionD.Amateur musical performances replaced professional performances【Paragraph 4】Three main types of composition---the sonata, the suite, and the concerto—dominated seventeenth-century instrumental music. All three reflect thebaroque taste for dramatic contrasts in tempo and texture. The sonata (from the Italian word for "sounded", that is, music played and not sung) is a piece written for a few instruments--often no more than one or two. It usually consisted of t hree movements of contrasting tempo---fast/slow/fast---each based on a song or dance form of the time. The suite, written for any combination of instruments, is a sequence or series of movements derived from various European court or folk dances--for example, the sarabande, the pavane, the minuet, and gigue, or jig. Henry Purcell (1659-1695)in England, Francois Couperin (1668-1733) in France, and Johann Sebastian Bach(1685-1750)in Germany all contributed to the development of the suite as a musical genre. Finally, the concerto (from the same root as concertato, which describes opposing or contrasting bodies of sound) is a composition consisting of two groups of instruments, one small and the other large, playing in dialogue. The typical baroque concerto, the concerto grosso ("large concerto") featured several movements whose number and kind varied considerably.11. According to paragraph 4. what did sonatas and suites have in common?A. They developed as musical genres before the concerto didB. Their movements did not allow for many combinations of instrumentsC. Their movements were based on dancesD. They were more popular in Italy than in any other European country12. According to paragraph 4. which of the following is a characteristic of a concerto?A. It was generally performed by only one or two instrumentsB. It required more violins than any other type of compositionC. It was invented by three famous composers: Purcell, Couperin, and BachD. It consisted of movements that varied in number and kind13.L ook at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Some ancient instruments underwent development; for instance, the shawn became the oboe.Where would t he sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.In the seventeenth century, northern Italy was the world center for the manufacture of violins. The Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari families of Cremona, Italy, established the techniques of making high-quality violins that were sought in all of the great courts of Europe. ■ Transmitted from father to son, the construction techniques used to produce these instruments were guarded so secretly that modern violinmakers have never su ccessfully imitated them. ■Elsewhere, around 1650, earlier instruments werestandardized and refined.■Also during this period amateur music making waswidespread, and professional performance also took a great leap forward, as a new breed of virtuosi inspired the writing of treatises on performance techniques.■14.A sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided。

托福阅读真题第183篇TheDevelopmentofPrinting（答案文章最后）The Development of PrintingParagraph 1：Printing with movable type, a revolutionary departure from the old practice of copying by hand, was invented in the 1440s by Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith. Mass production of identical books and pamphlets made the world of letters more accessible to a literate audience. Two preconditions proved essential for the advent of printing: the industrial production of paper and the commercial production of manuscripts.Paragraph 2：Increased paper production in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the first stage in the rapid growth of manuscript books—hand-copied works bound as books—which in turn led to the invention of mechanical printing. Papermaking came to Europe from China via Arab intermediaries. By the fourteenth century, paper mills were operating in Italy, producing paper that was much more fragile but much cheaper than parchment or vellum, animal skins that Europeans had previously used for writing. T o produce paper, old rags were soaked in a chemical solution, beaten by mallets into a pulp, washed with water, treated, and dried in sheets—a method that still produces good-quality paper today.1. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of papermaking?O In fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Europe, it was restricted to Italy, which was the only country with the technology to build paper mills.O It was brought to Europe from China.O Its development ended the practice of copying books by hand.O It produces a superior writing material that is stronger than parchment.2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the process of making paper in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Europe?O It was based on the process previously used to make parchment and vellum.O It was replaced by a process that added steps to create a better quality of paper.O It was dependent on the availability of discarded or used cloth.O It produced paper that was more fragile than paper made in China.Paragraph 3：By the fifteenth century, a brisk industry in manuscript books was flourishing in Europe’s university towns and major cities. Production was in the hands of merchants called stationers, who supplied materials, arranged contracts for book production, and organized workshops known as scriptoria, where the manuscripts were copied, and acted as retail booksellers. The largest stationers, in Paris and Florence, were extensive operations by fifteenth-century standards. The Florentine Vespasiano da Bisticci, for example, created a library for Cosimo de’ Medici, the head of Florence’s leading family, by employing 45 copyists to complete 200 volumes in 22 months. Nonetheless, bookmaking in scriptoria was slow and expensive.3. The author mentions “Vespasiano da Bisticci” in order to emphasizeO the process by which stationers obtained the necessarymaterials for book productionO the equal importance of Florence and Paris in the rapidly developing book industryO the superiority of Florentine libraries to those in other European citiesO that making books was a commercial enterprise in Europe before the invention of printing4. All of the following were mentioned in paragraph 3 as functions of stationers in fifteenth-century Europe EXCEPT O the creation of contracts for production of booksO the provision of materials for copying booksO the hiring of authors to compose new booksO the organization of scriptoriaParagraph 4：The invention of movable type was an enormous technological breakthrough that took bookmaking out of the hands of human copyists. Printing was not new: the Chinese had been printing by woodblock since the tenth century, and woodcut pictures (in which an image is cut on wood and then transferred to paper) made their appearance in Europe in the early fifteenth century. Movable type, however, allowed entire manuscripts to be printed. The process involved casting durable metal molds to represent the letters of the alphabet. The letters were arranged to represent the text on a page and then pressed in ink against a sheet of paper. The imprint could be repeated numerous times with only a small amount of human labor. In 1467 two German printers established the first press in Rome and produced 12,000 volumes in five years, a feat that in the past would have required one thousand scribes working full time for the same number of years.5. According to paragraph 4, which of the following occurredbecause of the invention of movable type?O An increase in the cost of book productionO An increase in the popularity of the techniques of woodblock and woodcutO The creation of a large number of printing jobsO A decline in the importance of human copyistsParagraph 5：After the 1440s, printing spread rapidly from Germany to other European countries. The cities of Cologne, Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Basel, and Augsburg had major presses, and many Italian cities had established their own by 1480. In the 1490s, the German city of Frankfurt became an international meeting place for printers and booksellers. The Frankfurt book fair, where printers from different nations exhibited their newest titles, represented a major international cultural event and remains an unbroken tradition to this day. Early books from other presses were still rather exclusive and inaccessible, especially to a largely illiterate population. Perhaps the most famous early book, Gutenberg’s two-volume edition of the Latin Bible, was unmistakably a luxury item. Altogether 185 copies were printed. First priced at well over what a fifteenth-century professor could earn in a year, the Gutenberg Bible has always been one of the most expensive books in history, both for its rarity and its exquisite crafting.6. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about the Gutenberg Bible?O It was printed in Frankfurt.O People with average incomes were not likely to own it.O Numerous copies of it were sold at the Frankfurt book fair.O It was one of the first expensive books to be sold to aninternational population.Paragraph 6： Some historians argue that the invention of mechanical printing gave rise to a communications revolution as significant as, for example, the widespread use of the personal computer today. The multiplication of standardized texts altered the thinking habits of Europeans by freeing individuals from having to memorize everything they learned; it certainly made possible the speedy and inexpensive dissemination of knowledge.It created a wilder community of scholars, no longer dependent on personal patronage or church sponsorship for texts. Printing facilitated the free expression and exchange of ideas, and its disruptive potential did not go unnoticed by political and church authorities. Emperors and bishops in Germany, the homeland of the printing industry, moved quickly to issue censorship regulations.7. The author mentions "the personal computer" in the passage in order toO compare the importance of the development of mechanical printing to the development of the computer O contrast the superiority of communications technology in the modern era to that of the fifteenth centuryO emphasize the sophisticated social and economic growth of fifteenth-century societyO emphasize the conflicting views of historians about the significance of new technologies8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways of leave out essential information.O European ways of thinking were affected by the newmultiple sources of knowledge that became available through the standardization of texts.O Once standardized texts became widespread, people could acquire knowledge in faster, more affordable ways because they no longer had to memorize texts.O Individuals were increasingly free to take advantage of the large number of standardized texts that became available.O It became easier for people to increase their knowledge in many areas because books were significantly cheaper than they had previously been.Paragraph 6： Some historians argue that the invention of mechanical printing gave rise to a communications revolution as significant as, for example, the widespread use of the personal computer today. ■The multiplication of standardized texts altered the thinking habits of Europeans by freeing individuals from having to memorize everything they learned; it certainly made possible the speedy and inexpensive dissemination of knowledge. ■It created a wilder community of scholars, no longer dependent on personal patronage or church sponsorship for texts. ■Printing facilitated the free expression and exchange of ideas, and its disruptive potential did not go unnoticed by political and church authorities. ■Emperors and bishops in Germany, the homeland of the printing industry, moved quickly to issue censorship regulations.9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.For such leaders, the uncontrolled expression of ideas was clearly unwelcome.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text.The invention of printing was a revolutionary development that brought about profound social change in Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.Answer ChoicesO Printing with metal type rather than woodblocks was the invention of a German goldsmith living in Rome, the center of printing in the fifteenth century.O A precondition for the successful production and distribution of mechanically printed books was the earlier commercial organization of hand-copied book production by merchants known as stationers.O Because movable type made it more economical to produce many copies of a single book, the invention of mechanical printing had an immense effect on the spread of knowledge.O The expansion of the paper making industry in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries made it possible to fully and economically use the invention of movable type in book production.O In the fifteenth century, printed books were internationally distributed through the Frankfurt book fair, although few people in the fifteenth century could afford books or were able to readthem.O The most important and expensive early mechanically printed book was Gutenberg’s two-volume Latin Bible, produced in an edition of only 185 copies.。

2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷四）托福阅读文本：Scientists have discovered that for the last 160,000 years, at least, there has been a consistentrelationship between the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and the average temperature of theplanet. The importance of carbon dioxide in regulating the Earth's temperature was confirmed byscientists working in eastern Antarctica. Drilling down into a glacier, they extracted a mile-longcylinder of ice from the hole. The glacier had formed as layer upon layer of snow accumulatedyear after year. Thus drilling into the ice was tantamount to drilling back through time.The deepest sections of the core are composed of water that fell as snow 160,000 years ago.Scientists in Grenoble, France, fractured portions of the core and measured the composition ofancient air released from bubbles in the ice. Instruments were used to measure the ratio of certainisotopes in the frozen water to get an idea of the prevailing atmospheric temperature at the timewhen that particular bit of water became locked in the glacier.The result is a remarkable unbroken record of temperature and of atmospheric levels of carbondioxide. Almost every time the chill of an ice age descended on the planet, carbon dioxide levelsdropped. When the global temperature dropped 9°F (5 °C), carbon dioxide levels dropped to 190parts per million or so. Generally, as each ice age ended and the Earth basked in a warminterglacial period, carbon dioxide levels were around 280 parts per million. Through the 160,000years of that ice record, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fluctuated between 190 and280 parts per million, but never rose much higher-until the Industrial Revolution beginning in theeighteenth century and continuing today.There is indirect evidence that the link between carbon dioxide levels and global temperaturechange goes back much further than the glacial record. Carbon dioxide levels may have beenmuch greater than the current concentration during the Carboniferous period, 360 to 285 millionyears ago. The period was named for a profusion of plant life whose buried remains produced alarge fraction of the coal deposits that are being brought to the surface and burned today.托福阅读题目：1. Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Chemical causes of ice ages(B) Techniques for studying ancient layers of ice in glaciers(C) Evidence of a relationship between levels of carbon dioxide and global temperature(D) Effects of plant life on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere2. The word "accumulated" in line 6 is closest in meaning to.(A) spread out(B) changed(C) became denser(D) built up3. According to the passage , the drilling of the glacier in eastern Antarctica was important becauseit(A) allowed scientists to experiment with new drilling techniques(B) permitted the study of surface temperatures in an ice-covered region of Earth(C) provided insight about climate conditions in earlier periods(D) confirmed earlier findings about how glaciers are formed4. The phrase "tantamount to" in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) complementary to(B) practically the same as(C) especially well suited to(D) unlikely to be confused with5.According to the passage , Grenoble, France, is the place where(A) instruments were developed for measuring certain chemical elements(B) scientists first recorded atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide(C) scientists studied the contents of an ice core fromAntarctica(D) the relationship between carbon dioxide and temperature was discovered6. According to the passage , scientists used isotopes from the water of the ice core to determinewhich of following?(A) The amount of air that had bubbled to the surface since the ice had formed(B) The temperature of the atmosphere when the ice was formed(C) The date at which water had become locked in the glacier(D) The rate at which water had been frozen in the glacier7. The word "remarkable" in line 14 is closest in meaning to(A) genuine(B) permanent(C) extraordinary(D) continuous8. The word "link" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) tension(B) connection(C) attraction(D) distance9. The passage implies that the warmest temperatures among the periods mentioned occurred(A) in the early eighteenth century(B) 160,000 years ago(C) at the end of each ice age(D) between 360 and 285 million years ago10.According to the passage , the Carboniferous period was characterized by(A) a reduction in the number of coal deposits(B) the burning of a large amount of coal(C) an abundance of plants(D) an accelerated rate of glacier formation11. The passage explains the origin of which of the following terms?(A) glacier (line 5)(B) isotopes (line 11)(C) Industrial Revolution (line 21)(D) Carboniferous period (lines 26)托福阅读答案：CDCBC BCBAC D托福阅读文本：Of all modern instruments, the violin is apparently one of the simplest. It consists in essence ofa hollow, varnished wooden sound box, or resonator, and a long neck, covered with a fingerboard,along which four strings are stretched at high tension. The beauty of design, shape, and decorationis no accident: the proportions of the instrument are determined almost entirely by acousticalconsiderations. Its simplicity of appearance is deceptive. About 70 parts are involved in theconstruction of a violin. Its tone and its outstanding range of expressiveness make it an ideal soloinstrument. No less important, however, is its role as an orchestral and chamber instrument. Incombination with the larger and deeper-sounding members of the same family, the violins formthe nucleus of the modern symphony orchestra.The violin has been in existence since about 1550. Its importance as an instrument in its ownright dates from the early 1600's, when it first became standard in Italian opera orchestras. Itsstature as an orchestral instrument was raised further when in 1626 Louis XIII of Franceestablished at his court the orchestra known as Les vingt-quatre violins du Roy (The King's 24Violins), which was to become widely famous later in the century.In its early history, the violin had a dull and rather quiet tone resulting from the fact that thestrings were thick and were attached to the body of the instrument very loosely. During theeighteenth and nineteenth century, exciting technical changes were inspired by suchcomposer-violinists as Vivaldi and Tartini. Their instrumental compositions demanded a fuller,clearer, and more brilliant tone that was produced by using thinner strings and a far higher stringtension. Small changes had to be made to the violin's internal structure and to the fingerboard sothat they could withstand the extra strain. Accordingly, a higher standard of performance wasachieved, in terms of both facility and interpretation. Left-hand technique was considerablyelaborated, and new fingering patterns on the fingerboard were developed for very high notes.托福阅读题目：1. The word "standard" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) practical(B) customary(C) possible(D) unusual2. "The King's 24 Violins" is mentioned in line 15 to illustrate(A) how the violin became a renowned instrument(B) the competition in the 1600's between French and Italian orchestras(C) the superiority of French violins(D) why the violin was considered the only instrument suitable to be played by royalty3. What is the main idea presented in paragraph 3?(A) The violin has been modified to fit its evolving musical functions.(B) The violin is probably the best known and most widely distributed musical instrument in theworld.(C) The violin had reached the height of its popularity by the middle of the eighteenth century.(D) The technique of playing the violin has remained essentially the same since the 1600's.4. The author mentions Vivaldi and Tartini in line 19 as examples of composers whose music(A) inspired more people to play the violin(B) had to be adapted to the violin(C) demanded more sophisticated violins(D) could be played only by their students5. The word "they" in line 22 refers to(A) Civaldi and Tartini(B) thinner strings and a higher string tension(C) small changes(D) internal structure and fingerboard6. The word "strain" in line 22 is closest in meaning to(A) struggle(B) strength(C) strategy(D) stress7. The word "Accordingly" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) However(B) Consequently(C) Nevertheless(D) Ultimately8.According to the passage , early violins were different from modern violins in that early violins(A) were heavier(B) broke down more easily(C) produced softer tones(D) were easier to play9. According to the passage , which of the following contributes to a dull sound being produced bya violin?(A)A long fingerboard(B)A small body(C) High string tension(D) Thick strings10. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage ?(A) resonator (line 2)(B) solo (line 7)(C) left-hand technique (line 25)(D) fingering patterns (lines 24-25)11. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to the ability to play modernviolin music EXCEPT(A) more complicated techniques for the left hand(B) different ways to use the fingers to play very high notes(C) use of rare wood for the fingerboard and neck(D) minor alterations to the structure of the instrumentANSWER KEYS托福阅读答案：BAACD DBCAA C一、找关键词在托福阅读题目中找关键词，是解题的第一步。

2016年托福（TOEFL）考试阅读模拟试题及答案Jazz has been called “the art of expression set to music”, and “america’s great contribution to music”. it has functioned as popular art and enjoyed periods of fairly widespread public response, in the “jazz age” of the 1920s, in the “swing era” of the late 1930s and in the peak popularity of modern jazz in the late 1950s. the standard legend about jazz is that it originated around the end of the 19th century in new orleans and moved up the mississippi river to memphis, st. louis, and finally to chicago. it welded together the elements of ragtime, marching band music, and the blues. however, the influences of what led to those early sounds goes back to tribal african drum beats and european musical structures. buddy bolden, a new orleans barber and cornet player, is generally considered to have been the first real jazz musician, around 1891.what made jazz significantly different from the other earlier forms of music was the use of improvisation. jazz displayed a break from traditional music where a composer wrote an entire piece of musicon paper, leaving the musicians to break their backs playing exactly what was written on the score. in a jazz piece, however, the song is simply a starting point, or sort of skeletal guide for the jazz musicians to improvise around. actually, many of the early jazz musicians were bad sight readers and some couldn’t even read music at all. generally speaking, these early musicians couldn’t make very much money and were stuck working menial jobs to make a living. the second wave of new orleans jazz musicians included such memorable players as joe oliver, kid ory, and jelly roll morton. these men formed small bands and took the music of earlier musicians, improved its complexity, and gained grea ter success. this music is known as “hot jazz” due to the enormously fast speeds and rhythmic drive.a young cornet player by the name of louis armstrong was discovered by joe oliver in new orleans. he soon grew up to become one of the greatest and most successful musicians of all time, and later one of the biggest stars in the world. the impact of armstrong and other talented early jazz musicians changed the way we look at music.1. the passage answers which of the following questions?(a) why did ragtime, marching band music, and the blues lose popularity after about 1900?(b) what were the origins of jazz and how did it differ from other forms of music?(c) what has been the greatest contribution of cornet players to music in the twentieth century?(d) which early jazz musicians most influenced the development of blues music?. according to the passage, jazz originated in(a) chicago(b) st. louis(c) along the mississippi river(d) new orleans. th e word “welded” in line is closest in meaning to(a) squeezed(b) bound(c) added(d) stirred. which of the following distinguished jazz as anew form of musical expression?(a) the use of cornets(b) “hot jazz”(c) improvisation(d) new orleans. the word “skeletal” in line 1is closest in meaning to(a) framework(b) musical(c) basic(d) essential bsp;talented early jazz musicians changed the way we look at music.。

托福考试 复习TPO 26—1 Energy and the Industrial Revolution原文：【1】For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.【2】In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift toincreased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.【3】The availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. Charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. Reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. The resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s Great Britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. The developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.【4】Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred,but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. Also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.题目：1.Why does the author provide the information that “Great Britain had large amounts of coal”(paragraph 1)?A.T o reject the claim that Britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth century.B.To explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primarysource of heat for homes and industries in eighteenth-century Britain.C.To indicate that Britain’s energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuel.D.T o explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century.2.What was “the problem of energy" that had to be solved to make the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century possible?A.Water and wind could not be used efficiently.B.There was no efficient way to power machinery.C.Steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply.D.Neither humans nor animals were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application.3.Which of the following is NOT mentionedin paragraph 2 as a development in cotton mills brought about by Watt’s steamengine?A.The importing of huge quantities of raw cotton by Britain.B.Increased mechanization.C.More possibilities for mill location.D.Smaller mills.4.The phrase “apparent in” in the passage(paragraph 2)is clo sest in meaning toA.clearly seen in.B.aided by.C.associated with.D.followed by.5.According to paragraph 2, what was Britain’s most important export by 1850?A.Raw cotton.B.Cotton cloth.C.Steam-powered pumps.D.Coal.6.The word “consequent”(paragraph 2)in the passage is closest in meaning toA.resulting.B.encouraging.C.well documented.D.immediate.7.What is the role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole?A.It explains how by increasing the supply of raw materials from other countries, British industries were able to reduce costs and increase production.B.It explains how the production of mechanical energy and its benefits spread quickly across countries that were linked commercially with Great Britain.C.It demonstrates why developments in a single industry could not have caused the Industrial Revolution.D.It illustrates why historians have assigned great importance to the issue of energy in the rise of the Industrial Revolution.8.According to paragraph 3, why was the use of coke important for the ironindustry?A.It helped make wood into charcoal.B.It reduced the dependency on steam-powered machines used for the production of iron.C.It replaced charcoal in the production of raw and refined iron.D.It powered the machines used to extract coal in coal mines.9.According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the ironindustry in Great Britain during the 1800s EXCEPTA.Steam-driven bellows were used to produce raw iron.B.By the 1850s Brita in was the world’s largest producer of iron.C.Steam-powered mills made it possible to produce iron of different shapes and sizes.D.Greater demand for higher-quality iron increased its price.10.The word “initiated”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.anticipated.B.accelerated.C.spread.D.started.11.Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the transformation inrail transportation?A.Because railway construction employed mostly rural laborers, unemployment increased among urban workers.B.It resulted in more trade within the country, but less trade with markets that could be reached only by ocean shipping.C.It made shipping freight overland to distant markets less expensive.D.It resulted in higher wages for factory workers.12.The phrase “a ccustomed to" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.in need of.ed to.C.tired of.D.encouraged by.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. The first steam-powered locomotives were slow but they rapidly improved in speed and carrying capacity.Steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turnhad further implications. Improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■【A】However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the Industrial Revolution. ■【B】As transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■【C】Greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■【D】Also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attractedmany rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. When the work was completed,many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The coming of the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth-century Britaindepended on the development of the steam engine to power machinery.A.For years, historians disregarded the issue of energy as a major element in the rise of the Industrial Revolution and focused instead on technological developments and increased production.B.The introduction and growth of steam-powered rail transport was a major factor in Britain's economic expansion during the Industrial Revolution.C.An expansion of the Industrial Revolution outside Great Britain occurred when British industries began to import raw cotton and high-quality iron.D.By 1850, the use of steam power in Britain's mills, mines, and iron industry made Britain a world leader in the production of cotton cloth and iron.E.Since the basic infrastructure was in place, the Industrial Revolution fueled itself with enlarging markets requiring ever more expansion of factories and workforce.F.By the end of the 1800s, railway construction attracted so many laborers thatfactories could not find enough workers to keep up with increasing sales.答案：1.目的题，读highlight所在句，说英国有煤，但没法变成能量来运行机器，选项C同时说了由煤木有能量，是正确答案。

托福阅读真题第42篇TheEvolutionofPlantRoots托福阅读真题第42篇The Evolution of Plant RootsThe Evolution of Plant RootsRoots are essential to the development of large plants because they provide a means of anchoring and maintaining an upright position.Most land plants are literally rooted to the spot.Roots also play a key role in water and nutrient acquisition.More significantly still, roots have a tremendous impact on the environment. They can break up rock, bind loose particles together, and prov idea conduit for the movement of water and dissolved minerals,all of which are essential to the development of soils.In piecing together a fossil plant to form a conceptual whole, it is usually the rooting system that remains the final piece in the puzzle. It is often the case that roots are poorly studied or completely unknown.Although the fossil record of roots is therefore less complete than that of other plant organ systems, it is possible to discern some general trends.The earliest land plants, like modern mosses and liverworts,did not have well-developed root systems.These plants simply bore absorbing hairlike cells on stems and leaves that grew flat along the ground.From their fossils,some very early plants are known to have borne branches that appear to be specially modified for rooting. In other cases, roots were able to form from dormant buds on aerial stems.Fungi are also known to have played a key role in these early rooting systems, as they do in modern plants.Fungal symbionts—fungi that live in mutually beneficial relationships with another organism-have been recorded in the petrified plants of the 400million-year-old Rhynie Chert fossil sitein Scotland, demonstrating a link with mycorrhizal fungi that goes back to the dawn of the land flora.These tiny, shallow rooting systems were adequate for small plants (30-50 centimeters tall), but larger organisms required something more substantial.By the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous eras (385 to 300 million years ago), an enormous variety of rooting structures had evolved.The evolution of large erect plants, and in particular trees,placed increasing demands upon the anchoring and supply functions of roots.These problems were solved mainly through the development of more extensive underground systems.The evolution of the cambium, the layer of living cells between wood and bark,enabled continuous perennial growth and long-term survival of roots in soils.One important consequence of all this was that there was a progressive and massive increase in root biomass during the Devonian, which had an enormous impact on the development of soils. Prior to the Devonian,soils, if developed at all, are thought to have been predominantly thin and of microbial origin. By the Middle Devonian,soil penetration depths of roots were still shallow(less than 20 centimeters), but this increased to 1 meter or more as forests spread.The diversity of soils also increased.This change was brought about by root-induced weathering and mixing. By the end of the Devonian, there was an increase in soil clay content,structure,and differentiation into distinct layers—a development that correlated with increases in depth of root penetration. Soils with modern profiles(series of layers) are recognizable at this time.The impact of roots on the environment extends beyond their immediate effects on the development of soils.The presenceof roots in soils increases the natural weathering of calcium and magnesium silicate minerals.This apparently mundane fact turns out to have extremely important consequences for climate and temperature globally. Under natural circumstances, calcium and magnesium silicates react chemically with a dissolved form of the gas carbon dioxide (a process referred to as weathering), which comes from the atmosphere.This produces calcium and magnesium carbonates,which are transferred through the groundwater system to rivers and ultimately to the oceans, where they accumulate in the form of limestone and dolomite rock.Across the surface of the Earth, these chemical reactions occur on a vast scale, removing carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and locking it up as carbonate in rock formations. This reduces the so-called greenhouse effect, which leads to lower global temperatures. In other words, the widespread development of roots in land plants affected the chemistry of the atmosphere and the oceans, which, summed over millions of years,added up to changes in climate on a global scale.1.Roots are essential to the development of large plants because they provide a means of anchoring and maintaining an upright position.Most land plants are literally rooted to the spot.Roots also play a key role in water and nutrient acquisition.More significantly still, roots have a tremendous impact on the environment. They can break up rock, bind loose particles together, and prov idea conduit for the movement of water and dissolved minerals,all of which are essential to the development of soils.2.In piecing together a fossil plant to form a conceptual whole, it is usually the rooting system that remains the final piecein the puzzle. It is often the case that roots are poorly studied or completely unknown.Although the fossil record of roots is therefore less complete than that of other plant organ systems, it is possible to discern some general trends.The earliest land plants, like modern mosses and liverworts,did not have well-developed root systems.These plants simply bore absorbing hairlike cells on stems and leaves that grew flat along the ground.From their fossils,some very early plants are known to have borne branches that appear to be specially modified for rooting. In other cases, roots were able to form from dormant buds on aerial stems.Fungi are also known to have played a key role in these early rooting systems, as they do in modern plants.Fungal symbionts—fungi that live in mutually beneficial relationships with another organism-have been recorded in the petrified plants of the 400million-year-old Rhynie Chert fossil site in Scotland, demonstrating a link with mycorrhizal fungi that goes back to the dawn of the land flora.These tiny, shallow rooting systems were adequate for small plants (30-50 centimeters tall), but larger organisms required something more substantial.3.In piecing together a fossil plant to form a conceptual whole, it is usually the rooting system that remains the final piece in the puzzle. It is often the case that roots are poorly studied or completely unknown.Although the fossil record of roots is therefore less complete than that of other plant organ systems, it is possible to discern some general trends.The earliest land plants, like modern mosses and liverworts,did not have well-developed root systems.These plants simply bore absorbing hairlike cells on stems and leaves that grew flat along theground.From their fossils,some very early plants are known to have borne branches that appear to be specially modified for rooting. In other cases, roots were able to form from dormant buds on aerial stems.Fungi are also known to have played a key role in these early rooting systems, as they do in modern plants.Fungal symbionts—fungi that live in mutually beneficial relationships with another organism-have been recorded in the petrified plants of the 400million-year-old Rhynie Chert fossil site in Scotland, demonstrating a link with mycorrhizal fungi that goes back to the dawn of the land flora.These tiny, shallow rooting systems were adequate for small plants (30-50 centimeters tall), but larger organisms required something more substantial.4.By the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous eras (385 to 300 million years ago), an enormous variety of rooting structures had evolved.The evolution of large erect plants, and in particular trees,placed increasing demands upon the anchoring and supply functions of roots.These problems were solved mainly through the development of more extensive underground systems.The evolution of the cambium, the layer of living cells between wood and bark,enabled continuous perennial growth and long-term survival of roots in soils.5.One important consequence of all this was that there wasa progressive and massive increase in root biomass during the Devonian, which had an enormous impact on the development of soils. Prior to the Devonian,soils, if developed at all, are thought to have been predominantly thin and of microbial origin. By the Middle Devonian,soil penetration depths of roots were stillshallow(less than 20 centimeters), but this increased to 1 meter or more as forests spread.The diversity of soils also increased.This change was brought about by root-induced weathering and mixing. By the end of the Devonian, there was an increase in soil clay content,structure,and differentiation into distinct layers—a development that correlated with increases in depth of root penetration. Soils with modern profiles(series of layers) are recognizable at this time.6.One important consequence of all this was that there wasa progressive and massive increase in root biomass during the Devonian, which had an enormous impact on the development of soils. Prior to the Devonian,soils, if developed at all, are thought to have been predominantly thin and of microbial origin. By the Middle Devonian,soil penetration depths of roots were still shallow(less than 20 centimeters), but this increased to 1 meter or more as forests spread.The diversity of soils also increased.This change was brought about by root-induced weathering and mixing. By the end of the Devonian, there was an increase in soil clay content,structure,and differentiation into distinct layers—a development that correlated with increases in depth of root penetration. Soils with modern profiles(series of layers) are recognizable at this time.7.The impact of roots on the environment extends beyond their immediate effects on the development of soils.The presence of roots in soils increases the natural weathering of calcium and magnesium silicate minerals.This apparently mundane fact turns out to have extremely important consequences for climate and temperature globally. Under natural circumstances, calcium andmagnesium silicates react chemically with a dissolved form of the gas carbon dioxide (a process referred to as weathering), which comes from the atmosphere.This produces calcium and magnesium carbonates,which are transferred through the groundwater system to rivers and ultimately to the oceans, where they accumulate in the form of limestone and dolomite rock.Across the surface of the Earth, these chemical reactions occur on a vast scale, removing carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and locking it up as carbonate in rock formations. This reduces the so-called greenhouse effect, which leads to lower global temperatures. In other words, the widespread development of roots in land plants affected the chemistry of the atmosphere and the oceans, which, summed over millions of years,added up to changes in climate on a global scale.8.The impact of roots on the environment extends beyond their immediate effects on the development of soils.The presence of roots in soils increases the natural weathering of calcium and magnesium silicate minerals.This apparently mundane fact turns out to have extremely important consequences for climate and temperature globally. Under natural circumstances, calcium and magnesium silicates react chemically with a dissolved form of the gas carbon dioxide (a process referred to as weathering), which comes from the atmosphere.This produces calcium and magnesium carbonates,which are transferred through the groundwater system to rivers and ultimately to the oceans, where they accumulate in the form of limestone and dolomite rock.Across the surface of the Earth, these chemical reactions occur on a vast scale, removing carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and locking it up as carbonate in rock formations.This reduces the so-called greenhouse effect, which leads to lower global temperatures. In other words, the widespread development of roots in land plants affected the chemistry of the atmosphere and the oceans, which, summed over millions of years,added up to changes in climate on a global scale.9.Roots are essential to the development of large plants because they provide a means of anchoring and maintaining an upright position.⬛Most land plants are literally rooted to the spot.⬛Roots also play a key role in water and nutrient acquisition.⬛More significantly still, roots have a tremendous impact on the environment. ⬛They can break up rock, bind loose particles together, and prov idea conduit for the movement of water and dissolved minerals,all of which are essential to the development of soils.10.答案如下：.42篇The Evolution of Plant Roots。

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PASSAGE 1By the mid-nineteenth century, the term icebox had entered the American language, but icewas still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice tradegrew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by someforward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War (1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880, halfthe ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston andChicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new householdconvenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented.Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenthcentury, the knowledge of the physics ofheat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration,was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the icefrom melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping the ice in blankets, which kept theice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve thedelicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox.But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the righttrack. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the villageof Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport hisbutter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs ofhis competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-poundbricks. One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have totravel to market at night in order to keep their produce cool.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The influence of ice on the diet(B) The development of refrigeration(C) The transportation of goods to market(D) Sources of ice in the nineteenth century2. According to the passage , when did the word icebox become part of the language of the United States?(A) in 1803(B) sometime before 1850(C) during the civil war(D) near the end of the nineteenth century3. The phrase forward-looking in line 4 is closest in meaning to(A) progressive(B) popular(C) thrifty(D) well-established4. The author mentions fish in line 4 because(A) many fish dealers also sold ice(B) fish was shipped in refrigerated freight cars(C) fish dealers were among the early commercial users of ice(D) fish was not part of the ordinary person's diet before the invention of the icebox5. The word it in line 5 refers to(A) fresh meat(B) the Civil War(C) ice(D) a refrigerator6. According to the passage , which of the following was an obstacle to the development of the icebox?(A) Competition among the owners of refrigerated freight cars(B) The lack of a network for the distribution of ice(C) The use of insufficient insulation(D) Inadequate understanding of physics7. The word rudimentary in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) growing(B) undeveloped(C) necessary(D) uninteresting8. According to the information in the second paragraph, an ideal icebox would(A) completely prevent ice from melting(B) stop air from circulating(C) allow ice to melt slowly(D) use blankets to conserve ice9. The author describes Thomas Moore as having been on the right track (lines 18-19) to indicate that(A) the road to the market passed close to Moore's farm(B) Moore was an honest merchant(C) Moore was a prosperous farmer(D) Moore's design was fairly successful10. According to the passage , Moore's icebox allowed him to(A) charge more for his butter(B) travel to market at night(C) manufacture butter more quickly(D) produce ice all year round11. The produce mentioned in line 25 could include(A) iceboxes(B) butter(C) ice(D) marketsAnswers:BBACC DBCDA BPASSAGE 2The geology of the Earth's surface is dominated by the particular properties of water. Presenton Earth in solid, liquid, and gaseous states, water is exceptionally reactive. It dissolves,transports, and precipitates many chemical compounds and is constantly modifying the face oftheEarth.Evaporated from the oceans, water vapor forms clouds, some of which are transported bywind over the continents. Condensation from the clouds provides the essential agent ofcontinental erosion: rain. Precipitated onto the ground, the water trickles down to formbrooks,streams, and rivers, constituting what are called the hydrographic network. This immensepolarized network channels the water toward a single receptacle: an ocean. Gravity dominatesthis entire step in the cycle because water tends to minimize its potential energy by running fromhigh altitudes toward the reference point, that is, sea level.The rate at which a molecule of water passes though the cycle is not random but is a measureof the relative size of the various reservoirs. If we define residence time as the average time for awater molecule to pass through one of the three reservoirs — atmosphere, continent, and ocean— we see that the times are very different. A water molecule stays, on average, eleven days inthe atmosphere, one hundred years on a continent and forty thousand years in the ocean. Thislast figure shows the importance of the ocean as the principal reservoir of the hydrosphere butalso the rapidity of water transport on the continents.A vast chemical separation process takes places during the flow of water over the continents.Soluble ions such as calcium, sodium, potassium, and some magnesium are dissolved andtransported. Insoluble ions such as aluminum, iron, and silicon stay where they are and form thethin, fertile skin of soil on which vegetation can grow. Sometimes soils are destroyed andtransported mechanically during flooding. The erosion of the continents thus results from twoclosely linked and interdependent processes, chemical erosion and mechanical erosion. Theirrespective interactions and efficiency depend on different factors.1. The word modifying in line 4 is closest in meaning to(A) changing(B) traveling(C) describing(D) destroying2. The word which in line 5 refers to(A) clouds(B) oceans(C) continents(D) compounds3. According to the passage , clouds are primarily formed by water(A) precipitating onto the ground(B) changing from a solid to a liquid state(C) evaporating from the oceans(D) being carried by wind4. The passage suggests that the purpose of the hydrographic network (line 8) is to(A) determine the size of molecules of water(B) prevent soil erosion caused by flooding(C) move water from the Earth's surface to the oceans(D) regulate the rate of water flow from streams and rivers5. What determines the rate at which a molecule of water moves through the cycle, as discussed in the third paragraph?(A) The potential energy contained in water让知识带有温度。