Industrialization of agriculture industrialization thinking(工业化农业工业化思维)

托福阅读背景材料：Industrialization小马过河为大家准备了“托福阅读背景材料：Industrialization”，供各位备考托福的考生们参考使用，来提高自己的托福成绩！免费咨询电话：400-0123-267IndustrializationThe most significant development by 1900 was the Industrial Revolution. It began in this country in the second decade of the nineteenth century and had started to blossom after the Civil War. By the 1880s the value of man- ufactured goods surpassed that of farm products, and more people worked in nonagricultural occupations than on farms. The capital invested in Amer- ican manufacturing increased from $1 billion in 1860 to $10 billion in 1900.The value of American manufacturing products grew from $2 billion to $13 billion in the same period, making the United States the leading industrial nation of the world. In 1889 the Dow Jones industrial average made its de- but. It was comprised of twelve business behemoths and began trading at 40.94.The largest steel producer in the nation, the Carnegie Company, saw itsprofits swell from $1.6 million in 1880 to $40 million in 1900. That same year, the company was worth $320 million—a 500-percent increase over the orig- inal investment made just twenty-seven years earlier. In 1901, company prop- erties were valued at $492 million.John D. Rockefeller and his associates founded their first oil refineries in 1863 with a capitalization of $1 million. In 1889 the net value of Standard Oil properties was $196.7 million. By 1911 the company’s net value had bal- looned to $660.4 million.Inventions and technological advances were at the core of industrializa- tion. Between 1860 and 1890, Americans took out an unprecedented 440,000 patents. The Bessemer process of converting iron into steel, for example, not only made Carnegie a multimillionaire but contributed to the transformation of American life with steel railroad tracks, plows, bridges, skyscrapers, scalpels, sewing machines, and automobiles. Thomas Edison’s development of the electric light bulb in 1879 introduced a wave of startling advances and helped create an electrical equipment industry that produced goods worth $21.8 million in 1890. Alexander Graham Bell’s genius enabled the New York metropolitan area to have more telephones in 1888 than the entire UnitedKingdom. There were already 100,000 of George Eastman’s Kodak cameras in circulation by 1900, and the Brownie box camera introduced that year was priced at a mere $1.00. Some eightthousand automobiles were moving about the country, at a time when the nation had only a single mile of smooth paved road.The telegraph, transatlantic cable, typewriter, rotary press, gasoline motor, refrigerator car, and linotype machine were among many pathbreaking in-novations that contributed significantly to the industrialization of America.Wireless telegraphy, the airplane, the motion picture The Great Train Rob- bery, the diesel engine, and Henry Ford’s Model T would appear within the first decade of the new century.Railroad development was a vital stimulant to industrialization. Railroad mileage in the United States increased from 79,082 in 1877 to 166,703 in 1890, the latter figure amounting to about a third of the world’s total. More- over, track gauges were uniform by 1890 and the integration of a railroad network was virtually complete. This network, which encompassed 200,000 miles by 1900, enabled people and goods to travel from one corner of the nation to another, permitted factors of production such as iron ore and coal to be combined readily, opened a national market for corporations, and stim- ulated mass production. Historian John A. Garraty would later write of the railroad system, “its rails, tying section to section, were the bone and sinew, its locomotives and cars the pumping heart and life-bearing blood of the na-tion.”By the turn of the century the rise of the modern corporation was also an integral part of America’s industrial revolution. Business leaders were in-creasingly abandoning individual ownership of companies, with its personal risks and limited capital, in favor of creating state-chartered corporations. Vast sums of money could be raised through the sale of corporate stock to in- vestors. Stockholders and officials enjoyed limited liability: they were legally responsible for corporate debts only to the extent of their personal invest-ments. And stockholders elected a board of directors, which in turn appointed managerial personnel to run the corporation, an arrangement that enabled a small group of people to manage the complex policies of a large enterprise with efficiency and dispatch. (In the new century corporations would be run by professionals who held little or no stock in the economic empires they managed.) With the growth of national and international markets, and the rapid expansion and diversification of industry, the corporation soon became the dominant economic institution of the Western world.来源于：小马过河相关推荐：托福阅读常出现的9个深度句托福阅读利剑之语法托福阅读解题方法之《主旨题》。

Civilization, Industialization and Globalization----Heidi Once all Chinese thought Chin a’s civilization was the most extrodinary and unique; once agriculture made up the most part of China’s economy; and once China just held fast to its own economy, policy and culture. But these all belonged to yesterday. China is no longer that way. What contributed to China’s current prosperity? Civilization is the first factor that occurs to me, then come industialization and globalization.Civilization has not only brought China different cultures, but also demacracy. Before, we Chinese were just aware of our own culture, and all regarded it as the only a remarkable one. This was also revealed in the patriotism, but to some extent it was too extreme. However,as civilization spread to China, a variety of cultures appeared in front of us. We began to learn about the differences, while the cultural barriers came up. Apart from appreciation, a wise mind to decide which is good is badly needed. Gradually, people came to realize that t he other nation’s civilization also turns out to be extrodinary. Along with the world civilization, demacracy came into existence in China. People began to pursue their civil rights and learn to fight for their rights. This was an improvement. All in all, civilization helps Chinese to be more patriotic but not blindly. It prevents China from being overly proud, and it brings China a great number ofadvanced and novel things. With civilization, China will surely continue to develop in a promising way.Years before the foundation of the People’s Republic of China, agriculture was the most developed field, and contributed the most to the Gross Domestic Product. However, since the appearance of industrialization, China’s industry has become thriving all the way. In spite of late starting, china tried to explore an appropriate and benefical way. Joyously, since the open and reform policy was implemented, C hina’s economy has developed at a rapid speed. The GDP has continued to increase by 9.4% per year and has succeeded to be the sixth on the world list. The manufacturing industry now takes up a large portion. Almost half the financial income comes from manufacture. Industrialization has turned China into an industrial power from an agriculture power. In the future, I believe, China will achieve more feats because of industrialization.Globalization is recognized as an inevitable global trend which China has always been trying to follow, to be part of it, and actively participate in it since its opening to the world in 1978.However, it’s a double-edged sword. First, it can help reduce the danger of a world war and create a peaceful international community, which is advantageous for China to concentrate on developing its economy.Second, globalization increases foreign direct investment inChina. Together with the rapid economic development and favorable policies, globalization has made China the most popular country in the world for attracting investments. Third,globalization promotes educational and cultural exchange between China and foreign countries, which is beneficial to improve the quality of human resource in China. Along with the opportunities,globalization also brings challenges. The most critical challenge is that globalization enhances international capital flows and strengthens the connection of financial markets that tend to cause instability in Chinese financial market and resulting in devastating financial crises. Since the financial market is immature and the banking system is fragile in China, the outcome is disastrous once massive reversals in capital flows happen. Besides, it increases competitive pressures on Chinese national firms, especially in the sectors of agriculture and automobiles, in which China has comparative disadvantages. What’s worse, it may further result in instability of society and outflows of talented individuals. In fact, civilization, industrialization and globalization will all make contributions to C hina’s future, but challenges are also on the way, and those of globalization challenges are what I concern the most.In china not only will the development affect the nation, but also its citizen s. As a college student, I’ll have the opportunity to apply fora job abroad with globalization. I’ll not have to make the necessity b y myself with industialization. And I’ll live in a more civilized world with civilization. Look, how great benefits they will make for my future! And I believe all of us will feel grateful for them.。

关于工农商的英语单词Essential Vocabulary Related to Agriculture, Industrialization, and Commerce.Agriculture:1. Farming: The primary activity of cultivating plants and raising animals for food, fuel, and fiber.2. Agrarian: Pertaining to agriculture or the ownership and use of land for farming.3. Cultivation: The process of growing crops or plants, usually involving tilling, planting, and harvesting.4. Irrigation: The supply of water to crops, usually through canals, pumps, or other means, to ensure their growth.5. Fertilizer: A substance used to enrich the soil withessential nutrients, promoting plant growth.6. Livestock: Domesticated animals raised for food, labor, or other products such as wool or milk.7. Crop Rotation: The practice of planting different crops in the same field in successive years to maintainsoil fertility and prevent disease.8. Sustainable Agriculture: Agricultural practices that aim to meet current food and fiber needs while preserving the environment for future generations.Industrialization:1. Industry: The aggregate of manufacturing and processing activities, especially on a large scale.2. Factory: A large building or complex where goods are manufactured on a mechanized scale.3. Manufacturing: The process of converting rawmaterials into finished products for sale.4. Automation: The use of machines and technology to perform tasks without direct human intervention.5. Industrial Revolution: A period of rapid economicand technological transformation, marked by the mechanization of manufacturing and the widespread adoptionof new technologies.6. Mass Production: The large-scale production of identical items using standardized methods and processes.7. Supply Chain: The network of businesses, logistics, and infrastructure involved in the production, distribution, and sale of goods and services.8. Industrial Policy: Government measures designed to promote industrial growth, innovation, and competitiveness.Commerce:1. Trade: The activity of buying and selling goods and services, either domestically or internationally.2. Market: A place where buyers and sellers gather to exchange goods and services.3. Commerce: The aggregate of all trade and business activities.4. Retail: The sale of goods and services to individual consumers.5. Wholesale: The sale of goods and services to other businesses or resellers in large quantities.6. Imports: Goods and services brought into a country from another country.7. Exports: Goods and services sent from a country to another country.8. Trade Balance: The difference between the value of acountry's imports and exports.9. Electronic Commerce (e-Commerce): The buying and selling of goods and services using electronic systems such as the internet.10. Globalization: The process of integration and interdependence among nations, cultures, and economies through trade, investment, and cultural exchange.In conclusion, agriculture, industrialization, and commerce are three essential pillars of any economy. The vocabulary associated with these sectors is diverse and covers various aspects of production, distribution, and consumption. Understanding these terms is crucial for anyone interested in the economics, politics, and sociology of modern society.。

农业比工业更可取的英语作文Agriculture: A Viable Alternative to IndustryIn the modern world, the dominance of industrialization and technological advancements often overshadow the importance of agriculture. However, it is imperative to recognize that agriculture remains an essential sector that offers numerous benefits for both individuals and society as a whole. In this essay, we will explore why agriculture should be considered a viable alternative to industry.Firstly, agriculture serves as the backbone of human civilization by providing sustenance and nourishment. From the earliest agricultural practices to the present day, farming has been crucial in ensuring food security for mankind. Unlike industry, which focuses primarily onprofit-making, agriculture caters to the most basic human need: hunger. Emphasizing the significance of agricultural development can help address global issues such as poverty and malnutrition.Furthermore, agriculture plays a vital role in environmental preservation. The impact of rapid industrialization on our planet's delicate ecosystem cannot be ignored - pollution levels are rising, natural resources are being depleted, and climate change is becoming increasingly severe. In this context, placing emphasis on sustainable agricultural practices can serve as a solution to combat environmental degradation.Agriculture promotes biodiversity by preserving natural habitats for various plant and animal species. It encourages responsible land management techniques such as crop rotation and organic farming, reducing reliance on harmful chemicals and promoting soil fertility. Unlike industrial practices that often prioritize profit maximization over environmental integrity, agricultural methods prioritize long-term sustainability.Moreover, when it comes to job creation, agriculture surpasses industry in terms of employment opportunities. Across the globe, rural communities heavily rely on agricultural activities for their livelihoods. By investingin agriculture instead of solely focusing on industrial development in urban areas, governments can ensure equal distribution of resources and alleviate rural poverty. Supporting farmers through subsidies and providing them with access to modern technology could enhance productivity while increasing employment rates.Additionally, investments in agricultural research have significant potential for innovation and economic growth. Advancements in crop breeding, pest management techniques, and agricultural technology can not only improve overall productivity but also create profitable business opportunities for entrepreneurs. By promoting agri-businesses in both developed and developing countries, governments can stimulate economic growth while simultaneously addressing food security concerns.In sum, it is clear that agriculture offers numerous advantages that make it a viable alternative to industry. Food security, environmental preservation, job creation, biodiversity promotion, and economic growth are just some of the benefits that can be achieved by emphasizing theimportance of agriculture. While industry undoubtedly contributes to societal progress, neglecting the potentialof agriculture would be a disservice to humanity. Therefore, it is crucial for policymakers and individuals alike to recognize and support the significance of agriculture inour world today.。

美国农业合作社与农业产业化外文文献翻译中英文最新（节选重点翻译）英文Managing uncertainty and expectations: The strategic response of U.S.agricultural cooperatives to agricultural industrializationJulie HogelandAbstractThe 20th century industrialization of agriculture confronted U.S. agricultural cooperatives with responding to an event they neither initiated nor drove. Agrarian-influenced cooperatives used two metaphors, “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” to manage uncertainty and influence producer expectations by predicting industrialization's eventual outcome and cooperatives’ producer driven compensation.The serfdom metaphor alluded to industrialization's potential to either bypass family farmers, the cornerstone of the economy according to agrarian ideology, or to transform them into the equivalent of piece-wage labor as contract growers. The “family” metaphor reflects how cooperatives personalized the connection between cooperative and farmer-member to position themselves as the exact opposite of serfdom. Hypotheses advanced by Roessl (2005) and Goel (2013) suggest that intrinsic characteristics of family businesses such as a resistance to change and operating according to a myth of unlimited choice andindependence reinforced the risk of institutional lock-in posed by agrarian ideology.To determine whether lock-in occurred, Woerdman's (2004) neo-institutional model of lock-in was examined in the context of late 20th century cooperative grain and livestock marketing. Increasingly ineffective open markets prompted three regional cooperatives to develop their own models of industrialized pork production. Direct experience with producer contracting allowed cooperatives to evade institutional and ideological lock-in.Keywords：Cooperatives，Agricultural industrialization，Agrarianism，Expectations，Family business，Family farming，Metaphors，Lock-inIntroductionRecent fluctuation in global financial markets led a panel of cooperative leaders to identify uncertainty as the primary managerial difficulty anticipated by cooperatives in the future (Boland, Hogeland, & McKee, 2011). Likewise, the 20th century industrialization of agriculture confronted cooperatives with the challenge of responding to an event they neither initiated nor drove. When the environment is highly uncertain and unpredictable, Oliver predicts that organizations will increase their efforts to establish the illusion or reality of control and stability over future organizational outcomes (Oliver, 1991: 170). This study argues thatcooperatives used two metaphors, “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” to manage uncertainty by predicting industrialization's eventual outcome and cooperatives’ producer-driven compensation.These metaphors are agrarian. Recent research highlights the impact of agrarian ideology on cooperatives. Foreman and Whetten (2002: 623)observe, “co-ops have historically sought to reinforce the traditions and values of agrarianism through education and social interventions. Indeed, for many members these normative goals of a co-op have been preeminent.” These authors studied the tension within rural cooperatives produced by a normative system encompassing family and ideology and a utilitarian system defined by economic rationality, profit maximization and self-interest. They argue that this split in values implies that cooperatives are essentially two different organizations trying to be one. To capture the tension between these multiple identities, they focused on a potential family/business divide in cooperatives, basing this on a duality often noted in cooperative community and trade publications.The authors found that respondents wanted their local co-op to be more business oriented and at the same time, expected co-ops ideally (e.g., as an ideal organizational form) to be more family focused. These conflicting expectations suggested that multiple-identity organizations need to be assessed in terms of the individual components of their identity and the tension (or interaction) between them. Foreman and Whettenregard dual or multiple identity organizations as hybrids. There are consequences to hybridity: many members of a hybrid organization will identify with both aspects of its dual identity, “and thus find themselves embracing competing goals and concerns associated with distinctly different identity elements” (Foreman and Whetten, 2002). They conclude that competing goals and concerns foster competing expectations with consequences for organizational commitment (and I would add, performance).The split focus observed by Foreman and Whetten can be regarded as a contemporary expression of a value conflict beginning early in the 20th century over how production agriculture should be organized. Decentralized, autonomous, and typically small, family farmers used their skill at deciding the “what, when, where, how and why” of production and marketing to reduce the risk of being a price taker at open, competitive markets. Farmers also diversified the farm enterprise to spread price risk over several commodities. Corporate-led industrialized agriculture (integrators) by-passed both markets and independent farmers. Integrators coordinated supply and demand internally based on top-down administrative control over production and marketing decisions. They engaged in production contracting with growers who were held to competitive performance standards and paid according to their productivity. In contrast, family farmers were accountable only tothemselves.Study overviewFoss (2007) observes that the beliefs organizations hold about each other or the competitive environment are a key aspect of strategic management which have been understudied. Beliefs, which include norms and expectations, are important because they can be wrong. Cooperatives are often considered to have an ideological component but how such ideology develops and persists also has been understudied. This study addresses that gap by examining how agrarian language and assumptions shaped cooperatives’ reaction to 20th century agricultural industrialization. During this era, industrial methods transformed the production and marketing of processing vegetables, poultry, beef, and pork and were initiated for dairy and grains. An historical and institutional perspective is used to examine how two contrasting metaphors brought cooperatives to the brink of institutional lock-in. The study spans the entire 20th century from beginning to close.The study opens with a brief discussion of metaphors and norms then presents a theoretical model of lock-in. Discussion of the overarching role of agrarianism follows. Discussion then addresses why the cooperative alternative to corporate-led industrialization –the 1922 model developed by Aaron Sapiro –was not palatable to agrarian-influenced cooperatives (this section also definesagrarian-influenced cooperatives).Discussion then turns to considering how the disturbing implications of serfdom paved the way for the agrarian-influenced norm, “cooperatives as a competitive yardstick” and the cooperative metaphorical n orm, “cooperatives are like a family.” Producer expectations triggered by “serfdom” and “cooperatives are like a family” are addressed. Parallels are briefly drawn between neighborhood exchange in late 19th century rural California and behavior implied in “cooperatives are like a family.” Parallels are then drawn between family business traits and cooperative and producer experience in livestock and identity-preserved grain markets. This provides a foundation for examining in greater detail how well cooperative experience in pork and grains corresponded to Woerdman's four part model of lock-in (2004). Study conclusions and suggestions for future research follow.Importance of ideology, metaphor and normsEconomists have begun studying how cognition and discourse affect cooperative outcomes (Fulton, 1999). This study continues that line of inquiry by considering how a dominant ideology like agrarianism produced words and associations that, for most of the 20th century, arguably had a deterministic effect on farmer and cooperative perceptions of the future. Even today, few guidelines or predictions exist that suggest how organizations can manage ideological conflict (Greenwood, Raynard,Kodeih, Micelotta, & Lounsbury, 2011). Moreover, the difficulties of escaping a hegemonic ideology have seldom been recognized (Spencer, 1994).Metaphors are a pithy word or expression meant to evoke a comparison. They are used to understand one thing in terms of another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 5). Understanding what metaphors represent and how they emerge and persist can offer a window into the salient factors influencing farmer and cooperative decision-making. Moreover, as in this text, metaphors “allow for the sorts of story in which overwhelming evidence in favor of one interpretation of the world can be repeatedly ignored, even though this puts the assets of the firm and the position of the decision-makers at extraordinary risk” (Schoenberger, 1997: 136).Much of what Pfeffer and Salancik (2003) say about norms also applies to how metaphors are used in this study. For example, these authors observe that an important function of norms is to provide predictability in social relationships so that each party can rely on the assurances provided by the other. Consequently, norms stress the meeting of expectations in an exchange relationship. Certainly, the metaphor, cooperatives are like a family, can be understood in the same manner. Defining norms as commonly or widely shared sets of behavioral expectations, Pfeffer et al. also indicate that norms develop underconditions of social uncertainty to increase the predictability of relationships for the mutual advantage of those involved. Once they cease to serve those interests norms break down.California's early industrializationIt seems reasonable to assume that agrarianism's belief in the pivotal importance of agriculture was shared to some degree by all U.S. cooperatives. However, unique features of California's agriculture, particularly in the Central Valley, predisposed it to industrialize some decades earlier than the Midwest, Great Plains, and Northeast (McClelland, 1997). The latter continued to rely on patriarchal family farm labor and so, for this paper, are assumed to represent the core domain of agrarian-influenced cooperatives. These areas lacked access to the supply of excess ethnic or minority labor which McClelland indicates prepared California for industrialization by 1910. Added to this advantage was California's legacy of estate or hacienda production which boosted cultural familiarity and acceptance of large scale production (Hogeland, 2010).In 1922, California attorney and cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro combined elements of California experience into a model of cooperative organization and marketing popularly kno wn as “orderly marketing.” Sapiro began by extolling industrialization: “The factory system is recognized as the key to all forms of productive industries to-day all overthe world-except in agriculture… The farmer is the only part of modern industry… in which you have individual production” (Sapiro, 1993: 81).In general, Sapiro offered a cooperative alternative to producers’ tendency to dump excess supply from bumper harvests on the market. Instead, cooperatives should provide a home for the growers’ prod uct and use accumulated inventory to develop new products to stimulate consumer demand. Investing in processing or preservation technologies –canning, refrigeration and drying –would allow cooperatives to release excess production to the market in a prog ressive “orderly” manner.For example, by 1925 Sunkist growers had increased fruit utilization by transforming oranges from a single hand-held breakfast fruit to a glass of juice made from multiple oranges. The Sunkist extractor was specifically designed to use off-size fruit and wind-damaged fruit that would not sell as fancy Sunkist table fruit because all produced the same quality juice (Nourse, 1925). In 1922, Sun Maid scored a consumer success by packaging raisins in convenient snack-sized boxes called “Little Sun Maids” (Gary Marshburn, telephone conversation, July 24, 2008; Cotterill, 1984).The far-sighted orderly marketing norm anticipated the values of industrialized agriculture, urging cooperatives to guarantee supply through marketing contracts with some 85–95 percent of producer-members (Sapiro's recommended target). This commitmentcould propel the cooperative into being sole supplier of a particular specialty crop. (Such specialization was facilitated by California's geographically compact micro-climates).Sapiro's model provided a template for important 20th century specialty crop cooperatives outside of California, notably, Ocean Spray Cooperative (cranberries) and Welch's (Concord grapes). However, Sapiro's model represented a highly specialized, marketing-intensive cooperative that was conceptually and financially out of reach of the small family farmers in the Midwest, Great Plains, and the Northeast who produced fungible commodities like milk, meat and grains.6Cooperative philosopher and economist Edwin Nourse commented on cooperatives performing agricultural rationing such as orderly marketing:To be sure, a few cooperatives which stand in a class by themselves have already attained a degree of success comparable with the best achievements in industrial lines. But these are in comparatively small branches of specialized agriculture where economic organization was already on a high level. Before anything like the same result could be achieved in the great staple lines of production, where the demand for [price] stabilization is most acute, there would have to be a fair degree of concentration of executive responsibility in their operating organization (Nourse, 1930: 132).Serfdom's implicationsDuring the 1920s and 1930s –considered a “golden age” of agriculture – collective action surged. Rudimentary markets and chaotic distribution channels for basic commodities like milk, grain, and fruit provided new opportunities for cooperative marketing. Moreover, new antitrust legislation curbed many of the horizontally-integrated “trusts” dominating 19th century meat packing, oil, railroads and grain markets.Nevertheless, as early as 1922, Nourse saw emerging within agriculture market power so centralized and hierarchical it seemed feudal (Nourse, 1922: 589). Subsequently, the metaphor of “serfdom” was used throughout the 20th century by agrarian-influenced cooperatives to suggest how industrialization's contract production could reduce entrepreneurial and independent farmers to the equivalent of hired hands – so-called “piece wage labor.”In 1900, most counties could point to someone who started as a tenant or laborer and through hard work, luck, sharp dealing or intelligent cultivation, retired as a landlord owing several farms (Danbom, 1979: 7). In 1917, Ely introduced the concept of the ‘agricultural ladder’ as a model of occupational progression to farm ownership. The ladder showed how the agrarian virtue of hard work could allow a landless, unpaid family laborer to progress from being a hired hand and tenant farmer to an independent owner-operator (Kloppenburg & Geisler, 1985). Yet, the serfdom metaphor suggested just how tenuous such occupationalprogression could be.Late 19th century farmers formed cooperatives in response to market exploitation or failure. Although such exploitation affected farmer costs and returns, as a rule it did not impinge on farmers’ understanding of themselves as entrepreneurial and independent. Agrarian ideology lauded family farmers for taking on the risks of farming with a frontier attitude of self-reliance. Such farmers answered to no one except themselves. The small farmer was “first of all a self-directing individualist who could be counted on to resist with vigor the encroachments of outside authority” (Robinson, 1953: 69).Industrialized agriculture brought a new institutional logic to agriculture by putting efficiency and profitability first and using vertical integration to bypass farmers’ decision-making power over agriculture. Industrialization was market driven, seeking growth in identifying and satisfying consumer preferences. Research has indicated that the norms and prescriptions dictated by family logics are often at odds with the prescriptions dictated by markets (Greenwood et al., 2011).Power, reflected in ownership and governance arrangements, determines which logics will more easily flow into organizations and be well received (Greenwood et al., 2011). Family logics formally embedded into an organization's ownership structure are a very effective conduit for increasing familial influences within the organization. Not surprisingly,farmer-owned cooperatives believed they had a mandate to protect and foster family farming (Hogeland, 2006).中文管理不确定性和期望：美国农业合作社与农业产业化朱莉·霍格兰摘要20世纪的农业产业化使美国农业合作社面对很大的不确定性。

北京外国语大学应用语言学考研备考资料中国日报高频词汇农机agricultural machinery农垦agricultural reclamation农林间作agro-forestry农民人均纯收入rural per capital net income农奴制serfdom;serf system弄巧成拙be too smart by half;cunning outwits itself.农药残留物pesticide residue;agricultural chemicals residue农业产业化经营the industrialization of agriculture;industrialized agri农业生态学agricultural ecology农业生物工程agro-biological engineering农业税费改革reform of rural taxes and administrative charges农业特产税taxes on special agricultural products农业增加值added value of agriculture农转非rural residents become urban residents农村合作医疗rural cooperative medical service农村养老金制度rural pension system农技站agro-technical station暖温带warm temperate zone诺亚方舟Noah's Ark挪占misappropriate;embezzlement女权运动movement for women's rights女权主义者feminist能源农业energy agriculture逆反心理negative mentality尼姆达(病毒)Nimda泥菩萨like a clay Buddha fording the river-hardly able to save oneself;each one is looking out for his own survival泥石流mud-rock flow年度国家预算annual State Budget年利润annual return年龄结构age structure年同比year-on-year;on an annual basis年夜饭family reunion dinner涅磐(佛)nirvana凝聚力cohensive force扭亏为盈turn losses into gains扭转局面"reverse the tide,turn the table"农产品出口补贴agricultural export subsidies农产品的统购派购unified purchasing of farm produce by the state according to fixed quotes 弄潮儿wave rider;current leader农村非农产业non-agricultural industries in rural areas农村剩余劳动力surplus rural labour(labourers)农村税费改革试点the experimental reform of rural taxes and administrative charges农村信用社rural credit cooperatives农工党Chinese Peasants'and Workers'Democratic Party农工商联合企业agro-industrial-commercial combines。

*此W ord包含大纲与讲稿两部分，与同名的PPT文档结合使用Agriculture IndustrializationBy Robot (Zhou Ji) H09000424OutlineIntroduceThe traditional agricultureThe industry type agricultureProblemsTo environment:Lands and waterTo society:Do farm work for money so that some area lack of food but some area have a lot of wasteLead to large scale spread of disease (H5N1 avian influenza,Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE))To humans:Farm chemical is harm for the healthProduct chemical spawned food without nutritionSolutionEcological agriculture (Biogas circulatory system)No use farm chemical and develop the organic agricultureAgriculture IndustrializationDetailsPage 1Good evening everyone, today I want to talk about agriculture industrialization. Page2So what is agriculture industrialization?Page3As we know in the past farmers work with simple tools and animals. This picture tells us a very famous word about ancient China agriculture - Men do farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving (男耕女织). This is the traditional agriculture.Page4After The Industrial Revolution in the middle of 18th century, many agricultural machines, chemical fertilizer （化肥）and farm chemical （农药）were invented and produced.Page5Farmers can use agriculture machines and chemical to do their farm works. And people can feed a lot of chickens like the factory produce the goods. So the traditional agriculture changed to the agriculture industrialization.Page6.But are all the things of agriculture industrialization good? Does all the food from it save for us?Page7The answer is No. Nowadays excessive (过度的) agriculture behavior and using too much farm chemical cause the environmental problems. For example the land erosion (土地侵蚀) and the water pollution.(过量使用土地，不合理的修建各种工程设施，砍伐树木做耕地导致水土流失，围湖造田导致洪涝等)Page8The agriculture industrialization also takes us some society problems. After using the machines chemical fertilizer and farm chemical, the farmers can get much more rice and wheat (小麦) very year, so most of people do not need to worry about the food. But the rice and wheat can’t be sold for much money. And Some famers try to grow cash crop (经济作物) like cotton (棉花) and soybean (大豆) for money. The more and more famers follow to do like this. So once bad weather happen some people will lack of food. And if some cash crop can’t be sold or we produce much more than we need, we will have a lot of waste.Because of the agriculture industrialization, people now build breed factory (养殖场) to feed chickens and other animals. So it leads to large scale spread of disease easily, like H5N1 (avian influenza禽流感) and BSE (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy疯牛病).Page9And we know it has some other problems for ourselves, we humans. The farm chemical may take us pesticide poisoning (农药中毒). Some chemical technology can let the vegetables and animals grow up quickly. But they have no nutrition (营养) and they are not good for our bodies at all.(鸡拿抗生素当饭吃feed chickens with a lot of antibiotic 肯德基的45天速成鸡KFC use 45-days-grow chickens into food)Page10What we should do about the problems?Page11I think agriculture is a part of the nature, so the agriculture can’t destroy the nature. We should develop the ecological agriculture (生态农业). The agriculture working must fix the nature and environment. For example the Biogas circulatory system (沼气循环系统发酵ferment), it can recycle the rubbish and excrement (粪便) to supply the nature fertilizer and supply the power for people.Page12We also develop the organic agriculture (有机农业) and produce the organicfood (有机食品). Don’t use the farm chemical and use the nature fertilizer instead of chemical fertilizer. And we must resist the speed-grow food.Page13I wish the agriculture and our lives will be better and better! Thank you.。

Discuss the impact of industrial agriculture(factory farming) on modern day society and the problems it has caused.The essence of agricultural industrialization is agricultural mechanization. It refers to the process of agricultural operation from the use of human and animal labor into mechanical labor, and also changes the factors not controlled by the natural law into a man-made controllable production mode. Undoubtedly, its promotion has its advantages and disadvantages.Positive impact:First of all, it improves the development and production level of agriculture, which can increase the output of the same production area, so as to provide more food for people; secondly, it is conducive to promote the scientific and technological innovation of agricultural mechanization; in addition, it realizes the efficient farmland social service system, making the products more convenient from the production land to the dining table; finally, it deepens the management of land consolidation and the construction of standard farmland.The problems are as follows:On the one hand, soil pollution. The industrialization of agriculture makes the soil acidified, salinized or hardened, which makes the soil unsuitable for farming; on the other hand, a single crop will destroy the diversity of the environment, which will lead to more diseases and insect pests; in addition, the nutritional value of food is reduced, and the vegetables are not as delicious as before, because of the imbalance of chemical elements; at the same time, underground fresh water is also polluted.。

英语词汇复习历史类英语词汇对于历史类考试来说是非常重要的一部分。

掌握了相关的词汇，学生能够更好地理解历史事件和人物，提高阅读和写作的能力。

本文将为您提供一些常见的历史类词汇复习，帮助您更好地备考。

1. Ancient civilization (古代文明)Ancient civilization refers to the early stage of human development, such as the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley. It is characterized by advanced social, cultural, and technological achievements.2. Empire (帝国)An empire is a political unit that extends over a considerable area, typically featuring an emperor as the supreme ruler. Examples include the Roman Empire, the British Empire, and the Mongol Empire.3. Revolution (革命)A revolution is a radical and often violent change in the political, social,or economic structures of a society. Examples include the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Russian Revolution.4. Renaissance (文艺复兴)The Renaissance was a period of great cultural and intellectual change in Europe, characterized by a renewed interest in classical art, literature, and science. It is often considered the bridge between the Middle Ages and the modern era.5. Industrialization (工业化)Industrialization refers to the process of transforming an agrarian, rural society into one based on industry and manufacturing. It is often associated with the rise of factories, urbanization, and technological advancements.6. Colonialism (殖民主义)Colonialism is the policy or practice of claiming and dominating foreign lands and peoples. It was a significant feature of European expansion during the 15th to 20th centuries. Examples include the British Empire and the Scramble for Africa.7. Nationalism (民族主义)Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and self-determination of a particular nation or group of people. It played a significant role in the breakup of empires and the formation of new nations in the 19th and 20th centuries.8. World War (世界大战)A world war is a conflict involving multiple nations on a global scale. The two most famous examples are World War I and World War II, which had a profound impact on the political and social landscape of the 20th century.9. Cold War (冷战)The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. It lasted from the late1940s to the early 1990s and was characterized by political, economic, and military competition.10. Civil rights movement (民权运动)The civil rights movement was a social and political movement advocating for equal rights and treatment for racial minorities, primarily in the United States. It peaked in the 1950s and 1960s and led to significant legislative and social changes.以上是一些常见的历史类英语词汇，通过对这些词汇的复习，您将能够更好地理解历史事件和人物，并在考试中取得更好的成绩。