国际纺织品贸易协议(多种纤维协定ＭＦＡ)

中国纺织品自愿出口限制的经济效应分析韩玉军陈华超卢树立（中国人民大学经济学院，北京100872）摘要：随着纺织品贸易被纳入WTO的框架之下，中国纺织品出口逐步进入正常的贸易渠道。

但从中欧和中美纺织品贸易谈判的结果来看，这种乐观的估计并没有实现。

因此，本文提出与其实行配额管理，倒不如我们与美欧谈判并达成“自愿出口限制”协议，这样做的经济效应与政治效应都将会产生对中国有利的影响，而且产生的贸易摩擦也会减少。

关键词：纺织品；中国；自愿出口限制；经济效应2005年1月1日，乌拉圭回合所达成的《纺织品与服装协议》生效，至此，由多纤协定（MFA）管辖世界纺织品贸易40多年的配额体制终于走到了历史的尽头。

纺织品服装贸易与其他货物贸易一样，全面纳入WTO规则的管辖，进入后配额时代。

中国是世界上最大的纺织品生产国与出口国，配额逐步取消、纺织品贸易逐步自由化对中国而言无疑是一次扩大纺织品出口的机遇。

但是，中国纺织品的出口仍然受到了美欧等发达国家市场保护的很大制约，中欧虽然就此问题达成了协议，但欧盟对中国纺织品服装仍实行设限管理，中美纺织品贸易谈判于2005年11月８日在伦敦达成《关于纺织品和服装贸易的谅解备忘录》，中美双方同意在协议期内对中国向美国出口的棉制裤子等２１个类别产品实施数量管理。

根据协议，对协议外产品，美方将克制使用２４２段条款。

由于美方依据《中国加入ＷＴＯ工作组报告书》第２４２段，频繁对中国纺织品实施限制措施，给两国纺织品贸易带来了极大的不稳定性，影响了贸易的正常、有序发展。

虽然协议的达成有利于中国纺织品出口的稳定发展，但从长远来看，如果使中国纺织品出口重回“管理型贸易”配额时代，将对中国纺织业产生深远的负面影响。

笔者认为，与其实行配额管理，倒不如我们与美欧谈判并达成“自愿出口限制”协议，这样做的经济效应与政治效应都将会产生对中国有利的影响。

作者简介：韩玉军，中国人民大学经济学院教授、博士生导师,主要研究方向为国际贸易理论与政策、国际服务贸易；陈华超、卢树立，中国人民大学经济学院博士、硕士研究生。

W T O简明术语AAccession 加入（世界贸易组织）Acceptable risk level 可接受的风险水平ACP---African、Caribbean and Pacific 非加太国家Actionable subsidy 可诉补贴Ad valorem tariff 从价税Aggregate measurement of support（AMS）（农业国内支持）综合支持量Agreement on Agriculture 《农业协议》Agreement on Textiles and Clothing（ATC）《纺织品与服装协议》Air transport services 空运服务Amber box measures （农业国内支持）“黄箱”措施Annex 附件Annual bound commitment（农业国内支持）年度约束水平Anti-circumvention 反规避Anti-competitive practice 反竞争行为Anti-dumping duty 反倾销税Audiovisual services 视听服务Automatic licensing 自动许可Appendix 附录Appeal （争端解决）上诉Appellate body （争端解决）上诉机构Appropriate level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection 适当的动植物卫生保护水平Acquisition of intellectual property rights 知识产权的获得Arbitration 仲裁Areas of low pest or disease prevalence 病虫害低度流行区Assessment of risk 风险评估Association of Southeast Asian Nations（ASEAN）东南亚国家联盟（东盟）Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations（ANCER）《澳大利亚新西兰紧密经济关系协定》BBerne Convention 《伯尔尼公约》Base tariff level 基础税率Basic Instrument and Selected Documents（BISD）《基本文件和资料选编》Basic telecommunication services 基础电信服务Best information available （反倾销）可获得的最佳信息Blue box measures （农业国内支持）“蓝箱”措施Balance-of-payments（BOP）provisions 国际收支条款Built-in agenda （世界贸易组织）既定议程Business services 商务服务Bound level 约束水平Bretton Woods Conference 布雷顿森林会议CCairns Group 凯恩斯集团Causal link 因果联系Ceiling bindings （关税）上限约束Central Product Classification（CPC）《（联合国）中心产品分类》Challenge Procedures （政府采购）质疑程序Clean report of findings 检验结果清洁报告书Codex Alimentarius Commission（CAC）食品法典委员会Common Agriculture Policy（CAP）（欧洲共同体）共同农业政策Communication services 通信服务Conciliation 调解Confidential information 机密信息Conformity assessment procedures 合格评定程序Circumvention 规避Combined tariff 复合税Commercial presence （服务贸易）商业存在Committee on Trade and Development（CTD）贸易与发展委员会Committee on Trade and Environment（CTE）贸易与环境委员会Compensation 补偿Competition policy 竞争政策Complaining party （争端解决）申诉方Computed value 计算价格Consensus 协商一致Constructed value （反倾销）结构价格Consultation 磋商Consumption abroad （服务贸易）境外消费Copyright 版权Council for Trade in Goods（CTG）货物贸易理事会Counterfeit trademark goods 冒牌货Counter-notification 反向通知Countervailing duty 反补贴税Contraction parties 关税与贸易总协定缔约方Cross border supply （服务贸易）跨境交付Cross retaliation 交叉报复Currency retention scheme 货币留成制度Current market access（CMA）现行市场准入Current total AMS （农业国内支持）现行综合支持量Customs duty 关税Customs tariff 海关税率，海关税则Customs value 海关完税价值Customs valuation 海关估价Customs union 关税同盟DDeveloped member 发达成员Developing member 发展中成员Direct payment （农业国内支持）直接支付Distribution services 分销服务Domestic industry 国内产业Domestic production 国内生产Domestic sales requirement 国内销售要求Domestic subsidy 国内补贴Domestic support （农业）国内支持Dispute Settlement Body 争端解决机构Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes（DSU）《关于争端解决规则与程序的谅解》Due restraint （对农产品反补贴）适当克制Dumping 倾销Dumping margin 倾销幅度EEconomies in transition 转型经济体Enabling clause 授权条款Enforcement of intellectual property rights 知识产权法Equivalence （检验检疫标准）等效性European Communities（EC）欧洲共同体European Free Trade Association （EFTA）欧洲自由贸易联盟Electronic commerce 电子商务Enquiry point 咨询点European Union 欧洲联盟Exhaustion of intellectual property rights 知识产权权利用尽Existing subject matter （知识产权）现有客体Ex officio 依职权Export credit 出口信贷Export credit guarantee 出口信贷担保Export subsidy 出口补贴FFall-back method （海关估价）“回顾”方法Findings 争端解决调查结果First-come first served 先来先得Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations（FAO）联合国粮农组织Food security 粮食安全Foreign direct investment（FDI）外国直接投资Foreign exchange balancing requirement 外汇平衡要求Free-rider 搭便车（指根据最惠国待遇享受其他成员贸易减让而不进行相应减让的成员）Free trade area 自由贸易区GGATT 1947 《1947年关税与贸易总协定》GATT 1994 《1994年关税与贸易总协定》General Agreement on Trade in Service（GATS）《服务贸易总协定》General Agreement on Tariff and Trade （GATT）《关税与贸易总协定》General Council 总理事会General exceptions 一般例外Geographical indications （知识产权）地理标识Genetically Modified Organisms（GMO）转基因生物Good offices 斡旋Government procurement 政府采购Green box measures （农业国内支持）“绿箱”措施Grey area measures 灰色区域措施General Preferential System（GPS）普惠制HHarmonized Commodity Description and Coding System（HS）《商品名称及编码协调制度》Havana Charter 哈瓦那宪章Horizontal commitments （服务贸易）水平承诺IIdentical product 相同产品Illustrative list 例示清单Import deposits 进口押金Import licensing 进口许可Import substitution 进口替代Import surcharge 进口附加税Import variable duties 进口差价税Industrial designs 工业设计Infant industry 幼稚产业Information Technology Agreement（ITA）《信息技术协议》Injunctions 禁令Initial negotiating rights （INRs）最初谈判权（初谈权）Integration process 一体化进程Intellectual property rights（IPRs）知识产权Internal taxes 国内税International Labor Organization (ILO ) 国际劳工组织International Monetary Fund （IMF）国际货币基金组织International Organization for Standardization （ISO）国际标准化组织International Plant Protection Convention 《国际植物保护公约》International Textile and Clothing Bureau （ITCB）国际纺织品与服装局International Trade Organization （ITO）国际贸易组织International Trade Center （ITC）国际贸易中心International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 国际复兴开发银行JJudicial review 司法审议Judicial person （服务贸易）法人KLLayout-designs（Topographies）of integrated circuits 集成电路外观设计（拓扑图）Least-developed countries （LDCs）最不发达国家License fee （知识产权）许可费Like product 同类产品Limited tendering （政府采购）有限招标Local content requirement 当地含量要求Local equity requirement 当地股份要求Mad-cow disease 疯牛病Maintenance of intellectual property rights 知识产权的维护Maritime transport services 海运服务Market access 市场准入Market boards 市场营销机构Market price support 市场价格支持Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization 《建立世界贸易组织马拉喀什协定》Marrakesh protocol 《马拉喀什协定书》Material injury 实质损害Medication 调停Minimum market access （MMA）最低市场准入Minimum values （海关估价）最低限价Most-favored-nation treatment （MFN）最惠国待遇MFN exemptions （服务贸易）最惠国待遇例外Ministerial conference 部长级会议Modalities 模式Modulation of quota clause （保障措施）配额调整条款Movement of natural persons 自然人流动Multi-Fiber Arrangement （MFA）《多种纤维协定》Multilateral trade negotiations （MTNs）多边贸易谈判Mutual recognition agreement 相互承认协议NNational treatment 国民待遇Natural person 自然人Negative standard （原产地）否定标准Neighboring rights （版权）邻接权New issues （世界贸易组织）新议题Non-actionable subsidy 不可诉补贴Non-automatic licensing 非自动许可Non-discrimination 非歧视Non-violation complaints 非违规之诉North American Free Trade Agreement（NAFTA）《北美自由贸易协定》Notification obligation 通知义务Non-tariff measures（NTMs）非关税措施Non-trade concern 非贸易关切Nullification or impairment （利益）丧失或减损Offer （谈判）出价Open tendering （政府采购）公开招标Orderly marketing arrangement （OMA）有序销售安排Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development（OEDC）经济合作与发展组织Original member （世界贸易组织）创始成员PPanel 争端解决专家组Paris convention 《巴黎公约》Patents 专利Peace clause 关于农产品反补贴的和平条款Pest or disease-free area 病虫害非疫区Pirated copyright goods 盗版货Plurilateral agreement 诸边协议Positive standard （原产地）肯定标准Presence of natural person 自然人存在Preshipment inspection 装运前检验Price verification （装运前检验）价格核实Price undertaking （反倾销）价格承诺Principal supplying interest 主要供应利益Product mandating requirement 产品授权要求Product-to-product method 产品对产品（谈判）方法Production subsidy 生产补贴Professional services 专业服务Prohibited subsidy 被禁止的补贴Protocol accession 加入议定书Protocol of Provisional Application of GATT 关贸总协定临时适用协议书Provisional application 临时适用Prudential measures 审慎措施QQuads 四方集团（至美国、欧盟、日本和加拿大）Quantitative restrictions 数量限制Quantity trigger level （农业特殊保障措施）数量触发水平RReciprocity 对等Recommendations （争端解决）建议Reference years 参照年Regional trade agreements 区域贸易协议Request （谈判）要价Responding Party （争端解决）应诉方Restrictive business practices 限制性商业惯例Risk analysis 风险分析Risk assessment 风险评估Roll-back 逐步退回Rome convention 《罗马公约》Round （知识产权）使用费Rules of origin 原产地规则SSafeguards 保障措施Sanitary and phytosanitary （SPS）measures 卫生与植物措施Schedule of commitments （服务贸易）承诺表Schedule of concessions （货物贸易）减让表Sectoral negotiations 部门谈判Security exceptions 安全例外Selective tendering （政府采购）选择性招标Separate customs territory 单独关税区Serious injury 严重损害Serious prejudice 严重侵害Simple average tariff 简单平均关税Similar product 类似产品Special and differential（S&D）treatment provisions 特殊与差别待遇条款Special Drawing Rights （SDRs）（国际货币基金组织）特别提款权Special safeguard（SSG）measures （农产品）特殊保障措施Specific tariff 从量税Specificity （补贴）专项性Standardizing bodies 标准化机构Standards 标准Standstill 维持现状State trading enterprises （STEs）国营贸易企业Subsidy 补贴Subsidies in general 一般补贴Substantial supplying interest 实质供应利益Substantial transformation （产品）实质改变Suspend concessions 暂停减让TTariffs 关税Tariff bindings 关税约束Tariff classification 税则归类Tariff concessions 关税减让Tariff equivalent 关税等值Tariff escalation 关税升级Tariff headings 税目Tariffication 关税化Tariff line 税号Tariff peaks 关税高峰Tariff rate quotas/ Tariff quotas （TRQ）关税配额Technical assistance 技术援助Technical barriers to trade（TBT）技术性贸易壁垒Technical regulationsTelecommunication services 电信服务Terms of reference （TOR）（争端解决专家组）职责范围Textile Monitoring Body （TMB）（关税与贸易总协定）纺织品监督机构Textile Surveillance Body (TSB) (关税与贸易总协定)纺织品监督机构Tokyo Round Codes 东京回合守则Total AMS （农业国内支持）综合支持总量Trade-balancing requirement 贸易平衡要求Trade facilitation 贸易便利化Trade in civil aircraft 民用航空器贸易Trade in goods 货物贸易Trade in services 服务贸易Trademark（TM）商标Trade Policy Review Body （TPRB）贸易政策审议机构Trade Policy Review Mechanism （TPRM）贸易政策审议机制Trade-related intellectual property rights （TRIPs）与贸易有关的知识产权Trade-related investment measures （TRIMs）Trade remedies 贸易救济（措施）Trade-weighted average tariff 贸易加权平均关税Transaction Value 成交价格Transition economies 转型经济体Transitional safeguard measures （纺织品）过渡性保障措施Transparency 透明度Transport services 运输服务Trigger prices （农产品特殊保障措施）触发价格UUndisclosed information （知识产权）未公开信息United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 联合国贸易与发展会议Uruguay Round 乌拉圭回合VVariable duties 差价税Value-added telecommunication services 增值电信服务Voluntary export restraints （VERs）自愿出口限制WWaiver （义务）豁免Washington Treaty 《华盛顿条约》Withdraw concessions 撤回减让World Customs Organization（WCO）世界海关组织World Intellectual Property Organization （WIPO）世界知识产权组织World Trade Organization（WTO）世界贸易组织WTO Members 世界贸易组织全体成员WTO Secretariat 世界贸易组织秘书处。

纺织品与服装协议各成员方：回忆部长们在埃斯特角城达成的协议，“纺织品和服装领域的谈判应旨在依据被强化了的关贸总协定规那么和纪律，制定能使这一部门最终纳进关贸总协定的方法，籍以促成贸易进一步自由化目标的实现〞；同时回忆在贸易谈判委员会1989年4月的决议中，一致同意纳进进程应在乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判结束时开始，而且应循序渐进；还回忆到各成员方一致同意应给予最不兴盛国家以特别待遇；兹达成协议如下：第1条1.本协议制订出纺织品和服装部门纳进1994关贸总协定过渡期间各成员方应适用的。

2.各成员方同意以使纺织品和服装贸易的小需求方进进市场的可能性有实质性增长，并使纺织品与服装贸易领域新参加方有商业价值的贸易时机得以开展的方式利用本协议第2条第18款和第6条第6款的。

3.各成员方应对未同意“1986国际纺织品贸易协定〞(以下称作多种纤维协定)延长书的成员方之处境予以适当照顾，并应尽可能地在适用本协议条款方面给予其特别待遇。

4.各成员方同意在与之协商之后，应使棉花生产出口成员方的特别利益，在本协议条款的执行中得到反映。

5.为便于纺织品和服装部门纳进1994关贸总协定，各成员方应将持续的自动的产业调整和在其市场上加大的竞争性考虑进往。

6.除非本协议中另有，否那么，本协议的条款不得阻碍各成员方在世界贸易组织协定及多边贸易协定下的权利和义务。

7.本协议所适用的纺织品和服装产品列于附件中。

第2条1.所有在世界贸易组织协定生效日往常依据多种纤维协定第4条维持的双边协定的数量限制和依据第7条及第8条通报的数量限制，应在协定生效后的60天内由接着维持此种限制和各成员方将包括限制水平、增长率和灵活性等方面的具体情况向按第8条设立的纺织品监督局(以下简称监督局)通报。

各成员方同意自世界贸易组织协定生效之日起，1947关贸总协定缔约方之间维持的所有在世界贸易组织协定生效前一日尚有效地此种限制应按本协议的来处理。

2.监督局应将这些通报分发给所有成员方以供其参考。

汉英口译分类词汇（08）--世贸组织词汇（补贴协议）可诉补贴Actionable subsidy(纺织品与服装、农产品)一体化进程Integration process （服务贸易）境外消费Consumption abroad（服务贸易）跨境交付Cross border supply（服务贸易）商业存在Commercial presence(服务贸易)自然人 natural person(服务贸易)自然人流动Presence of natural person (解决争端)被诉方Defendant （解决争端）调查结果Findings(解决争端)上诉Appeal (解决争端)申诉方Complaint (利益的)丧失和减损Nullification and impairment(农产品)国内支持Domestic support（农产品）综合支持量AMS (Aggregate Measurement of Support)（农产品国内支持）黄箱措施Amber Box measures（农产品国内支持）蓝箱措施BOP(Balance-of-payments) Provisions（农产品国内支持）绿箱措施Green Box measures(农业)多功能性Multifunctionality（欧盟）共同农业政策Common Agriculture Policy(争端解决)专家组Panel （知识产权）地理标识Geographical indications 《巴黎公约》(关于保护工业知识产权的公约)Paris Convention《巴塞尔公约》（有关危险废弃物的多边环境协定）Basel Convention《北美自由贸易协定》NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)《濒危物种国际贸易公约》Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 《伯尔尼公约》（有关保护文学和艺术作品版权的公约）Berne Convention 《多种纤维协定》MFA (Multifibre Agreement)《纺织品与服装协议》ATC (Agreement on Textiles and Clothing)《服务贸易总协定》GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)《关于争端解决规则与程序的谅解》DSU(Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes)《京都议定书》 Kyoto Protocol《里斯本条约》（有关地理标识及其国际注册）Lisbon Agreement《蒙特利尔议定书》(有关保护大气臭氧层的多边环境协定)Montreal Protocol《农产品协议》特殊保障SSG (Special Safeguard)《农业协议》中关于反补贴的和平条款Peace clause《生物多样性公约》CBD(Convention onBiological Diversity)《信息技术协议》ITA (Information Technology Agreement)WTO最不发达国家高级别会议HLM (WTO High-level Meeting for LDCs)北美自由贸易区 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Area) 采取措施后Ex post采取措施前Ex ante产品生命周期分析LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) 出口补贴Export subsidy出口实绩Export performance 垂直兼并 vertical merger当地含量Local content电子商务 Electronic Commerce东部和南部非洲共同市场COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa) 东盟自由贸易区ASEAN Free Trade Area动植物卫生检疫措施SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standard )反补贴税Countervailing duty 反倾销措施 anti-dumping measures against…反向通知Counter-notification非配额产品 quota-freeproducts非生产性投资 investment in non-productive projects非洲、加勒比和太平洋国家集团（洛美协定）ACP(African, Caribbean and Pacific Group) 风险管理/评估 risk management/ assessment关贸总协定，世界贸易组织的前身 GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)规避Circumvention国际标准化组织ISO (International Organization for Standardization)国际纺织品服装局ITCB (International Textile and Clothing Bureau)国际货币基金组织IMF (International Monetary Fund)国际劳工组织ILO (International Labor Organization)国际贸易中心ITC (International Trade Center)国际贸易组织ITO (International Trade Organization)国际贸易组织临时委员会ICITO (Interim Commission for the International Trade Organization)国际清算 international settlement国际收支 balance of international payments/ balance of payment国际收支条款BOP(Balance-of-payments) Provisions国际兽疫组织International Office of Epizootics国民待遇National treatment 国内补贴Domestic subsidy国内生产Domestic production 海关估价Customs valuation 海关完税价值Customs value 横向兼并 horizontal merger 环保型技术EST(Environmentally-sound technology)灰色区域措施Grey area measures货币留成制度Currency retention scheme货币贸易理事会CTG(Council for Trade in Goods) 基础税率Base tariff level 既定日程Built-in agenda交叉报复Cross retaliation 进口差价税Import variable duties进口附加税Import surcharge 进口环节税 import linkage tax进口渗透Import penetration 进口替代Import substitution 进口许可Import licensing进口押金Import deposits经济合作与发展组织OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development)垃圾融资 junk financing联合国环境署UNEP (United Nations Environment Program)联合国开发计划署UNDP (United Nations Development Program)联合国粮农组织FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States)联合国贸易与发展会议UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 粮食安全Food security慢性萧条 chronic depression 贸易和投资自由化和便利化TILF (Trade and Investment Liberalization and Facilitation)贸易与发展委员会Committee on Trade and Development贸易与环境委员会Committee on Trade and Environment模式Modalities 南方共同市场（或称南锥体共同市场）MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market)南亚区域合作联盟SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional cooperation)欧洲自由贸易联盟EFTA (European Free Trade Association)配额调整条款modulation of quota clause瓶颈制约 'bottleneck' restrictions全球配额 global quota上诉机构Appeal body申报制度 reporting system; income declaration system 生产补贴Production subsidy 实行国民待遇 grant the national treatment to实质损害Material injury食品法典委员会 CAC(Codex Alimentaries Commission) 世界海关组织WCO (World Customs Organization)世界贸易组织WTO (World Trade Organization)世界知识产权组织WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization)市场准人的行政管理措施AAMA (Administrative Aspects of Market Access) 市场准入Market access通知义务Notification obligation同类产品Like product乌拉圭回合Uruguay Round消费膨胀 inflated consumption 协调制度（商品名称及编码协调制度）HS (Harmonized Commodity and Coding System) 新议题New issues许可费License fee有秩序的市场安排Orderly market arrangements约束水平Bound level争端解决机构Dispute Settlement Body政府采购 Government procurement知识产权IPRs (Intellectual property rights)直接支付Direct payment诸边协议 Plurilateral agreement专门的营销机构Market boards 转基因生物GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)祖父条款 grandfather clause 最不发达国家LDCs(Least-developed countries) 最初谈判权(初谈权) INRs (Initial Negotiating Rights)最惠国待遇（现通常称'正常贸易关系'）MFN（most-favored-nation) treatment最惠国贸易地位(待遇)MFN (Most-favored-nation)(Trea tment)WTO术语英文解释GeneralGATT — General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which has been superseded as an international organization by the WTO. An updated General Agreement is now one of the WTO’s agreements.GATT 1947 — The old (pre-1994) version of the GATT.GATT 1994 — The new version of the General Agreement, incorporated into the WTO, which governs trade in goods.Members — WTO governments (first letter capitalized, in WTO style).MFN —Most-favoured-nation treatment (GATT Article I, GATS Article II and TRIPS Article 4), the principle of not discriminating between one’s trading partners.national treatment — The principle of giving others the same treatment as one’s own nationals. GATT Article III requires that imports be treated no less favourably than the same or similar domestically-produced goods once they have passed customs. GATS Article XVII and TRIPS Article 3 also deal with national treatment for services and intellectual property protection.TPRB, TPRM — The Trade Policy Review Body is General Council operating under special procedures for meetings to review trade policies and practices of individual WTO members under the TradePolicy Review Mechanism.transparency — Degree to which trade policies and practices, and the process by which they are established, are open and predictable. Uruguay Round — Multilateral trade negotiations launched at Punta del Este, Uruguay in September 1986 and concluded in Geneva in December 1993. Signed by Ministers in Marrakesh, Morocco, in April 1994. Tariffsbinding, bound —see “tariff binding”electronic commerce — The production, advertising, sale and distribution of products viatelecommunications networks.free-rider — A casual term used to infer that a country which does not make any trade concessions, profits, nonetheless, from tariff cuts and concessions made by other countries in negotiations under themost-favoured-nation principle. Harmonized System — An international nomenclature developed by the World Customs Organization, which is arranged in six digit codes allowing all participating countries to classify traded goods on a common basis. Beyond the six digit level, countries are free to introduce national distinctions for tariffs and many other purposes.ITA —Information Technology Agreement, or formally the Ministerial-Declaration on Trade in Information Technology Products, under which participants will remove tariffs on IT products by the year 2000. ITA II — Negotiations aimed at expanding ITA’s product coverage.nuisance tariff — Tariff so low that it costs the government more to collect it than the revenue it generates.schedule of concessions — List of bound tariff rates.tariff binding —Commitment not to increase a rate of duty beyond an agreed level. Oncea rate of duty is bound, it may not be raised without compensating the affected parties. tariff escalation —Higher import duties on semi-processed products than on raw materials, and higher still on finished products. This practice protects domestic processing industries and discourages the development of processing activity in the countries where raw materials originate. tariff peaks — Relatively high tariffs, usually on “sensitive” products, amidst generally low tariff levels. For industrialized countries, tariffs of 15% and above are generally recognized as “tariff peaks”.tariffs — Customs duties on merchandise imports. Levied either on an ad valorem basis (percentage of value) or on a specific basis (e.g. $7 per 100 kgs.). Tariffs give price advantage to similar locally-produced goods and raise revenues for the government. WCO — World Customs Organization, a multilateral body located in Brussels through which participating countries seek to simplify and rationalize customs procedures.Non-tariff measuresanti-dumping duties —Article VI of the GATT 1994 permits the imposition of anti-dumping duties against dumped goods, equal to the difference between their export price and their normal value, if dumping causes injury to producers of competing products in the importing country.circumvention —Measures taken by exporters to evade anti-dumping or countervailing duties.countervailing measures — Action taken by the importing country, usually in the form of increased duties to offset subsidies given to producers or exporters in the exporting country.dumping —Occurs when goods are exported at a price less than their normal value, generally meaning they are exported for less than they are sold in the domestic market or third-country markets, or at less than production cost.NTMs —Non-tariff measures such as quotas, import licensing systems, sanitary regulations, prohibitions, etc.price undertaking — Undertaking by an exporter to raise the export price of the product to avoid the possibility of ananti-dumping duty.PSI — Preshipment inspection — the practice of employing specialized private companies to check shipment details of goods ordered overseas — i.e. price, quantity, quality, etc.QRs —Quantitative restrictions —specific limits on the quantity or value of goods that can be imported (or exported) during a specific time period. rules of origin —Laws, regulations and administrative procedures which determine a product’s country of origin. A decision by a customs authority on origin can determine whether a shipment falls within a quota limitation, qualifies for a tariff preference or is affected by an anti-dumping duty. These rules can vary from country to country.safeguard measures — Action taken to protect a specific industry from an unexpected build-up ofimports — governed by Article XIX of the GATT 1994.subsidy — There are two general types ofsubsidies: export and domestic. An exportsubsidy is a benefit conferred on a firm by the government that is contingent on exports.A domestic subsidy is a benefit not directly linked to exports.tariffication —Procedures relating to the agricultural market-access provision in which all non-tariff measures are converted into tariffs.trade facilitation —Removing obstacles to the movement of goods across borders (e.g. simplification of customs procedures). VRA, VER, OMA — Voluntary restraint arrangement, voluntary export restraint, orderly marketing arrangement. Bilateral arrangements whereby an exporting country (government or industry) agrees to reduce or restrict exports without the importing country having to make use of quotas, tariffs or other import controls.Textiles and clothingATC — The WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing which integrates trade in this sector back to GATT rules within a ten-year period.carry forward — When an exporting country uses part of the following year’s quota during the current year.carry over — When an exporting country utilizes the previous year’s unutilized quota.circumvention — Avoiding quotas and other restrictions by altering the country of origin of a product.CTG —Council for Trade in Goods —oversees WTO agreements on goods, including the ATC. integration programme —The phasing out of MFA restrictions in four stages starting on 1 January 1995 and ending on 1 January 2005.ITCB —International Textiles and Clothing Bureau — Geneva-based group of some 20 developing country exporters of textiles and clothing.MFA — Multifibre Arrangement (1974-94) under which countries whose markets are disrupted by increased imports of textiles and clothing from another country were able to negotiate quota restrictions.swing —When an exporting country transfers part of a quota from one product to another restrained product.TMB — The Textiles Monitoring Body, consisting of a chairman plus ten members acting in a personal capacity, oversees the implementation of ATC commitments. transitional safeguard mechanism — Allows members to impose restrictions against individual exporting countries if the importing country can show that both overall imports of a product and imports from the individual countries are entering the country in such increased quantities as to cause —or threaten —serious damage to the relevant domestic industry.Agriculture/SPSAgenda 2000 —EC’s financial reform plans for 2000–06 aimed at strengthening the union with a view to receiving new members. Includes reform of the CAP (see below). border protection —Any measure which acts to restrain imports at point of entry. BSE —Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or “mad cow disease”.box —Category of domestic support. —Green box: supports considered not to distort trade and therefore permitted with no limits.— Blue box: permitted supports linked to production, but subject to production limits and therefore minimally trade-distorting. —Amber box: supports considered to distort trade and therefore subject to reduction commitments.Cairns Group — Group of agricultural exporting nations lobbying for agricultural trade liberalization. It was formed in 1986 in Cairns, Australia just before the beginning of the Uruguay Round. Current membership: Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand and Uruguay.CAP — Common Agricultural Policy — The EU’s comprehensive system of production targets and marketing mechanisms designed to manage agricultural trade within the EU and with the rest of the world.Codex Alimentarius — FAO/WHO commission that deals with international standards on food safety.distortion —When prices and production are higher or lower than levels that would usually exist in a competitive market. deficiency payment —Paid by governments to producers of certain commodities and based on the difference between a target price and the domestic market price or loan rate, whichever is the less.EEP — Export enhancement programme —programme of US export subsidies given generally to compete with subsidized agricultural exports from the EU on certain export markets.food security — Concept which discourages opening the domestic market to foreign agricultural products on the principle that a country must be as self-sufficient as possible for its basic dietary needs. internal support —Encompasses any measure which acts to maintain producer prices at levels above those prevailing in international trade; direct payments to producers, including deficiency payments, and input and marketing cost reduction measures available only for agricultural production.International Office of Epizootics —Deals with international standards concerning animal health.multifunctionality —Idea that agriculture has many functions in addition to producing food and fibre, e.g. environmental protection, landscape preservation, rural employment, etc. See non-trade concerns. non-trade concerns — Similar to multifunctionality. The preamble of the Agriculture Agreement specifies food security and environmental protection as examples. Also cited by members are rural development and employment, and poverty alleviation.peace clause — Provision in Article 13 of the Agriculture Agreement says agricultural subsidies committed under the agreement cannot be challenged under other WTO agreements, in particular the Subsidies Agreement and GATT. Expires at the end of 2003.reform process/program —The Uruguay Round Agriculture Agreement starts a reform process. It sets out a first step, in the process, i.e. a program for reducing subsidies and protection and other reforms. Current negotiations launched under Article20 are for continuing the reform process. SPS regulations — Sanitary and Phytosanitary regulations — government standards to protect human, animal and plant life and health, to help ensure that food is safe for consumption.variable levy — Customs duty rate which varies in response to domestic price criterion.Intellectual propertyBerne Convention —Treaty, administered by WIPO, for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works.CBD — Convention on Biological Diversity. compulsory licensing — For patents: when the authorities license companies or individuals other than the patent owner to use the rights of the patent —to make, use, sell or import a product under patent (i.e.a patented product or a product made by a patented process) —without the permission of the patent owner. Allowed under the TRIPS Agreement provided certain procedures and conditions are fulfilled. See also government use.counterfeit — Unauthorized representation of a registered trademark carried on goods identical or similar to goods for which the trademark is registered, with a view to deceiving the purchaser into believing that he/she is buying the original goods. exhaustion — The principle that once a product has been sold on a market, the intellectual property owner no longer has any rights over it. (A debate among WTO member governments is whether this applies to products put on the market under compulsory licences.) Countries’ laws vary as to whether the right continues to be exhausted if the product is imported from one market into another, which affects the owner’s rights over trade in the protected product. See also parallel imports. geographical indications —Place names (or words associated with a place) used to identify products (for example, “Champagne”, “Tequila” or “Roquefort”) which have a particular quality, reputation or other characteristic because they come from that placegovernment use — For patents: when the government itself uses or authorizes other persons to use the rights over a patented product or process, for government purposes, without the permission of the patent owner. See also compulsory licensing.intellectual property rights —Ownership of ideas, including literary and artistic works (protected by copyright), inventions (protected by patents), signs for distinguishing goods of an enterprise (protected by trademarks) and other elements of industrial property.IPRs — Intellectual property rights. Lisbon Agreement —Treaty, administered by WIPO, for the protection of geographical indications and their international registration.Madrid Agreement —Treaty, administered by WIPO, for the repression of false or deceptive indications of source on goods. mailbox — Refers to the requirement of the TRIPS Agreement applying to WTO members which do not yet provide product patent protection for pharmaceuticals and for agricultural chemicals. Since 1 January 1995, when the WTO agreements entered into force,these countries have to establish a means by which applications of patents for these products can be filed. (An additional requirement says they must also put in place a system for granting “exclusive marketing rights” for the products whose patent applications have been filed.)parallel imports — When a product made legally (i.e. not pirated) abroad is imported without the permission of the intellectual property right-holder (e.g. the trademark or patent owner). Some countries allow this, others do not.Paris Convention —Treaty, administered by WIPO, for the protection of industrial intellectual property, i.e. patents,utility models, industrial designs, etc. piracy —Unauthorized copying of materials protected by intellectual property rights (such as copyright, trademarks, patents, geographical indications, etc) for commercial purposes and unauthorized commercial dealing in copied materials. Rome Convention — Treaty, administered by WIPO, UNESCO and ILO, for the protection of the works of performers, broadcasting organizations and producers of phonograms. TRIPS — Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.UPOV — International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants Washington Treaty — Treaty for the protection of intellectual property in respect of lay-out designs of integrated circuits.WIPO — World Intellectual Property Organization.Investmentexport-performance measure — Requirement that a certain quantity of production must be exported.FDI — Foreign direct investment.local-content measure — Requirement that the investor purchase a certain amount of local materials for incorporation in the investor’s product.product-mandating — Requirement that the investor export to certain countries or region.trade-balancing measure —Requirement that the investor use earnings from exports to pay for imports.TRIMS —Trade-related investment measures. Dispute settlementAppellate Body — An independentseven-person body that, upon request by one or more parties to the dispute, reviews findings in panel reports.automaticity —The “automatic” chronological progression for settling trade disputes in regard to panel establishment, terms of reference, composition and adoption procedures.DSB — Dispute Settlement Body — when the WTO General Council meets to settle trade disputes.DSU — The Uruguay Round Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes.nullification and impairment — Damage to a country’s benefits and expectations from its WTO membership through another country’s change in its trade regime or failure to carry out its WTOobligations.panel — Consisting of three experts, this independent body is established by the DSBto examine and issue recommendations on a particular dispute in the light of WTO provisions.Servicesaccounting rate — In telecoms, the charge made by one country’s telephon e network operator for calls originating in another country.commercial presence — Having an office, branch, or subsidiary in a foreign country. GATS —The WTO’s General Agreement on Trade in Services.general obligations — Obligations which should be applied to all services sector at the entry into force of the agreement. Initial commitments — Trade liberalizing commitments in services which members are prepared to make early on.modes of delivery —How international trade in services is supplied and consumed. Mode 1: cross border supply; mode 2: consumption abroad; mode 3: foreign commercial presence; and mode 4: movement of natural persons. multi-modal — Transportation using more than one mode. In the GATS negotiations, essentially door-to-door services that include international shipping.national schedules — The equivalent of tariff schedules in GATT, laying down the commitmentsaccepted — voluntarily or through negotiation — by WTO members.natural persons —People, as distinct from juridical persons such as companies and organizations.offer —A country’s proposal for further liberalization.protocols —Additional agreements attached to the GATS. The Second Protocol deals with the 1995 commitments on financial services. The Third Protocol deals with movement of natural persons.prudence, prudential — In financial services, terms used to describe an objective of market regulation by authorities to protect investors and depositors, to avoid instability or crises. schedule —“Schedule of Specific Commitm ents” —A WTO member’s list of commitments regarding market access and bindings regarding national treatment. specific commitments —See “schedule”. Regionalism/trade and developmentACP — African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. Group of 71 countries with preferential trading relation with the EU under the former Lom? Treaty now called the Cotonou Agreement.Andean Community — Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.APEC — Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.ASEAN — Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The seven ASEAN members of the WTO —Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand —often speak in the WTO as one group on general issues. The other ASEAN members are Laos and Vietnam.Caricom — The Caribbean Community and Common Market comprises 15 countries. CTD — The WTO Committee on Trade and DevelopmentCustoms union — Members apply a common external tariff (e.g. the EC).EC —European Communities (official name of the European Union in the WTO).EFTA — European Free Trade Association.free trade area —Trade within the group is duty free but members set own tariffs on imports from non-members (e.g. NAFTA).G15 — Group of 15 developing countries acting as the main political organ for the Non-Aligned Movement.G77 — Group of developing countries set up in 1964 at the end of the first UNCTAD (originally 77, but now more than 130 countries).G7 — Group of seven leading industrial countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States. GRULAC — Informal group of Latin-American members of the WTO.GSP — Generalized System of Preferences —programmes by developed countries granting preferential tariffs to imports from developing countries.HLM —WTO High-Level Meeting for LDCs, held in October 1997 in Geneva.ITC — The International Trade Centre, originally established by the old GATT and is now operated jointly by the WTO and the UN, the latter acting through UNCTAD. Focal point for technical cooperation on trade promotion of developing countries.LDCs — Least-developed countries. MERCOSUR —Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.NAFTA —North American Free Trade Agreement of Canada, Mexico and the US.Quad — Canada, EC, Japan and the United States.SACU — Southern African Customs Union comprising Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland.S&D —“Special and differential treatment” provisions for developing countries. Contained in several WTO agreements.UNCITRAL — United Nations Centre for International Trade Law, drafts model laws such as the one on government procurement. UNCTAD — The UN Conference on Trade and Development.Trade and environmentAgenda 21 —The Agenda for the 21st Century — a declaration from the 1992 Earth Summit (UN Conference on the Environment and Development) held in Rio de Janeiro. Article XX — GATT Article listing allowed “exceptions” to the trade rules.Basel Convention — An MEA dealing with hazardous waste.BTA — Border tax adjustmentCITES — Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. An MEA.CTE — The WTO Committee on Trade and Environment.EST — Environmentally-sound technology. EST&P — EST and products.ex ante, ex post —Before and after a measure is applied.LCA — Life cycle analysis — a method of assessing whether a good or service is environmentally friendly.MEA — Multilateral environmental agreement.Montreal Protocol —An MEA dealing with the depletion of the earth’s ozone layer. PPM — Process and production method.TBT — The WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.waiver —Permission granted by WTO members allowing a WTO member not to comply with normal commitments. Waivers have time limits and extensions have to be justified.。

国际贸易条约、协定随着科学技术和生产力的发展，各国的经济生活日益国际化。

不同国家或地区在经济、政治、科技、文化等方面的联系越来越密切，一种真正意义的全球经济正在形成。

任何国家要发展，就不可能闭关自守，必须重视同外界的联系。

国际贸易条约与协定就是国与国之间经济贸易关系紧密联系的纽带。

关贸总协定对促进国际贸易自由化、取消歧视待遇、加强世界经济发展起到了重要作用。

但随着世界经济贸易关系的不断发展变化，建立国际贸易组织的问题引起了普遍的关注。

终于在1995年建立了一个崭新的世界贸易组织，它更大地促进了世界贸易的增长，对经济全球化起到了不可估量的作用。

与此同时，区域经济一体化也迅速发展，它是国际经济贸易发展不平衡的原因，同时又是它的结果，也是生产要素全球自由流动的一种过渡。

【先行案例】中国轴承受反倾销2002年2月13日，根据美国托林顿轴承公司等4家公司的申请，美国轴承协会以中国轴承在美国市场低于正常的出口价格销售为由，对我国轴承提起反倾销申诉。

当年4月29日，美国商务部通过一项表决，对中国出口轴承进行反倾销调查，包括我国28个省、市的253家轴承企业，涉及2亿多元的出口值，规模之大，为历年所罕见。

这是中国加入世贸组织后，美国利用反倾销这一世贸规则允许的贸易保护壁垒，第一次试图对中国产品进行制裁。

一旦中国败诉，中国轴承在美国25%的市场份额有可能荡然无存。

更严峻的是，欧盟等市场通常会在美国判决之后，参照其反倾销税率对中国发动同样的调查。

接到被调查通知后，2002年2月27日，80多家中国主要轴承制造、出口商云集杭州，与有多年诉讼经验的中国机电进出口商会一起紧急磋商。

会后，253家中国被诉企业中有53家企业决定应诉，以维护多年来打拼下来的美国市场。

2002年4月3日，美国国际贸易委员会举行了最终裁决听证会，美国国际贸易委员会代表以四对零的绝对票，认定中国应诉企业的轴承对美国轴承工业没有造成任何损害，判定中国输美国轴承倾销案不成立，美国不能向应诉企业加收任何反倾销税。

第六讲纺织品与服装贸易协议一、多种纤维协定（一）缔结过程从1950年起，许多新独立国家的纺织业获得了很大的发展。

由于纺织品和服装工业只需要较少的投资，许多新独立的国家把纺织和服装业作为工业化的先行部门，大量纺织品涌入国际市场。

美国等发达国家大量进口纺织品，本国的纺织业抵挡不住来自香港、泰国、印度等低工资国家和地区的纺织品的竞争，要求政府采取数量限制措施，保护本国的纺织业。

在关贸总协定主持之下，1961年7月，在日内瓦召开了有关纺织品贸易的国际会议，根据美国所提出的草案，达成“国际棉纺织品短期安排”。

1962年2月，在关贸总协定的安排下，签订了有效期为5年的“国际棉纺织品长期安排（LTA）”，同年10月生效。

长期安排的参加范围扩大到几乎所有的纺织品贸易国，限制范围也扩大了，对所有棉纺织品都实行了有选择的歧视性限制。

长期安排5年到期后，又延长了2期，每期为3年。

随着化学工业的发展，入造纤维在纺织品生产中的用途日益增加，发达国家要求提高纺织品的限制范围和限制水平，缔结一项适用范围更广的多边贸易协定。

1972年，关贸总协定纺织品委员会成立了一个工作组，在长期安排到期之前，商讨今后的纺织品贸易安排。

在关贸总协定的主持之下，42个纺织品贸易国经过艰苦的谈判，达成了“国际纺织品贸易协定”，也称“多种纤维协定（FMA）”，从而把纺织品的范围从棉纺织品扩大到化纤产品，纺织品贸易如受限制范围进一步扩大了。

协定于1973年12月30日签订，1974年1月1日生效，有效期限为4年，适用范围包括棉、羊毛、入造纤维及其制品。

该协定西1978年、1982年和1986年延长了3次，第4次多种纤维协定本应于1991年12月31日到期，参加乌拉圭回合谈判的各方代表于1991年同意将现行协定。

延长至1992年底，待乌拉圭回合纺织品和服装协定生效后就终止。

（二）协定概要国际纺织品贸易协定的宗旨是保证世界纺织品贸易有秩序的发展，减少贸易壁垒，逐步实现纺织品世界贸易自由化，同时避免对进口国市场的干扰。

阅读材料一纺织品和多种纤维协定1981年9月,五十多个国家的代表在日内瓦集会,重新开始讨论贸易前景以及纺织品和服装贸易保护主义问题。

二十多年来，发达国家一直对从第三世界国家进口纺织品设置壁垒。

截止到1981年，全球贸易中85%的棉花、羊毛以及人造纤维制品己被管制（见图表6）。

由于这一行业是创造世界范围内就业机会的最大源泉，因而这方面贸易谈判的成果对所有参加国来说都是至关重要的。

发展中国家依靠纺织和服装业作为其工业化战略的基础，若没有这一自由度更高的世界贸易行业，这些国家在以后若干年内将面临更为低速的增长。

然而，出于对国内基础工业衰退的关注，发达国家普遍赞同更严格的管制。

欧洲共同体各国和美国政府曾受到来自地方产业和工会的压力，让其减少纺织和服装的进口。

多种纤维协定（MFA）是1974年在关贸总协定的主持下签署的一个多边条约，1977年展期四年，日内瓦的讨论主要集中在协定展期问题上。

该协议订立之初被构想为一项临时性措施，列示出了指导国际纺织品和服装贸易的原则。

从理论上讲，该协定的目的是为了给发展中国家提供有保证的且日益增长的进入发达国家市场的机会，而同时又使发达国家政府能够防止其国内工业的混乱和破坏。

从实践中看，该协定并不是临时性的，它未能给发展中国家的出口提供有保证的且日益增长的市场机遇，而且也未能防止发达国家的市场混乱。

所以，随着1981年12月31日协定期满日的接近，无一方对现行的协定感到满意。

发达国家，尤其是欧洲经济共同体，都阐明了在就业下降和进口上升方面持续发生的问题。

（见图表3、图表7）；而发展中国家则抱怨说，工业化国家利用多种纤维协定来保护其无竞争力的工业，因而使发展中国家的经济和社会发展遭受了损害。

在随后短短三个月多一点的时间里，参加国仍未就该协议的基本目标达成一致意见。

一些发达国家和发展中国家公开质问：若允许协议期满终止并在由此产生的“对全体都自由”的环境中获取机会的话，是否对它们自身的利益更为有利？然而美国却关心多种纤维协定崩溃的可能性。

国际纺织品贸易协议(多种纤维协定ＭＦＡ)文章属性•【缔约国】联合国国际贸易法委员会•【条约领域】税收•【公布日期】1973.12.20•【条约类别】协定•【签订地点】日内瓦正文国际纺织品贸易协议（多种纤维协定ＭＦＡ）（１９７３年１２月２０日订于日内瓦）序言认识到羊毛、人造纤维和棉纺织品的生产和贸易对许多国家经济的极端重要性，对于发展中国家的经济和社会发展、增加出口收入和使其多样化的特别重要性，同时意识到棉纺织品贸易对许多发展中国家的特殊重要性；进一步认识到世界纺织品贸易中存在不能令人满意状况的趋势，这种情况如不妥善处理，参加纺织品贸易的国家（不论是进口者还是出口者，或是两者）都会带来损害，对纺织品贸易领域的国际合作前景产生不利影响，而且对一般贸易关系有令人遗憾的反作用；注意到这一不令人满意的形势是以限制措施（包括歧视性措施）扩散为特征的，这些措施是不符合关贸总协定的原则的，同时在一些进口国家中已经出现了在它们看来有破坏国内市场或对国内市场造成威胁的情况；希望在多边范围内，采取合作和建设性的行动来对付这种情况，以便在健全的基础上促进生产发展和扩大纺织品贸易，并逐步地减少贸易障碍和实现这些产品世界贸易的自由化；认识到在采取此种行动时，应经常牢记纺织品生产和贸易的不稳定和不断变化的性质，同时应最充分考虑到进口国和出口国－－尤其是发展中国家，在这个领域里存在的严重经济和社会问题；进一步认识到，此种行为的目的应在为向这些国家（包括那些新参加或不久将参加纺织品出口行列，将它们有效地生产的产品在世界市场上销售，增加其外汇收入的国家）提供更大的机会，以便利用拥有诸如原料和技术等必要资源的发展中国家的经济发展和促进这些国家的开发；认识到未来纺织品贸易的协调发展，尤其是考虑到发展中国家的需要，重要的还取决于本协议范围以外的各种因素；有关这些因素包括按照东京宣言进行的削减关税以及维持和改进普遍优惠制的进展情况；决心充分尊重关税及贸易总协定（以下简称关贸总协定）的原则和目标，并在实现本协议目的时，有效地实施１９７３年９月１４日东京部长宣言中商定的有关多边贸易谈判的原则和目标；本协议的各缔约方，协议如下：第一条一、各参加国希望今后几年在纺织品领域里，采取切实可行的国际合作措施，以达到排除这个领域中存在的困难的目的。

浅谈全球经济贸易自由化对中国和世界经济的影响董㊀娜摘㊀要：随着全球经济的不断发展，全球经贸的自由化程度不断加深，中国加入ＷＴＯ世界组织之后，中国与世界经济之间的交流也日益频繁㊂尤其进入２１世纪之后，处理好中国与世界贸易之间的关系，能够有效推动中国经济的发展和世界经济的发展㊂因此，在中国发展的过程当中，必须注重全球贸易自由化对中国产生的影响，规避贸易风险，为中国的发展提供更加稳定的环境㊂文章着重分析全球经济贸易自由化对中国产生的影响，并且根据多哈回合方案的内容对世界经济进行分析，希望能透过这些对中国的影响研究不断为中国的经济发展提供更加稳定和良好的环境㊂关键词：全球经济；贸易自由化；中国；世界经济一㊁引言随着世界经济融合进程的不断推进，全球贸易自由化程度也获得了前所未有的提升，这主要是因为贸易交流越来越频繁㊂对于中国的经济发展而言，近年来贸易的欧化色彩不断浓重，因此在中国经济发展的过程中，不断注重贸易自由化才能保证未来中国在世界舞台上获得更多的发展权益，同时还能在国际舞台上保护中国的经济利益㊂但是我国加入国际贸易之后经济发展虽然十分快速，与国际贸易的接轨也不断得到完善，但是全球贸易在发展的过程中也不断呈现出变化㊂这些问题需要得到重视，否则全球贸易自由化就很容易导致中国在发展的过程中缺乏后续力量，影响中国经济的长远发展㊂因此文章对世界经济贸易自由化进行一定的理论阐述，从事对多种贸易协定对中国产生的影响进行分析，以便于为中国未来的经济贸易发展提供必要的资料和支持㊂二㊁全球贸易自由化概念分析（一）国际贸易自由化的概念贸易自由化的核心内容就是指国家与国家之间的进出口限制降低，以便于实现国家与国家之间的贸易自由㊂全球贸易自由化在近年来得到许多国家的支持，这是因为贸易自由化在某种程度上为进出口国家提供了一些优惠待遇，这种优惠待遇能够扩大进出口的经济获益，还有利于贸易关系国的各自发展㊂世界贸易自由化是非常重要的核心目标，因此无论是关贸总协定还是世界贸易组织规定的一系列的贸易原则，都是建立在贸易自由化的基础之上的㊂与其说全球贸易自由化是一个经济发展样式，不如说全球贸易自由化是全球经济发展的一个重要趋势㊂因为自由贸易会带来成本的缩小和收益的扩大㊂依据国际贸易的基本准则来看，贸易自由化能够实现国际贸易交易的利润最大㊂因为即便对于进口国而言，减少贸易自由也会导致本国的经济发展受到损害，更不要提他国的福利㊂因此，进入２１世纪之后，全世界都在有策略的进行贸易自由的发展，因为根据近年来注重发展贸易自由化的国家在国际贸易上的获利率都比较高㊂（二）国际贸易自由化受限原因但是贸易自由化也有自身的问题㊂从生产和消费的角度来看，消费者当然会从贸易自由化中获得最大的利益，但是生产者的获利则需要进行一定的区分㊂在国际贸易中，生产者需要被划分为国外生产者和国内生产者，一旦贸易自由化程度加深，虽然国外的生产者可以通过产品的交易来扩大效益，但是国内的生产者则需要面临更严重竞争压力，其产品容易受到冲击，甚至有可能在竞争中处于劣势地位，甚至被迫退出竞争市场㊂因此各国都会对贸易自由化程度大力发展，但同时也会非常注重去限制这种自由化程度㊂因为一旦贸易自由化程度不受管控，这种竞争就会导致本国的相关行业面临倒闭的风险，失业率攀升，人民的经济收入会下降，国家的发展就会产生很大的问题㊂取消ＭＦＡ的影响多种纤维协定也被称作是ＭＦＡ，该协定可以追溯到１９５０年，当时许多国家为了谋求纺织业的发展，因此制订了该项协定㊂这是因为当时许多国家把纺织业作为工业化的先头部队，因此许多来自不同国家的纺织品流入国际市场㊂对于发达国家而言，纺织业的生产成本更高，这是因为发达国家的人力资源成本更高，加之原材料需要从发展中国家进口，因此总体成本必然较高㊂而发展中国家具有更便宜的人力资源，生产成本也较低，因此发达国家的纺织行业在当时受到冲击，许多纺织行业经营人员要求国家开启限制措施以便于保证本国的纺织业发展不受影响㊂但是这种限制措施无疑会导致世界的纺织贸易发展缓慢，因为在这一政策之下，本国的防治企业即便生产质量不佳，消费者也无力拒绝消费，因此不利于市场多元化的发展，也容易让纺织行业出现垄断的现象㊂因此取消ＭＦＡ能够让各个国家发挥出本国的优势，同时这种竞争也会激励各国进行生产效率的提升㊂最重要的是发展中国家的纺织行业在取消ＭＦＡ之后可以获得更多的市场，其资源分配也得到了一定的改善㊂实际上对于多种纤维协定而言，中国是最受影响的一个国家，因为美国和加拿大等发达国家一直都是我国纺织品销售的主要国家㊂在这种贸易中如果存在一定的限制，则容易导致中国的纺织品行业受到很大的冲击，不利于我国服装产业的长久发展㊂三㊁多哈回合的影响多哈回合主要是指一种贸易谈判，这种贸易谈判限制在世贸组织成员之间，２００１年卡塔尔首次举行多边贸易谈判之后被人所熟知㊂多哈回合在进行的过程中主要围绕削减贸２４区域经济Һ㊀易壁垒的问题㊂这主要是因为随着世界经济的发展，大家普遍认识到贸易自由化的重要性，创造自由而公平的贸易环境对于各个国家的发展都有利无害㊂尤其对于发展中国家而言，贸易自由化能够给他们提供更多的机会和条件，对于发达国家而言，能够进口便宜的产品来满足本国生产㊂因此多哈回合解决的问题正是目前各国国际经济发展中的问题，因为它不仅提倡实现贸易自由化，更重要的也是实现贸易的公平化㊂在多哈回合的内容中，提倡削减和取消高关税㊂这对于许多国家的贸易发展都有着非常重要的影响，实际上中国与美国在２０１９年爆发贸易战，而贸易战中经常出现的就是抬高关税㊂而抬高关税不过就是一种贸易保护主义，这种贸易保护主义与贸易自由化背道而驰㊂他不仅阻碍了中美两国的贸易发展进程，在某种程度上还打破了中美两国本国的发展进程㊂例如，美国一直注重发展高科技电子产业，在轻纺工业上并没有重点发展，因此许多请纺织品都有赖于中国进口，但是一旦提升关税之后，虽然中国对美国的出口率降低了，但是美国人民在进行生活必需品的挑选上也面临一系列的问题，因此人们的生活质量受到了冲击㊂而这种冲击迫使美国必须在产业发展上做出一些转型和改变，这种转型与改变又打乱了本国的发展进程㊂对于中国而言，贸易自由化受到了限制，许多本应出口的产品未能获得出口的机会，因此国内的许多公司发展面临重大困难，甚至部分企业濒临倒闭，对中国的经济发展产生了非常的大负面影响㊂当然贸易自由化程度的实现也有可能导致倾销问题的产生，倾销的出现就是经济强国对经济弱国的一种经济侵略，它只能加深对经济弱国的剥削，让经济弱国在发展中受到阻碍㊂而从全球化来看，经济如果无法谋求发展，最终也会影响世界经济的发展进程㊂四㊁结语对于世界经济发展而言，全球贸易自由化是一个必行的趋势，虽然从２０２０年开始部分西方国家开始主张 闭关 的政策，但这正是因为发达国家无法正确认识全球贸易自由化问题导致的㊂因为许多西方国家发现发展中国家的发展势头，因此想要通过限制贸易自由化来限制发展中国家的发展，这会给中国的经济发展带来严重的影响㊂中国的发展离不开贸易自由化的支持，只有贸易自由化实现的程度恰如其分，才能保证中国的经济发展更加有力量㊂当然对于其他发达国家而言，正确认识全球经济贸易自由化的内涵，才能良性参与世界竞争，促进世界经济的发展㊂参考文献：［１］何勇亭．中国贸易自由化对制造业绩效影响的理论与实证研究［Ｄ］．武汉：中南财经政法大学，２０１９．［２］覃丽芳．国际经济新形势下中国自由贸易试验区建设发展研究［Ｊ］．创新，２０１９，１３（６）：１９－３２．作者简介：董娜，南开大学㊂（上接第３７页）编制环节是全面预算管理实施环节中的重要构成部分，因此，非营利性医疗机构应开展高效的信息数据整合分析以及项目论证工作，合理估算和预测部门成本，全面搜集整合预算信息，进而提升预算规划的可操作性，更好的发挥预算规划的导向性作用㊂（三）强化预算执行刚性预算执行是非营利性医疗机构全面预算管理实施的重要环节，在活动开展过程中，单位应以预算目标为核心，细化预算指标，加强各职能部门协作交流，构建完整的预算执行体系即分级控制㊁垂直管理㊁横向交叉和逐级负责的体系㊂一是预算审批机制，由预算管理小组负责，各职能部门在预算执行过程中应严格按照预算规划实施，提升单位预算控制效率㊂同时，预算管理人员应根据各职能部门提交的预算执行数据信息，定期编制针对性的预算分析报告，并及时提交至上级管理人员，为单位管理人员掌握预算方案执行情况，以及推动管理工作规范化发展提供数据依据；二是非营利性医疗机构应加强预算执行过程中的刚性控制，对预算执行实施全过程监管，并针对预算执行进度㊁资金支出情况等定期开展分析研究，及时发现预算执行过程中存在的各类问题，并积极开展纠偏工作㊂除此之外，非营利性医疗机构应构建完善的预算绩效考评机制，为单位提升预算执行效率发挥重要推力㊂单位预算绩效考评内容应包含财务管理㊁业务活动㊁内部管理等多个内容，并编制预算绩效考评报告，为单位进行预算执行以及预算规划调整工作提供数据保障㊂五㊁结语综上所述，在事业单位深化改革背景下，实施全面预算管理是非营利性医疗机构提升财政资金使用效率实现单位长远发展的必要措施之一㊂现阶段，由于全面预算管理在我国事业单位实施时间较短，仍旧处于不断探索和完善阶段，因此，事业单位在预算管理工作开展中仍旧存在着诸多问题，阻碍着预算管理职能作用的发挥㊂因此，事业单位应从构建完善的预算管理体系㊁提升预算编制环节的科学性，探索多种预算编制方法以及加强预算执行环节的刚性控制等有效途径，促使预算管理最大化发挥对单位发展的重要作用，进而实现稳健发展目标，为社会提供更优质的服务㊂参考文献：［１］张卫平．事业单位全面预算管理问题及对策分析［Ｊ］．商讯，２０１９（３）：１７８－１７９．［２］孙云荷．公共卫生事业单位全面预算管理探索［Ｊ］．行政事业资产与财务，２０１９（１）：６８－６９．［３］谷立勉．全面预算管理在事业单位的应用探讨［Ｊ］．财经界，２０１９（３５）：２６－２７．作者简介：张鹏志，武川县妇幼保健计划生育服务中心㊂３４。

WTO法律词汇整理1.WTO-World Trading Organization世界贸易组织2. Anti-dumping duty 反倾销税3. Appeal （争端解决）上诉4. ATC-Agreement on Textiles and Clothing 《纺织品与服装协议》5. Dumping 倾销6. Bound level 约束水平7. Compensation 补偿8. Consensus 协商一致9. Consultation 磋商10.Countervailing duty 反补贴税11. Customs valuation 海关估价12. DSB--Dispute Settlement Body争端解决机构13. Export subsidy 出口补贴14. GATS--General Agreement on Trade in Service 《服务贸易总协定》15. GATT--General Agreement on Tariff and Trade 《关税与贸易总协定》16. Government procurement 政府采购17. Import licensing 进口许可18. Import substitution 进口替代19. Import surcharge 进口附加税20. Market access 市场准入21. Market price support 市场价格支持22. Material injury 实质损害23. MFN--Most-favored-nation treatment最惠国待遇24. National treatment 国民待遇25. Non-actionable subsidy（补贴协议）不可诉补贴26.NTMs--Non-tariff measur非关税措施27.Plurilateral agreement 诸边协议28. Prohibited subsidy（补贴协议）被禁止的补贴29.Protocols 议定书30.PSI--Preshipment inspection装运前检验31. Rules of origin 原产地规则32. Safeguard Measures 保障措施33. Schedule of concessions 承诺减让表34. Specific tariff 从量税35. SPS-Sanitary and phytosanitary measures 动植物卫生检疫措施36. Tariff binding 关税约束承诺37. Tariffication 关税化38. TBT--Technical barriers to trade技术性贸易壁垒39. TPRM--Trade Policy Review Mechanism贸易政策审议机制40. Transparency 透明度41. TRIMs--Trade related investment measures 与贸易有关的投资设施42. TRIPS--Trade related intellectual property rights 与贸易有关的知识产权43. TRQ--Tariff rate quotas/tariff quotas 关税配额44. Waiver （WTO义务的）豁免45. Ad valorem Tariff 从价税46. Arbitration 仲裁47.Balance-of-payments (BOP) Provisions 国际收支条款48. Ceiling Bindings （关税）上限约束49. Conciliation 调解50. de minimis 微量51. General Exceptions 一般例外52. Illustrative List 例示清单53. Import Surcharge 进口附加税54. Infant Industry 幼稚产业55. Intellectual Property Rights （IPRs）知识产权56. ASEAN Free Trade Are东盟自由贸易区57. “bottleneck” restrictions瓶颈制约59. Transit Duties 过境关税60. Par value of Exchange 汇兑平价61. Autonomous Tariff 自主关税62. Export Finance 出口信贷63. Customs Co-operation Council关税合作理事会64.Tariff Escalation 关税升级65.Margin of Preference 优惠差额66.Effective Vate of Protection有效保护率67.Retaliation and cross retaliation报复与交叉报复68.AMS-Aggregate Measure of Support综合支持量69.Uruguay Round 乌拉圭回合70.DSU-Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dispute《关于争端解决规则与程序的谅解》71.EST-Environmentally-soundtechnology 环保型技术72.grey area measures 灰色区域措施73.import penetration 进口渗透74.INRs-Initial Negotiating Rights最初谈判权（初谈权）75.local content 当地含量76.nullification and impairment（利益的）丧失和减损77.panel （争端解决）专家组78.peace clause （《农业协议》中关于反补贴的）和平条款79.reporting system 申报制度80.CTG-Council for Trade in Goods货币贸易理事会81.Currency retention scheme货币留成制度82. Ex ante/post 采取措施前/后83. Food security 粮食安全84. Geographical indications（知识产权）地理标识85. Green Box measures（农产品国内支持）绿箱措施86.LDCs-Least-developed countries最不发达国家87. Like product 同类产品88.Montreal Protocol《蒙特利尔议定书》(有关保护大气臭氧层的多边环境协定)89.Notification obligation 通知义务90.Paris Convention 《巴黎公约》(关于保护工业知识产权的公约)plaint （解决争端)申诉方92.Defendant (解决争端)被诉方93.Counter-notification 反向通知94.free-rider 免费搭车者（享受其他国家最惠国待遇而不进行相应减让的国家）95.HS-Harmonized Commodity and Coding System 协调制度（商品名称及编码协调制度）96.AAMA-Administrative Aspects of Market Access 市场准人的行政管理措施97.Import variable duties 进口差价税98.Import surcharge 进口附加税99.SSG-Special Safeguard (《农产品协议》)特殊保障100. MFA-Multifibre Agreement 《多种纤维协定》。

作业二一、反向协商一致反向协商一致国际经济法学中的一个概念，也是WTO争端解决机制中的一个规则。

世贸组织的争端解决规则的“反向协商一致”就是协商一致反对，否则该事项通过。

也就是说，在争端解决机构审议有关事项时，只要不是所有参加成员协商一致反对，则视为通过。

反向协商一致原则主要适用于四个方面，即专家小组的成立、专家小组报告的通过、上诉机构报告的通过、对报复授权请求的通过。

在上述四个方面适用反向协商一致原则，不仅会使争端解决机构或专家组的决策更加流畅地被通过，使争端解决机制对各个程序所需的时间有了确定的可能，从而使纠纷可以在可预见的时间内得以处理，缩短争端解决程序的时间；更重要的在于它实际上确立了对争端的强制管辖权，增强了争端解决机制的强制性，提高了国际会谈中争端解决机制的有效性，有利于争端解决程序迅速、顺利地进行，确立和保持专家小组程序在贸易争端解决方面的权威和威慑力。

反向协商一致原则加强了WTO争端解决机制的司法性，但它并未完全遏制一些发达国家利用其经济实力影响争端解决结果的现象。

国际社会应一到推动争端解决机制更加合理和效率更高，使得WTO争端解决机制趋向更加成熟，将是各方不断努力的方向。

在国际贸易中，争端的解决需要各方的努力和合作，协商甚至是妥协。

“反向协商一致”决策规则，有利于专家小组的成立、专家小组或上诉机构的建议或裁决的通过、补偿或报复裁决的通过，都相当于自动的，除非各方协商一致否决。

因此，任何想阻止裁决获得通过的成员都必须说服其他所有成员，包括争端中的对手，从而排除败诉方单方面阻扰的可能。

这些“反向协商一致”的决策规则有效地消除了1947年关贸总协定争端解决程序中存在阻止多边争端解决进程的可能性。

再加上规定了严格的争端解决的结案时间表，“反向协商一致”决策规则就可以保证整个争端解决程序进展得更快和更主动。

二、纺织品与服装协议（一）、纺织品与服装协议是世界贸易组织管辖的一项多边贸易协议。

MMAI Multilateral Agreement on Investment多边投资协定MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement多边环境协定MFA Multifibre Agreement or Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Textiles《多种纤维协定》、《国际纺织品贸易协定》MFN Most-favored-nation treatment最惠国待遇MTN Multilateral trade negotiations多边贸易谈判NNAMA non agricultural market access非农业市场准入NFIDC Net Food-Importing Developing Countries粮食净进口发展中国家NGBT Negotiating Group on Basic Telecommunications基础电信谈判组NGMA Negotiating Group on Market Access非农产品市场准入谈判工作组NGMTS Negotiating Group on Maritime Transport Services海运谈判小组NGO non-government Organization非政府机构NTB non tariff barriers非关税壁垒NTE National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers对外贸易壁垒国别评估报告NTMs Non-tariff measures非关税措施OOCTs Overseas Countries and Territories与欧共体成员有特殊关系的海外国家和领土OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 经济合作与发展组织OIE/ IOE the International Office of Epizootics国际兽医组织OMA Orderly market arrangements有秩序的市场安排PPCWTO Preparatory Committee for the World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织筹备委员会PGE Permanent Group of Experts（反补贴协议的）常设专家小组PPM Processes and Production Methods工序和生产方法PS Partial Scope Agreements局部自由贸易协定PSE Producer subsidy equivalent（农业）生产者补贴等量PSE Producer Support Estimate生产者支持评估PSI Pre-shipment Inspection装运前检验PTA Preferential Trade Agreement优惠贸易安排QQRs Quantitative restrictions数量限制RR&D Services Research and Development Services研发服务RTA Regional Trade Agreements区域贸易协定外贸常用缩写语.;. cubic foot 立方英尺cur.;curt. current(this month) 本月cur. currency 币制.;. cubic yard 立方码cash with order 订货时付款hundredweight 英担(122磅)CY Container Yard 集装箱堆场d. denarii(L),panny or pence 便士D/A Document against Acceptance 承兑交单d/a days after acceptance 承兑后若干天(交款).;D/D Demand draft 即期汇票Delivered at docks 码头交货D/d documentary draft 跟单汇票Dec. December 十二月deld. delivered 交付dept. department 部;股;处destn. destination 目的港;目的地D/f dead freight 空舱费drt. draft 汇票diam. diameter 直径diff. difference 差额;差异dis.;disc't discount 贴现;折扣;贴现息dis.;Dolls. dollars 元Dmge. Damage 损坏destn. destination 目的港;目的地D/N debit note 久款帐单doc. document 单据. document attached 附单据;附证件dols.;dolls. dollars 元D/P document against payment 付款交单doz. dozen 打. direct port 直达港口d/s;.;. days after sight 见票后若干天付款ds.;d's days 日dto.;do ditto 同上;同前. delivery time 交货时间dup.;dupl.;duplte. duplicate 誊本;第二份;两份dead weight tonnage 载重吨D/Y delivery 交付;交货dz.;doz. dozen 打ea. each 每. Exempli causa(for example) 例如E/D Export Declaration 出口申报单. errors excepted 错误当查;错误当改European Economic Community 欧洲共同体.;. Exempli gratia(L.)=for example 例如end. endorsed;endorsement 背书encl.;enc. ecnlosure 附件E.&. errors and omissions excepted 错漏当查;错漏当改end of month 月末end of season 季末eq. equivalent 等值的,等量的equal quantity monthly 每月相等的数量. Et sequentia(and other things) 及以下所棕述的. (and elsewhere) 等等estimated(expected)time of arrival 预计到时间etc. et cetera(L.)=and others 等等ETCL;etcl expected time of commencement of loading 预计开装时间etd;ETD estimated(expected)time of departure 预计离港时间ETDEL expected time of delivery 预计交货时间ETFD expected time of finishing discharging 预计卸完时间ETFL expected time of finishing loading 预计装完时间ex per or out of 搭乘ex. excluding 除外;example 例子;样本Exch. exchange,兑换;汇兑Excl. exclusive or excluding 除外. ex interest 无利息exp. export 出口Exs. expenses 费用Ext. extra 特别的;额外的F degree Fahrenheit 华氏度数. free alongside(ship) (船)边交货f/a/a; free from all average 分损不赔(保险用语)fast as can 尽快fair average quality 大路货;中等品质free alongside ship 船边交货价. freight bill 运费单fc franc 法郎Fch. frachise 免赔率(一般指相对的)FCL Full Container Load 整箱货.&.S. free of capture and seizure clause 战争险不保条款. for example 例如Feb. February 二月free from alongside 船边交货价free from general average 共同海损不赔. for instance 例如;free in 船方不负担装船费. figure 数字free in and out 船方不负担装卸费free in,out and stowed 船方不负担装卸费及理舱费free ,stowed and trimmed 船方不负担装卸费、理舱费及平舱费free in wagon 承运人不负担装入货车费F/O in favor of 交付给......,以......为受益人. free out 船方不负担卸货费free on aircraft 飞机上交货价. filio verso=turn the page 转下页free on rail 火车上交货价FOS.; free on steamer 船上交货价free on board 船上交货价free on board stowed 包括理舱费在内的船上交货价free of charges 免费.;fot free on truck 卡车上交货价F/P fire policy 火灾保险单. floating policy 总括保险单free from particular average 平安险F.;Fr. franc 法郎frt.;frit.;fgt. freight 运费freight prepaid 运费已预付ft. foot 英尺. foot-pound 英尺磅(功的单位)fresh water damage 淡水损失fwd. forward 前面;接下页. foreign excharge 外汇到了ms以后，发现email里经常有一些缩写，所以上网搜了一下记录下来电子邮件或互联网常用语及缩写Some Useful Email/Internet Expressions in Abbreviated Form电子邮件或互联网常用语及缩写1. FYI = For your information仅供参考2. Cc = Carbon copy. Enter the address of anyone you'd like to receive a copy of your email on the cc line.抄送。