Unit 2-1 the political system

新编MPA英语阅读教程Unit 1Defining Public AdministrationText APublic Administration1. The occupational sector, enterprises, and activities having to do with the formulation and implementation of policy of governmental and other public programs and the management of organizations and activities involved.2. The academic field concerned with the study of, improvement of, and training for the activities mentioned in 1.Public administration refers to two distinguishable but closely related activities: (1) a professional practice (vocation, occupation, field of activity), and (2) an academic field as well as to train individuals for that practice. The simple meaning of the term is quite direct: it refers on the one hand to the administration or management of matters which have principally to do with thesociety, polity, and its subparts which are not essentially private, familial, commercial, or individualistic, and on the other hand to the disciplined study of such matters. In this simplest meaning, public administration has to do with managing the realm of governmental and other public activities. This simple definition conveys the essence of public administration and probably covers the vast majority of activities and concerns of contemporary public administration.Such a simple view, though, needs modification to account for at least two important considerations: First, it must be recognized that professional management of the public’s affairs involves not only management in the narrowest sense (keeping the books, handling personnel decisions, implementing decisions which have been made elsewhere in the politico-socio-economic systems, etc.), but also significantly involves the planning, formulating, modifying, and urging of goals and purposes of much of public affairs. Second, it must be recognized that some matters of public administration are handled in ways which are not purely private but also are not precisely government.The first consideration—that public administration is involved in the substance of policy as well as the implementation of policy decisions—is frequently alluded to with terms such as the demise ofthe politics-administration dichotomy, the impossibility of value-free public administration, and the need for proactivity by public administrators. These terms reflect the widespread, though not universal, belief or allegation that it is no longer, if ever it was, defensible to interpret public administration as solely involved in technically objective solutions or in the neutral implementation of decisions made by nonadministrative parts of the political system (e.g., partisan leadership; electoral processes; party processes; partisan bargaining; and parliamentary, legislative, and judicial institutions). This belief and related understandings have led to significant public administration attention to policy and policy process. Some have felt a need for a rubric which emphasizes such a policy focus and which might also encompass or indicate receptivity to areas of studies which are closely related (e.g., planning, urban affairs, economic analysis, public policy analysis), and terms such as public affairs are sometimes used for this purpose. In general, though, public administration still functions as the umbrella term throughout the world, though it must be realized that the term implies a broader range of concerns and activities than the narrow meaning of management or administration may convey.The second consideration—that not all public administrationoccurs in and through governmental organizations—also has led to a broadening of the meaning of public administration. At various times in the past of public administration it has seemed that its essence and activities could be identified by referring to nonmarket approaches to social purposes, but this perspective has been mitigated by the recognition that public programs and benefits could be developed through and provided with some market characteristics. Thus there have been developments such as governmental or quasi-governmental activities which compete with private sector activities or provide benefits through use of a price mechanism; sometimes water, utilities, sewers, health care, education, and other benefits are provided in this way. There are also devices such as public corporations, quasi-public corporations, public-private cooperative enterprises, and government contractual arrangements with nongovernmental organizations to provide certain benefits or perform certain functions. Indeed, even for large parts of the world where the private-public distinction has not been as prevalent or obvious as other places (for example, where the economy is essentially directed or nonmarket), the movement toward market or marketlike mechanisms for the provision of public goods is increasingly a matter of rhetoric, planning, or action.When these considerations are taken into account, publicadministration is probably best defined as the practice and study of the professional formulation and influence of public policy and the implementation of such policy on a regular and organized basis on behalf of the public interest of a society its civic subparts, and its citizenry.Development of the FieldIt is usual to date the contemporary social scientific awareness of bureaucracy (a term which can include both pri vate, or “business” administration and public administration) with the work of the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920). Such dating, though, is more a matter of convenience or recognition of important scholarly influence than of historical accuracy.In the United States, it is usual to credit the reformism of the Populist and Progressive era of politics (about 1880-1920) and especially Woodrow Wilson’s academic article “The Study of Administration” (in the Political Science Quarterly in 1887) for the systematic and self-conscious development of the field of public administration. It is usual also to identify the early years of U.S. public administration with scientific management, a school of thought largely attributed to Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) which emphasized a task analysis and efficiency approach to management; and with the subsequent human relations movement,which emphasized the human and social aspects of work environments and motivations somewhat in contradistinction to the scientific management movement. Both of these latter movements had their origins in industrial and business management, but were very influential on public administration in the United States and around the world. The period of U.S. history between the Great Depression and the World War II (about 1929-1945) is commonly held to represent U.S. public administration in a self-confident —though some also say naive—phase; this period is frequently referred to in the United States and elsewhere as the period of classical public administration or orthodox public administration. The dynamics of the Cold War competition between the United States and Western allies and the USSR and its allies, and the manifestation of this competition in various forms of technical assistance, aid in economic development, and administrative assistance had an impact upon public administration. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of the world of science and technology came under attack. In the United States, these decades and their challenges have come to be interpreted against the backdrop of the civil rights movement (and related movements such as feminism), Vietnam War activism, the “new left,”anti-institutionalism, and particular manifestations of youth rebellion. Other parts of the worldalso experienced similar movements, frequently exacerbated by issues of neocolonialism, nationalism, anti-institutionalism, environmentalism, anti-technologism, and general critiques of scientific and technological perspectives and, indeed, the entirety of “modernity.” All of these matters had effects upon politics, the social sciences, and public administration. In United States and elsewhere, many of these developments were accompanied by significant critiques of public administration. One manifestation of this was a dialogue about the need for fundamental rethinking in public administration (and for some, the need for a “new public administration”). In the last couple of decades, this had been augmented by tremendous technological developments (e.g., in computer applications and in communications developments) on the one hand, and ever more sophisticated philosophical and methodological interpretations asserting that we are transcending “modernity” in ways which call much of our question on the other hand. At the present time, public administration worldwide is in creative tension and undergoing rapid change and attempts at reconceptualization. What the effects of all this will be over time, or what the next developmental stage will be, is unclear but generally appears to have an energizing effect upon the field.Configuration of the FieldPublic administration is sometimes treated as though it is one of the social sciences, a discipline in some sense. As the number of programs offering doctoral degrees in the field has increased, this interpretation has gained strength.In the United States, it is relatively unusual for public administration to be a free-standing degree program at the baccalaureate level (though there are some well-established and prestigious programs of this sort—especially in schools of public affairs, schools of management, or schools of public administration —and this approach may be on the increase). The more traditional and still usual pattern is for baccalaureate education in public administration to be a major or minor specialization within a political science degree program. Master-level degrees are increasingly emphasized as desirable or expected credentials for full commitment to professional careers in many fields (e.g., not only in business administration and public administration, but also in fields such as social work, nursing, and education where the appropriate degree for professional entry was once the baccalaureate), and the master’s degree—usually, but not always, the master of public administration (MPA)—is becoming the recognized degree for those who aspire to careers in public administration. It should be remembered, though, that public organizations and activities covervirtually the whole spectrum of contemporary specialities and that the educational background and specialties of public administrators therefore reflect this diversity.As modern and contemporary public administration evolved, it tended to develop a more or less regular set of subfields, approaches, and topical interests. These generally have to do either with the functional and technical specializations of public administration, with specific methods and approaches, or with the phenomena of specific locales and issue areas of public administration.Thus, public administration has some subfields which deal with concerns which, in one form or another have been part of the field since is earliest days. Budget and finance (how to provide, handle, and account for material resources), personnel (the policies and management of human resources), planning, operations management, organizational design and management, communications and communication systems, record-keeping, accounting of various kinds, reporting of various kinds and for a variety of purposes and clientele, internal and external public relations, and a host of similar concerns constitute some of the technical and functional foci of the field. In additional, there are various concerns dealing with the environment and context ofadministration: the constitutional and legal context; the context of the political, economic, and societal structure, requirements, and processes; the values, history, traditions, and habits of the society and its components; the values, history, requirements, and processes of the organizations, programs, and components of specific relevance at any given time; and many other such factors (as well as their interrelationships).There are also specializations and foci having to do with the specific form and level at which administration occurs: international administration; national administration; federal/confederal administration; state/province administration; district/department /sector administration; city, county, and local administration; inter-governmental and inter-organizational administration; ”not for profit” administration; and so forth. Issue areas present other topics and specializations: police, fire, schools, military, medical, environmental, technology and technology transfer, science and scientific applications, government-business-industry cooperation, and a host of other specific concerns spawn specializations of knowledge, application, training, an experience.When one realizes that all these (and many more) can be viewed as components of a huge matrix where any one (or more) can be related to any other one (one more), the complexity andvariety of the field of public administration is suggested.Unit 2The Practice of PublicAdministrationText AThe Rise of the American Administrative StateToday, there are perhaps 15 million civilian public employees in the United States. The growth of this number in the twentieth century and the development of large administrative components in governments at all levels are generally referred to as the “rise of the administrative state”. The term administrative state is intended to convey several realities of contemporary government: that a great deal of the society’s resources are spent on the salaries and functions of public administrators; that public administrators are crucial to the operation of contemporary government; that, as a whole, they are politically powerful; and that the nation has decided upon a course of attempting to solve its problems and achieve its aims through the use of administrative action. The growth of administrative power is a worldwide phenomenon that affects the nature of governments in virtually all nations.The Political Roots of the American administrative State The constitutional government of the United States came intoexistence in 1789 with some clearly stated formal goals. These are found in the Preamble to the Constitution, which reads: WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America.In this passage it can be found some of the classic purposes of almost all contemporary nations: the desire to provide for the defense of the political community, for law and order, and for the general welfare. The latter may seem too vague to convey anything of a specific nature, but generally it includes a commitment to economic development and to the provision of services by the government for the purpose of advancing the common good. The idea that the state should provide such services did not develop in Western Europe until the 1660s, but now it is perhaps the most prominent feature of the administrative state.The decisions to pursue these purposes in the first place are political. So is the choice of a means for achieving them. Several alternatives to government sponsorship of such services do exist. Government could rely heavily upon private resources and incentives to serve their purpose. For example, private armies ofmercenaries were once a common means of waging war or promoting national defense. Education was once a private or church-related endeavor. Taking care of individuals’health and welfare needs was once left up to families and churches. Private action has frequently been augmented by the provision of governmental financial assistance to those individuals whose actions promote general national goals. For instance, at one time mentally retarded persons were “sold”to private individuals who would care for them at the least cost to the government, which was willing to pay for this service as part of its commitment to the common interest. Farm subsidies pay private farmers to use the nation’s agricultural resources in the national interest. Today, some economists, such as Milton Friedman, argue that education should be supplied by private organizations through a scheme in which the parents of school children would receive tuition vouchers from the government. These could be used at any school the parents felt best suited their children’s educational needs. Such an approach, it is argued, would create a greater incentive and would also maximize the freedom of parents to choose among competing educational services. Similarly, various incentives can be built into the government’s system of taxation to promote individual behavior deemed in the common interest.It is often feasible for the government to promote its objectives through reliance on private action and the manipulation of subsides and incentives. But this is not always government’s preferred choice of means. Sometimes—indeed, with increasing frequency in the twentieth century—governments seek to achieve their goals through direct public action. For instance, in the housing example, governments seek to assure that everyone is adequately housed by building and running public housing projects. Instead of paying private individuals to take care of the mentally retarded, governments build and operate mental health facilities for this purpose. Similarly, education, defense, and a host of other operations are undertaken by government.The essence of the administrative state and the need for large- scale public administration lie in the policy of governments to undertake organizational action themselves to achieve their ultimate political goals. It is commonly believed that American founding fathers never anticipated that governments in the United States would become engaged in a great deal of administrative action. However, it is also clear that the Constitution itself indicates the preference for public action in some areas. For instance, it authorizes the federal government to establish post offices and post roads and to raise and direct and army and navy. Even a briefreview of the development of large-scale public administration in the United States during the past two centuries indicates the extent to which such direct administrative action has become increasingly commonplace.In a thoughtful and succinct analysis, James Q. Wilson has identified several primary roots of the development of the contemporary American administrative state. One was to provide a reliable postal service. The U.S. Post Office was not viewed as an end itself, but rather as a means of promoting economic development and national cohesion.A second source of administrative growth has been the desire to promote economic development and social well-being through governmental action recognizing the needs of various sectors of the economy. For example, the Department of Agriculture was created in 1862 and the Departments of Commerce and Labor came into existence in 1913. More recently, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now Health and Human Services) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education have been created to provide governmental goals in these economic and social areas of American life. Departments such as Agriculture, Labor, and Commerce are often called clientele departments because they deal largely with arelatively well-defined category of people who are generally assumed to have common economic interest.Another source of administrative growth has been defense. The Department of War and Navy were created in the eighteenth century, but the military establishment did not emerge as the federal government’s largest administrative operation until after World War II. Since that time, the Department of Defense has employed as many as third of all civilian federal workers. Interestingly, this means that about half of all federal employees are employed in two agencies—Defense and Post Office.In sum, the political roots of development of contemporary public administration in the United States lie primarily in two political choices made by the government and society. One was that government would exist to promote such objectives as the common defense, economic development, and the general welfare. This was a choice first made back in the late 1780s and reinforced subsequently on many occasions. Second has been the more recent choice of placing heavy reliance upon direct provision of services and functions by the government as opposed to reliance solely upon the manipulation of subsidies for private action. In addition to these factors, the Constitution expresses a desire to promote domestic tranquility, which brings us to what can be considered the legalroots of the contemporary administrative state.Unit 3Decision Making in PublicAdministrationText AIn Praise of TheoryNothing is quite so practical as a good theory. Theory in the social sciences, especially economic theory, is frequently attacked by practitioners because its function is so often misunderstood. Others, especially those outside of the discipline of economics, wrongly believe that there is an oversupply of competing theories and paradigms in economics. Economists suffer the butt of jokes such as, “if you lay all of the economists in the world end to end you will never reach a conclusion.”the amount of disagreement amongst research economists, as compared to political economy commentators and scribblers, is much less than it is often supposed. Indeed, that economists do not agree on policy prescriptions is a reflection of the complexity and uncertainty of the world in which we live and for which policy has to be designed. Policy rules are contingent upon a reality which unfolds with uncertainty. Other disciplines, even the hard sciences, have their controversies: what is the origin of the universe; what is the cause of cancer? Recently,forensic evidence provided to a court of law has been found wanting.Do public policies promote the general welfare of citizens? Will policy x have an impact upon the welfare of a specific group of citizens? To answer these questions, and more, practitioners frequently adopt a set of policy indicators (for example, educational attainment; morality; economic indicators). But how robust are these indicators; what are the causal relations between these statistics and individual well-being (welfare)? What implicit social values do these indicators reflect? What is the set of causal links between public policies and individuals’welfare? These questions are often regarded as troublesome by politicians and some career policy advisers whose interests lie in providing a quick fix to social problems. It is the role of theory to challenge and to question the adequacy of existing practice and to improve the quality of the arguments in the policy debate. Far form being impractical, theory is extremely practical and an appreciation of how to use theory in formulating policy argument will lead to improved practice.Economic theory’s contribution to policy analysis and design is to promote an understanding of events and phenomena within the domain of public policy. Understanding and explanation of events is not, however, synonymous with prediction. Even when phenomena(consider, for example, earthquakes) are understood it is not always possible to predict when the phenomenon will next occur. Recently, chaos theory has taught that in complex systems small perturbations can build up to large events. Whilst an understanding of the processes and dynamics of a system is of importance for purpose of control and manipulation, it does not follow that the precise timing of events can be predicted. Instead, statements of future events must be made in probabilistic terms, i.e. if conditions X and Y prevail then there is a probability that Z will occur. An assessment of the probabilities informs managers and decision- makers. Thus, forecasts of economic and social events must not be regarded as having probabilities of unity assigned to them (i.e. complete certainty), instead the forecaster needs to inform the decision-makers of the probability (confidence) of the forecast being correct. The further a socioeconomic events lies into the future, the lower is the probability that its forecast be accurate.A useful theory must encompass the event which is to be explained: the event(s) should not contradict the theory. Furthermore, useful theories are those which are communicable to others. If an event can be incorporated into a theory then it means that the event (phenomenon) is understood. If it cannot be so incorporated then the event is not understood and the theory is notas general as might have been supposed. Policy interventions require an understanding of the events which lie in the policy domain: they require an understanding of the causal processes which gave rise to the event. Such understanding can only be the result of systematic research within a wider conceptual framework. This reduces the chances of futile and misdirected interventions which often result in catastrophic outcomes. There is nothing quite so practical as a good theory. Sound theory is a line of first defence against madmen and cranks. Policy managers need policy analysts and policy analysts need sound theory.Theories start from axioms, i.e. generally agreed upon basic statements of the real world. A theorist seeks to find out of those propositions which are presented as policy statements are deducible from a set of these elementary axioms. Put another way—what does the world actually have to look like for the propositions to be true? It is at this point that the assumptions upon which a theory is predicted to come in. Different assumptions in conjunction with the basic axioms produce different propositions.The basic axioms used by the economists are that decision-makers are rational and that individuals are the best judge of their own welfare. This means nothing other than that either preference orderings are well defined, or that individuals havereasons for the choices that they make. Rationality also means that the choices which are made by individuals are logically consistent. Typical assumptions relate to whether or not the decision-makers is fully informed when making choices; whether decisions are made in a total system or a partial system at a single moment in time or inter-temporally; whether or not the future is know with certainty; and the extent to which market structures are perfectly competitive or monopolistic. To assume, as the public theorists do, that politicians and bureaucrats have preferences is an axiom. Making statements about the objective function of politicians and bureaucrats, i.e. that they are vote maximizers or budget maximizers, is to make assumptions. Different assumptions will generate different propositions (hypotheses) which might, if they are in a suitable form and if data are available, be tested (with a view to refutation) empirically. A theory provides a coherent framework within which the implications of different assumptions can be analyzed.The aim of theory is not to describe reality. It is to understand that reality. Be necessity, abstraction from reality is required for understanding. Thus, the charge, often made by practitioners, that a theory is unreal is a weak criticism. Simon, Lindblom and Wildavsky have frequently taken economists to task for the strong。

TEXT1783年和平条约承认美国独立和沿东海岸的大西洋前13个英国殖民地成为13个新的民族国家。

这13个国家是：马萨诸塞州，康涅狄格州，罗得岛州和新罕布什尔州的新英格兰东北部，马里兰州，宾夕法尼亚州，特拉华州，纽约和新泽西州的大西洋中部，和弗吉尼亚州，北卡罗来纳州，南卡罗来纳州和格鲁吉亚南方。

虽然独立宣言，宣布13日联合殖民地“是，和权利应该是自由和独立的国家”，他们并不十分关注未来的政治制度，美国和有关国家之间和政府的关系，明确新国家。

阿宪法迫切需要。

Articles of Confederation当独立战争结束后，美国并没有一个统一的国家，因为它是今天。

每一个新的国家有自己的政府和组织一个独立的国家一样十分。

每个做出了自己的法律和处理其内部事务的。

在战争期间，各国已同意派代表工作的全国代表大会后，一起图案的“代表大会”是与英国进行的战争。

战争结束后获胜，国会将只处理的问题和需要的个别国家不能单独处理。

这将筹集资金，偿还债务的战争，使条约建立货币制度，与外国交易。

该协定，规定这一合作计划被称为的邦联。

邦联的失败，因为国家并没有与国会合作，或与对方。

当国会需要钱支付国家军队或支付所欠法国和其他国家的债务，一些国家拒绝作出贡献。

国会已获得无权迫使任何国家做任何事情。

它不能税务任何公民。

只有国家在公民生活可以这样做。

许多美国人担心未来。

怎么能赢得尊重其他国家，如果国家没有偿还债务？他们怎么能够提高建筑物的道路或运河的国家，如果美国不一起工作？他们认为，国会需要更多的权力。

国会要求每个国家都派代表参加在费城公约，城市的独立宣言签署了，讨论改变，就必须加强对邦联。

最小的州，罗得岛，拒绝，但来自其他12个国家的代表参加了会议。

这次会议后来被制宪会议，已知5月开始的1787年。

乔治华盛顿在独立战争的军事英雄，是主持人。

其他54人出席了会议。

一些想要一个强有力的，新的政府。

有的没有。

Constitution在该公约，设计了政府对美国新形式的代表课程。

Chapter 1 globalizationWhat is globalization?The globalization of markets.It refers to the merging of historically distinct and separate national markets into one huge global marketplace.The globalization of productionIt refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production.Factors of production: (1) land, (2) capital, (3) labor, (4) energyWhy china losing their position of global factory?(1)A ging population.The population of the china is aging, which leads china to losing their advantage of cheaper labors that resulting the cost of production in china is going higher.(2)E xpensive land.The higher cost of land is another reason that leads to China losingits position of global factory. In the early time, it is free for foreign company to use land in China to build up a factory. But it is not free for them anymore. Because of the increasing price of land, many company are moving their factories to other countries.The differences between the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank （WB）.The IMF was established to maintain order in the international monetary system; the WB was set up to promote economic development.In a short word, the IMF always gives a hand to the countries in crisis, and it often offers the short-term loan.The WB always loan money to country build their infrastructure with long-term loan.Drivers of globalizationDeclining trade and investment barriersInternational trade occurs when a firm exports goods & services to consumers in another country.Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests resources in business activities outside its home country.The role of technological changeMicroprocessors and telecommunicationsMoore’s law, which predicts that the power of microprocessor technology doubles and its cost of production falls in half every 18 months.The internet and world wide webTransportation technologyImplications for the globalization of productionImplications for the globalization of marketsThe changing demographics of the global economyThe changing world output and world trade pictureThe changing foreign direct investment pictureThe changing nature of the multinational enterpriseThe changing world orderTotalitarianism ———democracyPlan market —— free marketFactors prevent globalizationProtectionismDistanceLanguage barriersControl by government(1)Job losses in industries under attack from foreign competitors;(2)Downward pressure on the wage rates of unskilled workers;(3)Environmental degradation;(4)The cultural imperialism (帝国主义) of global media andmultinational enterprise, which was called “culturally impoverished”The differences between managing an international business and managing a purely domestic business(1)C ountries are different(2)T he range of problems confronted by managers in aninternational business is wider and the problems themselves (3)A n international business must find ways to work within thelimits imposed by government intervention in the international trade and invest system;(4)International transactions involve converting money intodifferent currenciesChapter 2national differences in political economy political economy to stress that the political, economic, and legalsystems of a country are interdependent.Political system: mean the system of government in a nation. It can be assessed according to two dimensionsThe first is the degree to which they emphasize collectivism as opposed to individualism.Collectivism: refers to a political system that stresses the primacy of collective goals over individual goals.Individualism: refers to a philosophy that an individual should have freedom in his or her economic and political pursuit.The second is the degree to which they are democratic or totalitarian.Democracy: refers to a political system in which government is by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.Totalitarianism: is a form of government in which one person or political party exercise absolute control over all sphere of human life and prohibits opposing political parties.Pure market economy: all productive are privately owned, as opposed to being owned by the state.Pure command economy: the government plans the goods and services that country produces, the quantity in which they are produced, and the prices at which they are sold.Legal systemCommon law: based on tradition, precedent (先例)Civil law: based on a detailed set of laws organized into codes. Theocratic law: the law is based on religious teachings Property rights and corruptionProperty rights: refers to the legal rights over the use to which a resource is put and over the use made of any income that may be derived from that resource.Property rights can be violated in two ways—— through private action and through public action.Private action: refers to theft, piracy（非法翻印），blackmail）（勒索）, and the like by private individuals or groups.Public action and corruption: it occurs when public officials, such as politicians and government bureaucrats, extort （敲诈）income, resources, or the property itself from property holders.Chapter 3political economy and economic development GNI: is regarded as a yardstick for the economic activity of a country; it measures the total annual income received by residents of a nation.The disadvantage of GNI:GNI per person figures can be misleading because they don’t consider difference in the cost of living.To account for the difference in the cost of living, the purchasing power parity(PPP) is referred. It for different countries is then adjusted (up or down) depending upon whether the cost of living is lower or higher than the USA.Human Development Index(HDI): a tool to measure the quality of human life in different countries, which is based on three measures:(1). Life expectancy at birth (a function of health care);(2). Educational attainment (measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and enrollment in primary, secondary, and tertiary education);(3). Whether the average income, based on PPP estimates, are sufficient to meet the basic needs of life in a country (adequate food, shelter, and health care).Innovation and entrepreneurship are the engines of growth Innovation: new products, new processes, new organization, new management practices, and new strategies.Furthermore, innovations in production and business processes lead to an increase in the productivity of labor and capital, which further boosts economic growth rates.Entrepreneurs first commercialize innovative new products and processes, and entrepreneurial activity provides much of the dynamism(活力) in an economy.The factors that innovations and entrepreneurship need:1.Market economy;2.Strong property rights;3.Democratic political system;4.Geography(地理), education, and economic development. States in transitionThe political economy of many of the world’s nation-states has changed radically since the late 1980s. two trend have been evident:First, a wave of democratic revolutions swept the world;Second, there has been a strong move away from centrally planned and mixed economies and toward a more free market economic model.The spread of democracyThree main reasons account for the spread of democracy:First, many totalitarian regimes failed to deliver economic progress to the vast bulk of their populations.Second,new information and communication technologies,including satellite television, internet have reduced a state’s ability to control access to uncensored(未经审查的) information.Third, in many countries the economic advances of the past quarter century have led to the emergence of increasingly prosperous middle and working classes who have pushed for democratic reforms.The nature of economic transformationThe shift toward a market-based economic system often entails a number of steps:1.Deregulation;2.Privatization;3.Creation of a legal system to safeguard property rights. Implications of changing political economy (for managers) Benefits1.Size of economy;2.Likely economic growth；3.First-mover advantages: advantages that accrue to early entrantsinto a market;te-mover disadvantages are the handicaps that late entrantsmight suffer.costs1.Corruption(贪污、腐败)；ck of infrastructure;3.Legal costs.risks1.Political risks: social unrest/ anti-business trends;2.Economic risks: economic mismanagement;3.Legal risks: failure to safeguard Property Rights.Chapter 4 difference in cultureWhat is culture?Complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.Values:Abstract ideas about what a group believes to be good, right, and desirable.Norms:The social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations.Norms can be subdivided further into two major categories: folkways and mores.Folkways are the routine conventions of everyday life, which includes rituals(礼仪) and symbolic behavior.More are norms that are seen as central to the functioning of a society and to its social life.Society:A group of people who share a common set of values and norms. The cultural norms and value system includes:1.Religion;2.Political philosophy;3.Economic philosophy;cation;nguage;6.Social structureSocial structureSocial structure refers to its basic organization, which can expend into two dimensions:First, the degree to which the basic unit of social organization is the individual, as opposed to the group.Second, the degree to which a society is stratified into classes or castes(等级)。

英语国家社会与文化入门第二版上册课程设计课程介绍英语国家社会与文化入门是一门提供英语国家方面知识的课程，这是在英语教学过程中不可或缺的部分。

本课程的主要目的是帮助学生了解英语国家的社会、文化及历史，帮助学生更好地理解英语国家的各个方面知识。

教学目标本课程的教学目标如下：•了解英语国家的历史、政治和文化背景。

•掌握英语国家的社会现象以及文化习俗。

•学会用英语表达自己的见解, 开始自信地参与讨论。

•提升对英语国家的文化和历史的兴趣。

教学内容Unit One: Introduction to English-speaking Countries1.1 What are the English-speaking countries?1.2 A Brief History of the English-speaking Countries1.3 The English-speaking World Today1.4 English as a Global LanguageUnit Two: Social Structure and Identity2.1 Social Class and Social Mobility2.2 Racial and Ethnic Groups2.3 National Identity2.4 Gender RolesUnit Three: Culture and Customs3.1 Legal System3.2 Education System3.3 Religion3.4 Holidays and FestivalsUnit Four: Politics and Government4.1 Political System4.2 Elections4.3 International Relations4.4 Political Issues and Debates教学方法本课程主要采用课本讲解、分组讨论、现场实践、小组报告、互动学习等多种教学方法，帮助学生全面、系统地了解英语国家的社会与文化方面知识。

英美国情判断题美国部分Unit3 America Beginning1.The question “What is an American?” was first asked by J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur. T2.Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1942. T3.The first English permanent settlement was founded in California. F Virginia4.Massachusetts was established by English puritans who separated themselves from the Roman Catholic Church. F 不是建立，而是founded5.The state of Pennsylvania used to be inhabited by the Quakers. T （基督教）贵格派教徒6.The theory of politics of the American Resolution came from John Locke, a French philosopher in the 17th century. F English7.By the early 1760s, the 13 English colonies in North America were ready to separate themselves from Europe. T8.George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln were regarded as the founding fathers of the United States of America. F John Adams OR Thomas JeffersonUnit 4 The Political System in the United States1.When the War of Independence was over, the United States was one unified nation as it is today. F was not2.The agreement that set this plan of cooperation among different states after the War of American Independence was called the Constitution of the United States. F the Articles of Confederation 联邦条款3.The US Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government. T 联邦制4.The main duty of the Congress is to make laws, including those which levy taxes that pay for the work of the federal government. T 国会5.Under a Constitutional Amendment passed in 1951, a president can be elected to only one term. F two terms6.The president has the authority to appoint federal judges, and all such court appointments are subject to confirmation by the House of Representatives. 众议院F the Senate 参议院7.The 10 very short paragraphs which guarantee freedom and individual rights and forbid interference with lives of individuals by the government are called the Bill of Rights. T 人权法案8.The idea of checks and balances as a way of restrictinggovernmental power and preventing its abuse was first provided in the Federalist Paper. T制约与平衡9.Today, the United State has two major political parties. One is the Democratic Party, formed before 1800. The other is the Republican Party, formed in the 1850s, by the people i n the states of the North and West. T 民主党，共和党10.Americans have to join a political party in order to vote to bea candidate for public office. F 公职do not have toUnit 5 American Economy1.Alexander Hamilton was the third president of the United Stated. F Thomas Jefferson2.The first factory in the United States was a cotton textile mill. T3.Many people objected to the idea of the corporation because it is less personal than sole proprietorship and partnership. T 所有（权），独资企业；合伙关系4.The United State‟s economy suffered from the two World Wars in the 20th century. F not5.Many people believe that the economic freedom of capitalism is crucial to American‟s economic success. T 决定性的，重要的6.When people buy stocks, they become part owner of the company. T7.The stockholders make profits even when the company loses money. F8.One reason for America‟s affluence is that a lot of people have inherited wealth from their parents, F 富裕9.Strong domestic demand is one factor contributing to America‟s affluence. T 家庭的，国家的10.Many American leaders have extol led the virtues of farmers. T 赞扬Unit 6 Religion in the United States1.During the War of Independence and many years after that the Americans were mostly concerned about religious freedom. F It was politics and not religion that most occupied American s‟minds during the War of Independence and for years afterward.2.According to the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, there would be a state-supported region. F 联邦政府不得给予任何宗教以特殊优惠。

英美国情名词解释美国部分英美国情名词解释美国部分Unit3 America Beginning1.The first English settlement in North AmericaThe first English permanent settlement was organized in 1067 by the London Company with a charter from the English King. The colonists settled in Virginia and survived by imposing strict discipline on themselves and by transplanting tobacco into the colony of Virginia. In 1619, the settlers elected their delegates and set up the House of Burgesses, and the same time they bought and enslaved black servants. These two events greatly influenced the political and social development of the United States later.2.PuritanismPuritans were those who followed the doctrine教义of John Calvin and wanted to purify the Church of England. They believe that human beings were predestined by God before they were born. Some were God’s chosen people while others were damned to hell. No church nor good works could save people. The sign of being God’s elect was the s uccess in his work or the prosperity in his calling. They also argued that everyone must read the Bible in order to find God’s will and establish a direct contact with God. These beliefs had greatimpact on American culture.3.The Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776, when the people of 13 English colonies in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the Britishcolonial rule. The document declared that all men were equal that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,. It also explained the philosophy of government: the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above. The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.4.George WashingtonGeorge Washington was one of the founding fathers of the America Republic. He was the Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the War of Independence against the British colonial rule and the first President of the United States.5.Benjamin FranklinBenjamin Franklin was one of the founding fathers of the United States of America. He participated in writing the Declaration of independence and making the US Constitution.Unit 4 The Political System in the United States1.The Articles of Confederation2.A federal system3.The making of the US Constitution4.The executive5.The Bill of RightsThe Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791. The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee freedom and individual rights such as freedom of speech, the right to assemble in public places, the right to own weapons and so on.Unit 5 American Economy1.Eli Whitney2.Samuel Slater3.Industrial Revolution in America4.Corporation 美国股份（有限）公司5.Service industries6.Stock7.Agribusiness8.Migrant workersUnit 6 Religion in the United States1.Religious liberty in the US2.The Baptists in the US3.The Catholics in the US4.Three Faiths in the US5.Religious diversityUnit 7 American Literature1.Transcendentalists2.The Scarlet Letter3.Moby Dick4.Leaves of Grass5.Mark Twain6.The naturalists7.The Waste Land8.The “Lost Generation”In the aftermath of World War I, many novelists produced a literature of disillusionment. Some lived in Europe. They were known as the “Lost Generation”. Two of the most representative writers of the “Lost Generation”were Hemingway and Fitzgerald.Unit 8 Education in the United States1.Elementary school2.Boards of education3.Higher education4.The Serv icemen’s Readjustment Act5.Affirmative Action ProgramsUnit 9 Social Movements of the 1960s1.Greensboro sit-in2.The civil rights movementIt is one of the most important of all social movements in the 1960s in America. Rosa Parks’ spontaneous action in 1955 was believed to be the true beginning of the civil rights movement. The black students’sit-in at a department lunch counter in North Carolina touched off the nationwide civil rights movement. During the first half of the decade, civil rights organizations like the SNCC, CORE, and SCLC struggled for racial integration by providing leadership,tactics, network and the people. In the latter half of the decade, some black organizations changed their nonviolent tactics, and emphasized on more radical means to end discrimination and raised the self-image of the blacks. The civil rights movement produced such great leaders as Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X, who inspired a generation of both blacks and whites to devote their lives to fighting for racial equality in the US.3.Montgomery bus boycott4.Martin Luther King, Jr5.CountercultureUnit 10 Social Problems in the United States1.The black “underclass”2.Poverty as a social problem3.Socially stratified American society4.Drug abuse as a social problem5.White-collar crimes6.The abuse of power by government7.The abuse of power by corporations8.Richard NixonRichard Nixon was a former President of the United States.In the early 1970s, he was involved in the Watergate scandal, for which he was forced to resign from the presidency.Unit 11 Technology in America1.“The Wizard of Menlo Park”2.Taylorism and Fordism3.PC4.Bill Gates5.The InternetUnit 12 Post-WW II Foreign Policy1.The Cold War2.The containment policy3.Engagement and expansion4.Unilateralism5.Sept. 11 terrorist attack6.The strategy of preemption先发制人Unit 13 Sports and Scenic Spots in American1.Super Bowl2.NBA3.James Naismith4.The Grand Canyon National Park 大峡谷国家公园5.Yellowstone National ParkUnit 14 Early American Jazz1.Early jazz music2.Blues3.Louis Armstrong4.Ragtime musicRagtime music refers to a type of piano music of black US origin, popular in the 1920s. originally based on tunes for marching bands ragtime music is marked by a syncopated melodic line with a regular accented bass. Ragtime music has been popularized by such composers as Scott Joplin whose “Maple Leaf Rag”published in 1896 was hailed as the first popular ragtime繁音拍子tune, till listened to with pleasure by all jazz fans.5.Boogie Woogie。

英概Unit1，21. The full name of the United Kingdom is ____2. The island of Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. True or False?False. Because Northern Ireland is on the neighboring island of Ireland.3. The national flag of the UK is called _____.The Union Jack4. What’s its national anthem?God Save the Queen /King. 5Commonwealth of Nations英联邦1。

英国的全称是____2。

大不列颠岛由英格兰,苏格兰,威尔士和北爱尔兰。

真或假?假的。

因为北爱尔兰在邻近的爱尔兰。

3。

英国的国旗被称为_____。

英国国旗4。

它的国歌是什么?上帝保佑女王/王5英联邦英联邦8. LondonThe l argest city in the country, with about one seventh of the nation’s population.The seat of the government---10 Downing Street.The cultural center, home to all the major newspapers, TV stations, galleries, theaters and museums.Business center.Financial center.8。

伦敦这个国家最大的城市,全国约七分之一的人口。

政府所在地——-10唐宁街。

文化中心,国内所有主要报纸、电视台、画廊、剧院和博物馆。