The Literature of the Revolutionary Period英美文学教案

Chapter 2 Colonial and Revolutionary Periods■The early settlers(Dutch Swedes Germans French Spaniards Italians Portuguese)Reasons:1.Most of the immigrants came because they were hungry and America offered them good and extensive land. They then described their good fortune in their letters home, attracting more to come.2.Other people came because they wanted to get away from the religious persecution back in their own country.3.Or, you might have a wrong political opinion (on bureaucracy, taxes, democracy) and you were faced with a probability of being put into prison.■Captain John Smith(约翰.史密斯上尉)(P7), recognized as the first American writer■Most of the early settlers were Puritans, a group of serious, religious people who advocated strict religious and moral principles.⏹American PuritansThe Puritans established their own religious and moral principles known as American Puritanism which became one of the enduring influences in American thought and American literature. American Puritanism stressed predestination, original sin, total depravity, and limited atonement (or the salvation of a selected few) from God‗s grace. With such doctrines in their minds, Puritans left Europe for America in order to establish a theocracy in the New World. Puritans dreamed of living under a perfect order and worked with indomitable courage and confident hope toward building a new Garden of Eden in America, where man could at long last live the way he should. Over the years in the new homeland they built a way of life that stressed hard work (勤奋), thrift （节约）, piety (虔诚）, and sobriety (节制).⏹American Puritanism is a two-fold cultural heritage, one being religious andthe other practical. Puritans were therefore called "practical idealist" or "doctrinaire opportunist―(现实的理想主义者)The Impact of Puritanism on American literature1.对作家的价值观和态度的影响(乐观主义）2. 文学作品写作技巧的影响- 象征主义3.（朴素文风）The Puritan style of writing is characterized by simplicity.Literary Scene⏹Almost all literatures come from humble origins—diaries, journals, letters,sermons (布道；讲道), travel books, etc. So did American literature. In the Colonial Period, personal literature occupied a major position in the literary scene. In content, they served either God or the expansion or both. In form, they were mainly the imitations of the English tradition.Some important writers in this period include: William Bradstreet,John Winthrop, Anne Bradstreet, Edward Taylor and John Edward.■Anne Bradstreet (安妮.布拉德斯特里特1612-1672), the first notable poet in America whose lyrics remained unsurpassed by anyAmerican women writers for 200 years until the appearance of EmilyDickinson. Her The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650)《美国新崛起的第十位缪斯女神》was the first published book ofpoetry written by a settler in the English colonies.她后来的诗歌题材分为两类：1. 体现当时盛行的请教主义精神的宗教沉思The Flesh and the Spirit《灵与肉》, Meditation《沉思录》2. 对丈夫、孩子、家庭、生活真诚炙热的爱■To My Dear and Loving Husband《致我亲爱的丈夫》■Before the Birth of One of Her Children《写在孩子出生之前》The Complete Works of Anne Bradstreet :Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650)《美国新崛起的第十穆斯女神》If ever two were one, then surely we.If ever man were lov‘d by wife, then thee.If ever wife was happy in a man,Compare with me, ye women, if you can.I prize thy love more than whole Mines of gold,Or all the riches that the East doth hold.My love is such that Rivers cannot quench,Nor ought but love from thee give recompence.Thy love is such I can no way repay;The heavens reward thee manifold I pray.Then while we live, in love let‘s so persevere,That when we live no more, we may live everIf ever two were one, then surely we 若有两人能契合如一，定是我们。

美国文学史及作品选读习题集（3）3 The Literature of Reason and RevolutionI. Fill in the blanks.1. At the initial period the spread of ideas of the American Enlightenment was largely due to_____.2. Franklin edited the first colonial magazine, which he called____.3. Franklin‘s best writing is found in his masterpiece_____.4. Thomas Paine, with his natural gift for pamphleteering and rebellion, was appropriately born into an age of____.5. On January 10, 1776, P aine‘s famous pamphlet appeared.6. In Philadelphia, ______ the Pennsylvania magazine, and contributed to the Pennsylvania journal.7. A series of sixteen pamphlets by Paine was entitled_______.8. Paine‘s second most important work __ as an impassioned plea against hereditary monarchy.9. The most outstanding poet in American of the 18th century was ____.10. Philip Freneau‘s famous poem ____was written about his imprisoned experience.11. Philip Freneau was a close friend and political associate of president _____12. ___was considered as the ―poet of the American Revolution‖,13. Philip Freneau was noteworthy first because of nature of his poem. They were truly American and very patriotic. In this respect, he reflected the spirit of his age. Therefore, he has been called the ―__ of American poetry‖.14. In 1791, probably with Jefferson‘s support, __established in Philadelphia the national gazette.15. In American literature, the eighteenth century was an Age of__ and Revolution. II. Matching1. Benjamin Franklin a. The Age of reason2. Thomas Jefferson b. Common Sense3. Benjamin Franklin c. The Right of Man4. Thomas Paine d. The Autobiography5. Thomas Paine e. Poor R ichard’s Almanac6. Patrick Henry f. Women’s Rights Pioneer7. Thomas Paine g. Give me Liberty or Give me Death8. Abigail Smith Adams h. Letters from an American Farmer9. Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur i. The Declaration of Independence10. Joel Barlow j. The Hasty PuddingIII. Multiple Choice1. In American literature, the eighteenth century was the age of the Enlightenment. __was the dominant spirit.A. HumanismB. RationalismC. RevolutionD. Evolution2. In American literature, the Enlighteners were not opposed to _____.A. the colonial orderB. religious obscurantismC. the puritan traditionD. the secular literature3. The English colonies in North America rose in arms against their parent country and the continental congress adopted ___in 1776.A. The Declaration of IndependenceB. the Sugar ActC. The Stamp actD. the Mayflower Compact4. Which statement about Franklin is not true?A. He instructed his countrymen as a printer.B. He was a scientist.C. He was s master of diplomacy.D. He was a Puritan.5. The secular ideals of the American Enlightenment were exemplified in the life and career of ___.A. THOMAS Hood B .Benjamin FranklinC. Thomas JeffersonD. George Washington6. Which of the following does not belong to this literary period?A. The American CrisisB. The FederalistC. Declaration of IndependenceD. The Waste Land7. Benjamin Franklin was the epitome of the ____.A. American EnlightenmentB. Sugar actC. Chartist movementD. Romanticist8. From 1732 to 1758, Benjamin Franklin wrote and published his famous _______, an annual collection of proverbs.A. The AutobiographyB. Poor R ichard’s AlmanacC. Common SenseD. The General Magazine9. Which is not connected with Thomas Paine?A. Common SenseB. The American crisisC. Pennsylvania MagazineD. The Autobiography10. Choose the works which is not written by Paine.A. Rights of ManB. The Age of ReasonC. Poor Richards AlmanacD. Common Sense11. The first pamphlet published in America to urge immediate independence from Britain is____.A. The Rights of ManB. Common SenseC. The American CrisisD. Declaration of Independence12. ―These are the times that try men‘s souls‖. These words were once read to Washington troops and much to shore up the spirits of the revolutionary soldiers. Who is the author of these words?A. Benjamin FranklinB. Thomas JeffersonC. Thomas PaineD. George Washington13. Which statement about Philip Freneau is not true?A. He was a satiristB. He was a pamphleteerC. He was a singerD. He was a bitter polemicist14. Which poem is not written by Philip Freneau?A. The British Prison ShipB. T he wild Honey SuckleC. The Indian burying groundD. The day of doom15. Who was considered as the ―poet of American revolution‖?A. Michael WigglesworthB. Edward TaylorC. Annne BradstreetD. Philip Freneau16. It was not until January 1776 that a widely heard public voice demanded complete separation from England. The voice was that of ___, whose pamphlet Common Sense, with its heated language, increased the growing demand for separation.A. Thomas PaineB. Thomas JeffersonC. George WashingtonD. Patrick Henry17. At the reason and revolutionary period, Americans were influenced by the European movement called the______.A. Chartist MovementB. Romanticist MovementC. Enlightenment MovementD. Modernist Movement18. T homas Jefferson‘s attitude, that is, a firm belief in progress, and the pursuit of happiness, is typical the period we now call_____.A. Age of RevolutionB. Age of ReasonC. Age of RomanticismD. Age of Regionalism19. _____carries the voice not of an individual but of a whole people. It is more than writing of the revolutionary period. It defined the meaning of the American Revolution.A. Common SenseB. The American CrisisC. Declaration of IndependenceD. Deface of the English People20. Benjamin Franklin shaped his writing after the ____by the English essayists Addison and Steele.A. Spectator PapersB. WaldenC. NatureD. The Sacred WoodIV. Literary Terms1. Autobiography2. Persuasion3. Aphorism4. The Hartford WitsV. IdentificationPassage 1These are the times that try men‘s souls; The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: ?tis dearness only that gives everything its value. Heaven knows how to put a paperprice upon its goods.Questions:1. Which book is passage taken from?2. Who is the author of this book?3. Whom is the author praising? Whom is the author criticizing?4. What do you think of the language used in the book?Passage 2When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Law of Nature‘s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opini ons of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness; That to secure these rights, Government are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; That whenever any From of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it.Questions:5. Which work is this passage taken from?6. What truths are self-evident? What is the purpose of government, and when shoulda government be replaced?Passage 3In a branch of willow hidSings the evening Caty-did:From the lofty locust boughFeeding on a drop of dewIn her suit of green array‘dHear her singing in the shadeCaty-did, Caty-did, Caty-did!Questions:7. Who is the writer of these verses?8. What is the title of this lyrical poem?9. What is a ―Caty-did‖?Passage 4It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wished to live without committing any fault at any time; I would conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or company might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my care was employed in guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by anther; habit took the advantage of inattention; inclination was sometimes too strong for reason. I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sufficient to prevent our slipping; and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of conduct. For this purpose I therefore contrived the followingmethod.In the various enumerations of the moral virtues I had met with in my reading, I found the catalog more or less numerous, as different writers included more or fewer ideas under the samename. Temperance, for example, was by some confined to eating and drinking, while by others it was extended to mean the moderating every other pleasure, appetite, inclination, or passion, bodily or mental, even to our avarice and ambition. I proposed to myself,, for the sake of clearness, to use rather more names, with fewer ideas annexed to each, than a few names with more ideas; and I included under thirteen names of virtues all that at that time occurred to me as necessary or desirable, and annexed to each a short precept, which fully expressed the extent I gave to its meaning.Questions:10. Which work is this passage taken from?11. Who is the author of this book?12. What is your understanding of the book?VI. Questions and Answers.1. What is a proverb? Which writer in his period liked to use proverbs?2. What are the characteristics of Benjamin Franklin‘s literary work?3. What work was The Federalist?4. Who said ―Give me library, or give me death‖? What was the impact of the quotation?5. Could you please give a brief account of American literature of this period?VII. Analysis of Literary W orks.1. Write an analysis of The Poor Richard’s Almanac.2. Write an analysis of The American Crisis.3. Write an analysis of Declaration of Independence.KeysI. Fill in the blanks.1. journalism 9. Philip Freneau2. The General Magazine 10. The British Prison Ship3. Autobiography11. Thomas Jefferson4. revolution 12. Philip Freneau5. Common Sense13. Father6. Thomas Paine 14. Philip Freneau7. The American Crisis15. Reason8. The Rights of ManII. Matching.1---e; 2---I; 3---d; 4---c; 5---a;6---g; 7---b; 8---f; 9---h; 10---j.III. Multiple Choice.1. B2. D3. A4. D5. B6. D7. A8. B9. D 10. C 11. B 12. C 13. C 14. D 15. D 16. A 17. C 18. B 19. C 20. AIII.Literary Terms.1. Autobiography: An autobiography is a person‘s ac count of his or her life. Generally written in the first person, with the author speaking as ―I‖, autobiographies present life events as the writer views them. In addition to providing inside details about the writer‘s life, autobiographies offer insights into the beliefs and perceptions of the author. Autobiographies also offer a glimpse of what it was like to live in the author‘s time period.Autobiographies often provide a view of historical events that you won‘t find in history books. Benjamin Franklin‘s Autobiography set the standard for what was then a new genre.2. Persuasion:Persuasion is writing meant to convince readers to think or act in a certain way. A persuasive writer appeals to emotions or reason, offers opinio ns, and urges action.3. Aphorism:An aphorism is a short, concise statement expressing a wise or clever observation or a general truth. A variety of devices make aphorisms easy to remember. Some contain rhymes or repeated words or sounds; others use parallel structure to present contras ting ideas. The aphorism ―no pain, no gain‖ for instance, uses rhyme, repetition, and parallel structure.4. The Hartford Wits: Three Revolutionary poets of large and serious purpose, and widely famed in their generation, may be grouped together, not only because of some similarity in their verse, but also because they were all Connecticut men; two were conspicuous members of a coterie noted as ―the Hartford Wits.‖That Connecticut town, indeed, enjoyed a reputation as a literary centre through the exploits of this group. The two Hartford poets were John Trumbull and Joel Barlow; the third of this group was Timothy Dwight.V. Identification.1. The American Crisis2. Thomas Paine3. Paine is praising those who stand ―it‖, it referring to ―the service of their country‖. Inn the meantime, Paine is criticizing those who shrink from the service of their country in this crisis.4. The language is plain, impressive and forceful. Pain himself once said that his purpose as a writer was to use plain language to make those who can scarcely read understand.5. Declaration of Independence6. All men are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, and among these rights are Life, Liberty he pursuit of Happiness. The purpose of government is to secure these ends. And when the government becomes destructive to these ends, it should be replaced.7. Philip Freneau8. To a Caty- Did9. According to Freneau‘s note, a Caty-did is a well-known insect, when full grown, it is about two inches in length, and of the exact color of a green leaf. It can sing sucha song as Caty-did n the evening, towards autumn.10. Autobiography11. Benjamin Franklin12. One of Franklin‘s literary successes was his famous Autobiography, which he began to write in 1771, resumed in 1778, and left incomplete at his death. The purpose of its author was to make the experiences of his own case, a source of help and inspiration to others. He therefore tells the story of his struggles, his errors, his experiments with himself, his accomplishment, with wonderful frankness and extreme simplicity.VI. Questions and Answers.1. Proverbs are nearly as old as language itself. They have many different purposes and are used in different types of situations—to amuse, to educate, to sanction, to make a point or a conversation.As expressions of basic principles of folk wisdom draw from the daily experiences of a group of people, proverbs exist in all societies. They reflect a particular culture‘s view of the worldand convey feelings about fate, the seasons, the natural world, word and effort, love, death, and other universal experiences. These memorable bits of wisdom have survived for centuries; perhaps they reflect unchanging truths about human nature.Most of Benjamin Franklin‘s aphorisms are adapted from anonymous traditional or folk saying, known as proverbs. Franklin, who believed that clarity and brevity were two of the most important characteristics of good prose, rewrote many proverbs, crafting short, direct, witty sayings that taught a lesson.2. The pr edominant quality in all of Benjamin Franklin‘s writing is its genuine humanness; this is what brought the Almanac into instant popularity, and what makes the Autobiography an enduring American classic. It is a quality that had been extremely rare in the earlier colonial literature. A keen sense of humor, also, homely and blunt but true, is constant in Franklin‘s work and one of the essential factors in its success. Noted examples of his wit are found in his anecdote of ―The Whistle and The Dialogue between Dr. Franklin and the Gout‖, which are among the papers entitled Bagatelles, written when Franklin was in France.Franklin‘s literary work was thoroughly typical of himself. Honest, plain, democratic, clear-headed, shrewd, worldly-wise, he was interested in the practical side of life. To him the matter of ―getting on‖in the world was o duty; and to enable others to see the advantages of integrity, application, and thrift was his self-appointed task. His influence in this direction was immense. The absence of ideality is obvious in all his compositions. He never reached the high levels of imaginative art, but on this lower plane of material interest and every-day life he was, and is, without a peer among writers. The works which have beenmentioned possess a universal charm.3. The FederalistAfter the conclusion of the war, during the critical period which preceded the adoption of a constitution, there appeared at intervals a very notable series of papers which were designed in their entirety to set forth the fundamental principles of government. These appeared as articles contributed to various New Y ork newspapers. There were eighty-five in all, and their authorship was concealedunder the pseudonym of ―Publius‖. In 1788, these papers were collected and published under the name of The Federalist—a collection which ranks as our chief political classic. Of these famous papers, five are attribute to John Jay, twenty-nine James Madison, and fifty-one to Alexander Hamilton.4. Remembered most for his fiery battle cry ―Give me liberty or give me death,‖Patrick Henry is considered the most powerful orator of the American Revolution. He helped to inspire colonists to unite in an effort to win their independence. Shortly after his 1765 election to the Virginia House of burgesses, Henry delivered one of his most powerful speeches, declaring his opposition to the Stamp Act. Over the protests of some of the most influential members, the Virginia House adopted Henry‘s resolutions.In 1775, Henry delivered his most famous speech at the Virginia Provincial Convention. While most of speakers that day argued that armed resistance to England. His speech had a powerful impact on the audience, feeding the Revolutionary spirit that led the singing of the Declaration of Independence.5. In contrast to the private soul-searching of the Puritans of New England, much of what was produced during the Revolutionary period was public writing. By the time of the warfor independence, nearly fifty newspapers had been established in the costal cities. At the time of Washington‘s inauguration, there were nearly forty magazines. Almanacs were popular from Massachusetts to Georgia.The mind of the nation was on politics. Journalists and printers provided a form for the expression of ideas. After 1763, those ideas were increasingly focused on relations with Great Britain and, more broadly, on the nature of government. The writing of permanent importance from the Revolutionary era is mostly political writing.The public writing and speaking of American statesmen in two tumultuous decades, the 1770‘s and 1780‘s, helped to reshape not the nation but also the world.Patrick Henry was a spellbinding orator whose speech against the Stamp Act in the Virginia House of burgesses brought cries of ―Treason!‖ Ten years later, his electrifying speech to the Virginia Convention expressed the rising sentiment foe independence.Thomas Paine was perhaps more influential than other in swaying public option in favor of independence. His 1776 pamphlet Common Sense swept the colonies, selling 100000copies in the months.The Declaration of independence was first drafted by Thomas Jefferson in June 1776. The finished document is largely his work, although a committee of five statesmen, including Benjamin Franklin, was involved in its creation. The Declaration, despite some exaggerated charges against King George III, is one of the most influential statements ever made.Another revolutionary period document written by committee that has stood the test of time is the Constitution ofthe United States, drafted in 1787. The framers, whose new nation boasted about four million people, hoped that the Constitution would last at least a generation. It still survives, amended only 27 times, as the political foundation of a nation of 50 states and more than 250 million people.While politics dominated the literature of the Revolutionary period, not every writer of note was a statesman. V erse appears in most of the newspapers, and numerous broadside ballads were published. One of the most popular broadside ballads was called ―The Dying Redcoat‖, supposedly written by a British sergeant mortally wounded in the Revolution.Two other poets of the day whose works were more sophisticated than the broadside ballads were Joel Barlow and Phillis Wheatley. Barlow, a 1778 Yale graduate, is best remembered for ―The Hasty Pudding‘, a mock –heroic tribute to cornmeal mush. Phillis Wheatley, born in Africa and brought to Boston in childhood as s slave, showed early signs of literary genius. A collection of her poems was published in England while she was still a young woman.Another writer of the Revolutionary period recorded his impressions of everyday American life. Born into an aristocratic French family, Michel Guillaume Crevecoeur became a soldier of f fortune, a world traveler, and a farmer. For fifteen years, he owned a plantation in Orange County, New Y ork, and his impressions of life there were published in London in 1782 as Letters from an American Farmer.Perhaps the best known writing of the period outside the field of politics was done by Benjamin Franklin. His P oor Richard’s Almanac became familiar to m ost households in the colonies. A statesman, printer, author, inventor, and scientist,Franklin was a true son of the Enlightenment. His Autobiography, covering only his early years, is regarded as one of the finest autobiographies in any language.By the early 1800‘s, America could boast a small body of national literature. The Native Americans has contributed haunting poetry and legends through their oral traditions. The puritans had written a number of powerful, inward-looking works. The statesmen of the Revolutionary period had produced political documents for the ages. A few poets and essayists had made a permanent mark on the literature of the young republic. There were, however, no American novels or plays of importance, and modern short story had yet to be invented.VII. Analysis of literary works1. Analysis of The poor Richard’s Almanac.Benjamin Franklin created a character, poor Richard, in whose name the work appeared, and whose real existence was debated humorously and seriously. Scatted among the calculations, were many crisp sayings introduced b y the phrase ―As Poor Richard says,‖----sayings which have taken their place among the maxims of the world.―Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep there.‖―One today id worth two tomorrows‖―Plow deep while sluggards sleep.‖―An empty sack cannot stand upright.‖―Fools make feasts and wise men eat them.‖―He that by the plow would thriveHimself must either hold or drive.‖These and sources o similar homely proverbs were incorporated in the Almanac. It w as Benjamin Franklin‘s idea to teach lessons of thrift to hiscountrymen. Some of the sayings he coined entire, others he quoted from various sources. They ere finally sifted and collected in permanent form in a lengthy discourse called Father Abraham’s Sp eech, which was included in the Almanac of 1758 and found its way thus into well-nigh every home in America. Father Abraham’s Speech was translated into every European language, and even to this day continues to teach its useful lesson of industry, frugality, and honesty, the world over.2. Analysis of The American crisisThomas Paine maintains that ―those‖ times will put men to a test. Those who will fight only during the summer and sunshine deserve no praise. We need soldiers who will fight anytime, who will make sacrifices for the noble cause of democratic revolution. Thomas Paine maintains that consolation foe those Americans who support the overthrow of tyranny is the belief that that they will win ―more glorious‖victory. In other words, people must app reciate what they believe in and fight hardest for. Britain‘s declaration that she may ―bind us in all cases whatsoever‖is nothing more than slavery, and only God may have such ―undiminished‖power. He believes that God will ―not give up ―or abandon a peopl e who have so steadfastly tried to avoid war. Certainly Britain cannot look to God for guidance; criminals have as much reason to look for guidance as the British; in fact, they are criminals.Thomas Paine quotes the Tory who states, ―Give me peace in my d ay‖. He is concerned only with immediate results so that he can reap the benefits, perhaps without care for the permanence of peace. Paine believes that the speaker should be willing to fight and suffer in his lifetime in order to insure a more permanent peace which his children may enjoy.The British government is compared to a house thief who causes destruction of life and property and who must be stopped. He does not care in what form the thief exists. In any situation, ―if we reason to the root of thing s‖, we shall find no difference.In short, The American Crisis is an Enlightenment, Deist document. Man relies on reason and indomitable optimism, not salvation, for deliverance from travail. However much the soldier, the scholar, the common man struggling for victory wants the support of god, he must rely on his devotion to his cause and to his fellow man first and foremost.3. Analysis of Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776, not only announced the birth of a new nation, also set forth a philosophy o human freedom which served as an important force in the western world. It rested upon particular grievances, but more, upon a broad base of individual liberty, of individual will, so cherished by Americans. Endurance of oppression could meet its threshold; after that, the people must form a new state. Its ideas inspired mass fervor for the American cause, for it instilled among the common people a sense of their own importance, and inspired struggle for personal freedom, self-government, and a dignified place in society. It is evident in American literature that Americansprotective of their freedoms, in however way they choose to interpret them.In addition, Jefferson‘s purpose in writing is to make the experiment of free government so successful that it would be an example to the rest of the world and a moral force in the destiny of mankind. The principles of decentralization of authority, agrarian economy, public education and flexible laws were all byproducts of the central doctrine of Lockian perfectibility.Against this doctrine and formal statement Alexander Hamilton and the other founders of the Federalist Party argued for a liberty which comes through submission to authority, in this case, a clear and firm system of civil formulated. Centralized government, an economy determined by financial and manufacturing rather than by agrarian interests, and firm laws strictly enforced were, in Hamilton‘s thinking the logical conclusions from a skepticism of man‘s basic goodness. Perhaps it is the very existence of conflicting ideas within a single practical frame of operation which, at times, makes American so dynamic. Man is not consistent in design or action, and the Constitution of the United States, with its added ―Bill of Rights‖by reflecting two such opposite views as those of Jefferson and Hamilton, probably conies as near to being a description of basic human nature as any document that lawmakers have formed. These views appear again and again, in different form, in America‘s national literature.。

美国文学部分(American Literature)一．殖民时期文学（The Literature of the Colonial Period）1．本章考核知识点和考核要求：1) 早期殖民地时期的文学的特点2) 十八世纪美国文学的特点（重点是独立革命前后时期文学）3) 主要的作家、其概况及其代表作品4) 术语：the colonial period, American Puritanism, Puritans, Enlightenment in American, the Great Awakening2．主要作家作品John Smith第一个美国作家A True Relation of Virginia and General History of Virginia.Anne Bradstreet 殖民地时期女诗人The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America (1650)Jonathan Edwards十八世纪上半叶大觉醒时代的代表人物“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林，散文家、科学家、社会活动家，曾参与起草《独立宣言》。

十八世纪美国启蒙思想代言人。

《穷查理历书》Poor Richard’s Almanac（收录格言警句）《致富之道》The Way to Wealth《自传》The Autobiography （富兰克林原意为写给儿子的家书）Thomas Paine 托马斯·潘恩，散文家、政治家、报刊撰稿人。

《常识》Common Sense ( Paine 最知名的政论文：It was inspired by the first battle of the Revolutionary War—the Battle of Lexington in Concord.)《美国危机》American Crisis《人的权利》Rights of Man《专制体制的崩溃》Downfall of Despotism《理性时代》The Age of ReasonPhilip Freneau 菲利普·弗伦诺，著名的“革命诗人”。

Part II The Literature of Reason and RevolutionHistorical IntroductionImportant writersDeclaration of IndependenceHistorical Introduction●Two historical events● 1. The American War for Independence 1775-1783● 2. Enlightenment●Theology dominated the Puritan phase of American writing. Politics was nowthe great subject to command the attention of the best minds.I. The American War for Independence 1775-1783● 1. The writers held vitally important places in the movement for Americanindependence. Freedom was won as much by their fiery and inspiring speeches and writings as by the weapons of Washington and Lafayette (In the American Revolution, Lafayette served as a major-general [少将] in the Continental Army under George Washington). The 13 original American states were persuaded to become a single nation by the arguments of statesmen and men of letters.● 2. Strict rules made by English government hampered the economic developmentof the colonies. The British wanted the colonies to remain politically and economically dependent on the mother country, which led to the colonies’intense strain with England. So the American War for Independence broke out in 1775.●(1) 1775, Lexington, beginning of the Independence War(2) July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Independence(3) 1778, alliance with France, turning point for American army(4) 1778, English army surrendered(5) 1783, formal recognition by the British government3. The procedures of the establishment of the new nation(1) colonies(2) states(3) federal republic--- the United States of AmericaII. Enlightenment● 1. Enlightenment●The spiritual life in the colonies during the period was to a great degreemolded by the bourgeois Enlightenment.●(1) Originated in Europe in the 17th century●(2) Sources: Newton’s theory; deism（自然神教派); French philosophy (Rousseau,Voltaire)●(3) Basic principles:●stressing education; stressing Reason (Order) (The age has been called theAge of Reason); employing Reason to reconsider the traditions and social realities; concerns for civil rights, such as equality and social justice;the idea of progress.● 2. At the initial period the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment waslargely due to journalism. All the leaders of the revolution were influenced by the Enlightenment;3. Representatives: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, etc.●The representatives of the Enlightenment set themselves the task ofdisseminating knowledge among the people and advocating revolutionary ideas.They also actively participated in the War for Independence.● 4. The new nation was set on the basic ideas and principles of theEnlightenment.5. Influence of the Enlightenment●(1) American Enlightenment dealt a decisive blow upon the Puritan traditionsand brought to life secular education and literature.●(2) The secular ideals of the American Enlightenment were exemplified in thelife and career of Benjamin Franklin.III. Literature● 1. Call for America’s independence in literature●As soon as America became politically and economically independent, the callfor its independence in literature started to emerge.●In 1783, Noah Webster declared, “America must be as independent as she isin politics, as famous for the arts as for arms”. Yet throughout the century American literature was largely patterned on the writing of 18th century Englishmen.Noah Webster& His Dictionary of the English Language● 2.While imaginative literature (富有想象力的文学作品,fiction, mythology,poetry, drama, etc ) in America remained derivative (派生的;拷贝的) and dependent, the heroic and revolutionary ambitions of the age had created great political pamphleteering (小册子) and state papers. Essayists and journalists had shaped the nation’s beliefs with reason dressed in clear and forceful prose.● 3. Representative works●Thomas Jefferson: Declaration of Independence●Thomas Paine: The American Crisis; Rights of Man; The Federalist●Benjamin Franklin: Poor Richard’s Almanac; The AutobiographyBenjamin Franklin (1706-1790)A patriot, diplomat, author, printer, scientist, and inventor in the eighteenth century; one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.●He was a jack of all trades;●Born in a poor candle maker’s family in Boston and had no regular education;Became an apprentice to a printer when he was 12;An editor of a newspaper and published lots of essays when he was 16;He went to Philadelphia when he was 17 and became a successful printer and publisher;Found the Junto, a club for informal discussion of scientific, economic and political ideas;I. Life●Established America’s first circulating library;●Founded the college — University of Pennsylvania;●Retired when he was 42.●(1) a businessman;(2) A scientist with lots of inventions and a famous experiment (kite,electricity, thunderstorm); first applied the terms “positive”and “negative” to electrical charges (电荷).●(3) a statesmanAs a representative of the Colonies, he tried in vain to counsel the British toward policies that would let America grow and flourish in association with England. He conducted the difficult negotiations with France that brought financial and military support for America in the war.●Declaration of IndependenceThe Treaty of Alliance with FranceThe Treaty of Peace with EnglandThe Constitution(4) a writer●(5) an embodiment of the “American Dream”II. Literary career●As an author he had power of expression. His works are well-known for theirsimplicity, subtle humor and being sarcastic.1. Representative works●(1) Poor Richard’s AlmanacModeled on farmers’annual calendar; kept publishing for many years;includes many classical sayings, such as:●“A penny saved is a penny earned.”●“A plowman on his legs is higher than a gentleman on his knees.”II. Literary career●2) The Autobiography●Written when he was 65;An introduction of his life to his own son;Including four parts written in different times;The first success story of self-made Americans●In The Autobiography we will be able to notice:●1) influence of Puritanism, such as self-examination and self-improvement(timetable, thirteen virtues, life style)2) spirits of the Enlightenment (man’s nature is good, rights of liberty,virtues including “order”)●Style: simple, clear in order, direct, concise and humorous (“Nothing shouldbe expressed in two words that can as well be expressed in one.”) (influence of Puritanism );First of its kind in literature and set the autobiography as a genre;Popular, still well-read today.● 2. Influence●His values and style influenced lots of Americans.●One of his fellow Americans said, “His shadow lies heavier than any otherman’s on this young nation.”●Thomas Paine (1737-1809)●Revolutionary War patriot and pamphleteer, born in Thetford, England. Paineemigrated in 1774 to Pennsylvania, where he gravitated (被吸引;趋[倾]向) toward those who supported colonial independence.●I. Life and career●Paine's pamphlet Common Sense appeared in January 1776 and caused animmediate sensation. In it, Paine both supported American independence and attacked the corruption of the British hereditary (世袭的) monarchy.●He fought in the Revolutionary War and continued to publish, including his1776 essay The American Crisis.●II. Major works● 1.The Case of the Officers of the Excise (1772)● --- his first pamphlet, a petition to Parliament for a living wage forthe excise collectors● 2. Common Sense (1776)--- signed simply “By an Englishman”, to urge the colonies to declare independence; Pain became forthwith the most articulate (表达清楚有力的) spokesman of the American Revolution.● 3. The American Crisis (1776-1783)---Paine’s chief contribution was a series of 16 pamphlets (1776-1783) entitled The American Crisis and signed “Common Sense”which dealt directly with the military engagements to inspire the Continental Army.● 4. The Rights of Man (1791 - 92)--- an answer to Burke’s Recent Reflections on the French Revolution, which not only championed Rousseau’s doctrines of freedom, but also suggested the overthrow of the British monarchy. Paine was indicted for treason and was forced to seek refuge in France.● 5. The Age of Reason (1795)●---a deistic treatise advocating a rationalistic view of religion.● 6. Analysis of The American Crisis(1776–1783)●---a series of pamphlets published in London from 1776–1783 during theAmerican Revolution. It decried British actions and loyalists, offering support to the patriotic cause.●The American Crisis●The first of the pamphlets was released during a time when the Revolutionstill looked an unsteady prospect; the opening sentence was adopted as the watchword (标语,口号,格言) of the movement to Trenton●The famous opening lines are:●These are the times that try men's souls: The summer soldier and the sunshinepatriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; buthe that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.●The pamphlet attempted to bolster morale and resistance among patriots, aswell as shame neutrals and loyalists toward the cause●Thomas Jefferson (1743 – 1826)●Born: 13 April 1743●Birthplace: Shadwell, Virginia●Died: 4 July 1826 (natural causes)●Best Known As: Author of The Declaration of Independence●I. Life and career● 1. His mind ranged curiously over many fields of knowledge---law, philosophy,government, architecture, education, religion, science, agriculture, mechanics---and whatever he touched, he enriched in some measure.● 2. He was the third president of the United States (1801–1809), the principalauthor of The Declaration of Independence(1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. High points of his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon and the exploration of the west by Lewis and Clark (1804–1806).● 3. As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment andknew many intellectual leaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as an exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786).●He was the eponym（名祖;命名来源）of Jeffersonian democracy and the co-founderand leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for a quarter-century and was the precursor of the modern-day Democratic Party. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) and second Vice President (1797–1801).● 4. A polymath (学识渊博的人), Jefferson achieved distinction as, among otherthings, a horticulturist (园艺学家), statesman, architect, archaeologist (考古学家), paleontologist (古生物学者), author, inventor and founder of the University of Virginia.●II. The Declaration of Independence●The Declaration of Independence was an act of the Second Continental Congress,adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared that the Thirteen Colonies in North America were "Free and Independent States" and that "all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved."●The document, formally entitled The unanimous Declaration of the thirteenUnited States of America, explained the justifications for separation from the British crown, and was an expansion of Richard Henry Lee‘s Resolution (passed by Congress on July 2), which first proclaimed independence. Anengrossed (正式写成的) copy of the Declaration was signed by most of the delegates on August 2 and is now on display in the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington, D.C. .●The Declaration is considered to be the founding document of the United Statesof America, where July 4 is celebrated as Independence Day and the nation's birthday.●John Hancock, as the elected President of Congress, was the only person tosign the Declaration of Independence on July 4. It was not until the following month on August 2 that the remaining 55 other delegates began to sign the document.●The following statements have become world-famous since then:●We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, thatthey are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.●我们认为下面这些真理是不言而喻的：造物者创造了平等的个人，并赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利●That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, derivingtheir just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.●为了保障这些权利，人们才在他们之间建立政府，而政府之正当权力，则来自被统治者的同意。

关于红色文化的英语作文初中Red culture refers to the cultural heritage and revolutionary spirit that emerged during the Chinese Communist Revolution. It represents the ideals, values, and achievements of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and has played a significant role in shaping the country's history and identity. This essay will explore the significance of red culture in China and its impact on Chinese society.Firstly, red culture symbolizes the revolutionary spirit and sacrifices made by the Chinese people during the Communist Revolution. It represents the struggle against oppression, imperialism, and feudalism. The red color itself is associated with passion, vitality, and the bloodshed of revolutionaries who fought for a better future. Red culture serves as a reminder of the hardships endured by the Chinese people and their determination to create a fair and just society.Secondly, red culture promotes patriotism and national unity. It instills a sense of pride and loyalty towards the country and its achievements. Red culture encompasses the stories of heroic figures such as Mao Zedong, who led the Communist Party to victory, and the Long March, a symbol of resilience and perseverance. By celebrating these historical events and figures, red culture fosters a strong national identity and a shared sense of belonging among the Chinese people.Moreover, red culture has a profound influence on Chinese arts and literature. It has inspired countless works of literature, music, and visual arts that depict the struggles and triumphs of the revolution. The revolutionary operas, for example, were a popular form of entertainment during the Cultural Revolution and conveyed the ideals of the Communist Party through powerful storytelling and music. Red culture continues to inspire contemporary artists who incorporate revolutionary themes and symbols into their works, keeping the spirit of the revolution alive.In addition, red culture has played a crucial role in shaping China's political and social landscape. The principles and values advocated by the Communist Party, such as equality, social justice, and collectivism, are deeply ingrained in Chinese society. Redculture has influenced policies and practices in areas such as education, healthcare, and poverty alleviation, aiming to create a more equitable and harmonious society. The Chinese government also uses red culture as a tool for political mobilization and to reinforce the legitimacy of the Communist Party's rule.However, it is important to acknowledge that red culture has faced criticism and controversy. Some argue that it promotes a narrow and biased view of history, neglecting other important aspects of Chinese culture. Others believe that it has been used as a tool for political control and propaganda. It is essential to strike a balance between preserving the revolutionary heritage and promoting a more inclusive and diverse cultural narrative.In conclusion, red culture holds significant importance in China's history and society. It embodies the revolutionary spirit, promotes patriotism, influences arts and literature, and shapes the political and social landscape. While it has faced criticism, red culture continues to be an integral part of China's cultural identity. By understanding and appreciating red culture, we can gain insights into the values and aspirations of the Chinese people throughout history.。

Part Three The Period of the English Bourgeois Revolution第三部分英国资产阶级革命时期I The English Revolution and the Restoration 英国革命和复辟Literature of the Revolution Period 革命时期的文学：The spirit of unity and feeling of patriotism ended with the reign of Elizabeth I, and England was then convulsed with the conflict between the two antagonistic camps, the Royalists and the Puritans. English literature of this revolution and restoration period was very much concerned with the tremendous social upheavals of the time. Milton, one of the greatest poets of England, defended the English Commonwealth with his pen.随着伊丽莎白一世统治的结束，人们统一的精神和爱国主义的感情也随之而去。

英国因为量大对抗阵营——保皇党和清教徒的冲突而骚乱。

英国革命和复辟时期的文学主要与当时的社会巨变有关。

英格兰最伟大的诗人之一弥尔顿用他的笔来捍卫英国共和制。

II Milton 弥尔顿1.Life and Work 生平和作品(1)Life: John Milton was born in London in 1608.约翰·弥尔顿1608年出生于伦敦。

PartⅠ The Literature of Colonial America殖民主义时期的文学I．The Background Information1. 第一批美国永久居民：The first permanent English settlement in North America wasestablished at Jamestown, Virginia(北美弗吉尼亚詹姆斯顿)in 1607. At last early in the 17th century, the English settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts(弗吉尼亚和马萨诸塞) began the main stream of what we recognize as the American history.2. 清教徒采用的文学体裁：a、narratives 日记b、journals游记3. 清教徒在美国的写作内容：1〕their voyage to the new land ；2) Adapting themselves tounfamiliar climates and crops；3) About dealing with Indians；4) Guide to the new land, endless bounty, invitation to bold spirit4. 美国第一位作家〔The first American writer〕Captain John Smith. He published eightin all.1).1608年A True Relation of Virginia《关于弗吉尼亚的真实介绍》. 2) A Map of Virginia《弗吉尼亚地图》3).General History of Virginia《弗吉尼亚通史》他的作品(reports of exploration)17th早期出版，被认为是美国第一部真正意义上的文学作品in the early 1600s,have been described as the first distinctly American literature written in English.他的作品filled with themes, myths, images, scenes, character and events,吸引了朝圣者和清教徒前往lure the Pilgrims and the Puritans. He saw from the beginning what was eventually to be a basic principle of American history, the need of “workers” instead of “gentlemen” for the tough job of planting colonies and pushing the frontiers westward. 5．※美国清教主义〔American Puritanism〕: Puritans purified their religious beliefs and practices, and believed that God decides everything and they are God’s chosen people.Hard work, thrift (节俭;节约), piety (虔诚；虔敬), and sobriety (节制；严肃) were the Puritan spirit that dominated much of the earliest American writing(including the sermons, books, and letters of such noted Puritan clergyman as John Cotton and Cotton Mather).Cotton Mather: wrote more than 450works, an example as well as an advocate of the Puritan ideal of hard work.6. A literature of ideas: New England had from the beginning a literature of ideas: theological,moral, historical, and political.7．The Pilgrim Fathers:English Puritans who went to America in 1620 and founded the colony of Plymouth, Massachusetts.8．※Puritan：The “Puritan”was “a would-be purifier”. Puritans wanted to make pure their religious beliefs and practices. Their purposes are for religious freedom and political freedom. The major intellectual spokesmen of Puritanism are John Cotton, Roger Williams. II. Literature1.William Bradford(威廉·布拉德福德)：The first governor of Plymouth(普利茅斯第一任首长)，History of Plymouth Plantation《普利茅斯种植园史》He was perhaps the greatest of the Pilgrim Fathers〔“美国历史之父”〕2. John Winthrop(约翰·温斯罗普)：波斯顿第一任首长The History of New England《英格兰历史》3.John Cotton(约翰·科顿)：The Patriarch of New England〔“新英格兰教父”〕4.Roger Williams〔罗杰·威廉斯〕：1).He begins the history of religious toleration and theseparation of church and state.2). He is interested in the Indian language. eg: A Key into the Language of America《开启美国语言的钥匙》5.Anne Bradstreet(安妮·布莱德斯):The first woman poet in the English language.one of themost interesting of the early poets〔最幽默的诗人之一〕“The tenth muse lately sprung up in American”《最近出现在北美的第十位缪斯》6.Edward Taylor〔爱德华·泰勒〕：The best of the Puritan poets〔清教徒诗人最杰出的一位〕The work of two writers, Anne Bradstreet & Edward Taylor, rose to the level of real poetry.Conclusion: The early American literature was European/English in style/form, but American in content/spirit.Part Ⅱ The Literature of Reason And Revolution理性和革命时期文学I. The Background Information1. The American War for Independence 〔1775-1783〕:Strict rules made by Englishgovernment hampered the economic development of the colonies. The British wanted the colonies to remain politically and economically dependent on the mother country2. Enlightenment：1).an intellectual movement 2)the power of human reason 3)the scientificidea;4)the idea of progress.3. Enlightenment and American Revolution:1). all the leaders of the revolution wereinfluenced by the Enlightenment, representatives: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, etc. 2). The new nation was set on the basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment.4．※Deism (自然神论, 自然神教派) is a religious philosophy and movement that derives the existence and nature of God from reason and personal experience.5. The important literature topics of the revolutionary period:1).theology, 2).politics3).enlightenmentII. LiteratureRepresentative works: Noah Webster诺亚·韦伯斯特:第一部美国英语字典Thomas Jefferson: Declaration of Independence; Thomas Paine: The American Crisis; Rights of Man; The Federalist; Benjamin Franklin: Poor Richard’s Almanac; The Autobiography 18世纪美国唯一流传至今的自传1.Benjamin Franklin本杰明·富兰克林—The first major writer in the colonial period, theonly good American author before the Revolutionary War；one of the Founding Fathers of the United States; a paradoxical combination of Puritanism and Enlightenment; anembodiment of the “American Dream”Representative works: (1) Poor Richard’s Almanac《穷人查理德的年鉴》an annual collocation of proverbs (It contains a large number of practice sayings about life，the common theme is that the industriousness and discretion are rewarded.(2) The Autobiography《自传》(a. The first success story of self-made Americans, it records the writer’s rising from poverty. b. Style: simple, clear in order, direct, concise and humorous. c.First of its kind in literature and set the autobiography as a genre. d. The early example of the American dream.) In The Autobiography we will be able to notice: 1)Puritanism’s influence, such as self-examination and self-improvement 2)Enlightenment spirits (man’s nature is good, rights of liberty, virtues including “order”)2. Thomas Paine 托马斯·佩因“Great Commoner of Mankind”(“人类伟大的平民)；Pamphleteer(美国著名政治小册子家)；Leading figure in American revolution. Representative works: 1〕famous pamphlet "Common Sense" 《常识》，it boldly advocateda "Declaration for Independence", and brought the separatist agitation to a crisis. 拥护独立宣言，是分裂活动发展成最后危机; Pain became the spokesman of the American Revolution 2〕"American Crisis" 《美国危机》“American Crisis” signed “Common Sense”was a series of16 pamphlets.3)The Rights of Man《人权》--a defense of the French Revolution. 4) The Age of Reason《理性的时代》5).Analysis of The American Crisis 3. Thomas Jefferson 托马斯·杰弗逊—an Enlightenment thinker and a leader ofAmerican revolution and; The third President of the United StatesThe aims of his life-pursuit: Freedom and DemocracyThe style of writings: clear; graceful; poetic.Representative work: drafted The Declaration of Independence—the Declaration isconsidered to be the founding document of the United States of America.All Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of happiness.4. Philip Freneau 菲利浦·弗瑞诺--the poet of the American Revolution “美国革命诗人”and the father of American poetry“美国诗歌之父”His poems are: neoclassical in form，romantic in spirit；strongly lyrical; clear imagery Philip Morin Freneau was a deistic (自然神论的) optimist.Representative work: The Wild Honey Suckle《野忍冬花》※1). In this poem the poet expressed a keen awareness of the loveliness and transience ofnature. He not only meditated on Mortality but also celebrated nature. The poem implies that life and death are inevitable law of nature. “The Wild Honey Suckle”is Philip Freneau's most widely read natural lyric with the theme of transience.2). The central image is a native wild flower, which makes a drastic difference from eliteFlower images typical of traditional English poems3). The poem showed strong feelings for the natural beauty, which was the characteristic ofromantic poets4). The poem was written in regular 6-line tetrameter stanzas, rhyming: ababcc. The structureof the poem is regular, so it has the neoclassic quality of proportion and balance.5). The line“the space is but an hour“contains a hyperbole stressing the transience of life.The tone of the poem is both sentimental and optimisticA). Theology dominated the Puritan phase of American writing. Politics was the next greatsubject to command the attention of the best minds.B). Freneau was neoclassical by training and taste ye romantic in essential spirit.Part ⅢThe Literature of Romanticism浪漫主义文学I. The Background Information1. Romanticism Characteristics: Romantics frequently shared certain general characteristics:moral enthusiasm, faith in the value of individualism and intuitive perception, and a presumption that the natural world was a source of goodness and man’s societies a source of corruption浪漫主义之间大多是相通的，都注重道德，强调个人主义价值观和直觉感受，并且认为自然是美的源头，人类社会是腐败之源2．Literary forms文学形式：Novels, short stories, and poems3．Imaginative literature想象类文学：became intense, personal, and symbolic as more writers came to perceive themselves as prophets and seers.4．The wilderness came to function almost as a dramatic character that illustrated moral law.戏剧化特色的野性讽喻了时代的道德准则。

20162005年3月21日专业八级考试改错When I was in my early teens, I was taken to a spectacular showon ice by the mother of a friend. Looked round a the luxury of the 1. ______rink, my friend’s mother remarked on the “plush” seats we had beengiven. I did not know what she meant, and being proud of my 2______ vocabulary, I tried to infer its meaning from the context. “Plush”was clearly intended as a complimentary, a positive evaluation; that 3. ______ much I could tell it from the tone of voice and the context. So I 4. ______started to use the word. Yes, I replied, they certainly are plush, and so are the ice rink and the cos tumes of the skaters, aren’t they? Myfriend’s mother was very polite to correct me, but I could tell from her 5. ______ expression that I had not got the word quite right.Often we can indeed infer from the context what a word roughlymeans, and that is in fact the way which we usually acquire both 6. ______new words and new meanings for familiar words, specially in our 7. ______own first language. But sometimes we need to ask, as I should haveasked for Plush, and this is particularly true in the 8. ______ aspect of a foreign language. If you are continually surrounded by 9______ .speakers of the language you are learning, you can ask them directly, but often this opportunity does not exist for the learner of English.So dictionaries have been developed to mend the gap. 10. ______2014改错There is widespread consensus among scholars that second language acquisition (SLA) emerge d as a distinct field of research from the late 1950s to early 1960s.There is a high level of agreement that the following questions (1) ______have possessed the most attention of researchers in this area: (2) ______l Is it possible to acquire an additional language in thesame sense one acquires a first language? (3) ______l What is the explanation for the fact adults have (4) ______more difficulty in acquiring additional languages than children have?l What motivates people to acquire additional language?l What is the role of the language teaching in the (5) ______acquisition of additional languages?l What social-cultural factors, if any, are relevant in studying thelearning of additional languages?From a check of the literature of the field it is clear that all (6) ______the approaches adopted to study the phenomena of SLA so far have one thing in common: The perspective adopted to view the acquiringof an additional language is that of an individual attempts to do (7) ______so. Whether one labels it “learning” or “acquiring” an additionallanguage, it is an individual accomplishment or what is under (8) ______focus is the cognitive, psychological, and institutional status of an individual. That is, the spotlig ht is on what mental capabilities areinvolving, what psychological factors play a role in the learning (9) ______or acquisition, and whether the target language is learnt in theclassroom or acquired through social touch with native speakers. (10) ______2013 专八短文改错试题．Psycho-linguistics is the name given to the study of the psychological processes involved in langu age. Psycholinguistics study understanding,production and remembering language, and hence are concerned with (1) _____listening, reading, speaking, writing, and memory for language.One reason why we take the language for granted is that it usually (2) ______happens so effortlessly, and most of time, so accurately. (3) ______Indeed, when you listen to someone to speaking, or looking at this page, (4) ______you normally cannot help but understand it. It is only in exceptionalcircumstances we might become aware of the complexity (5) ______involved: if we are searching for a word but cannot remember it;if a relative or colleague has had a stroke which has influenced (6) ______their language; if we observe a child acquire language; if (7) ______we try to learn a second language ourselves as an adult; or if we are visually impaired or hearing-impaired or if we meetanyone else who is. As we shall see, all these examples (8) ______of what might be called “language in exceptional circumstances”reveal a great deal about the processes evolved in speaking, (9) ______listening, writing and reading. But given that language processeswere normally so automatic, we also need to carry out careful (10) ______experiments to get at what is happening.2012Proofread the given passage on ANSWER SHEET TWO as instructed.The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The arg ument has been going since at least the first (1) ______century B.C. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, many writersfavored certain kind of “free” translation: the spirit, not the letter; the (2) _______sense not the word; the message rather the form; the matter not (3) _______the manner. This is the often revolutionary slogan of writers who (4) _______wanted the truth to be read and understood. Then in the turn of 19th (5) _______ century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested thatthe linguistic barriers were insuperable and that the language (6) _______was entirely the product of culture, the view translation was impossible (7) _______gained some currency, and with it that, if was attempted at all, it must be as (8) _______ literal as possible. This view culminated the statement of the (9) _______extreme “literalists” Walter Benjamin and Vladimir Nobokov.The argument was theoretical: the purpose of the translation, thenature of the readership, the type of the text, was not discussed. Toooften, writer, translator and reader were implicitly identified witheach other. Now, the context has changed, and the basic problem remains. (10) _____参考答案：2011年专八真题改错部分From a very early age, perhaps the age of five or six, I knew that when I grew I should be a writer. Between the ages of about 1__________seventeen and twenty-four I tried to abandon this idea, but I did sowith the conscience that I was outraging my true nature and that2___________soon or later I should have to settle down and write books.3___________I was the child of three, but there was a gap of five years 4__________on either side, and I barely saw my father before I was eight. Forthis and other reasons I was somewhat lonely, and I soon developeddisagreeing mannerisms which made me unpopular throughout my5_____________ schooldays. I had the lonely child's habit of making up stories andholding conversations with imaginative persons, and I think from 6_________the very start my literal ambitions were mixed up with the feeling of7________being isolated and undervalued. I knew that I had a facility with wordsand a power of facing in unpleasant facts, and I felt that this created 8________a sort of private world which I could get my own back for my failure 9________in everyday life. Therefore, the volume of serious — i.e. seriously 10________ intended —writing which I produced all through my childhood andboyhood would not amount to half a dozen pages. I wrote my firstpoem at the age of four or five, my mother taking it down to dictation.2010年专八真题改错部分So far as we can tell, all human languages are equallycomplete and perfect as instruments of communication: that is,every language appears to be well equipped as any other to say 1________________the things their speakers want to say. 2________________ There may or may not be appropriate to talk about primitive 3________________ peoples or cultures, but that is another matter. Certainly, not allgroups of people are equally competent in nuclear physics orpsychology or the cultivation of rice . Whereas this is not the 4_____________fault of their language. The Eskimos , it is said, can speak aboutsnow with further more precision and subtlety than we can in 5______________ English, but this is not because the Eskimo language (one of thosesometimes miscalled 'primitive') is inherently more precise andsubtle than English. This example does not come to light a defect 6______________in English, a show of unexpected 'primitiveness'. The position issimply and obviously that the Eskimos and the English live in similar 7____________ environments. The English language will be just as rich in terms 8____________for different kinds of snow, presumably, if the environments in whichEnglishwas habitually used made such distinction as important. 9_____________ Similarly, we have no reason to doubt that the Eskimo languagecould be as precise and subtle on the subject of motor manufactureor cricket if these topics formed the part of the Eskimos' life. 10____________2010年专八真题改错参考答案以及分词09专八改错原题The previous section has shown how quickly a rhyme passesfrom one school child to the next and illustrates the further difference (1)___________ between school lore and nursery lore. In nursery lore a verse,learnt in early childhood, is not usually passed on again when the (2)___________ little listener has grown up, and has children of their own, or even (3)____________ grandchildren. The period between learning a nursery rhyme andtransmitting it may be something from twenty to seventy years. With (4)_____________ the playground lore, therefore, a rhyme may be excitedly passed (5)___________ on within the very hour it is learnt; and in the general, it passes (6)_____________ between children of the same age, or nearly so, since it is uncommonfor the difference in age between playmates to be more than fiveyears. If ,therefore, a playground rhyme can be shown to have beencurrently for a hundred years, or even just for fifty, it follows that it (7)__________has been retransmitted over and over; very possibly it has passed (8)___________ along a chain of two or three hundred young hearers and tellers, andthe wonder is that it remains live after so much handling, (9)____________to let alone that it bears resemblance to the (10)____________答案分析：2008年专八真题短文改错The desire to use language as a sign of national identity is avery natural one, and in result language has played a prominent ____1____part in national moves. Men have often felt the need to cultivate ____2____a given language to show that they are distinctive from another ____3____race whose hegemony they resent. At the time the United States ____4____split off from Britain, for example, there were proposals thatindependence should be linguistically accepted by the use of a ____5____different language from those of Britain. There was even one ____6____proposal that Americans should adopt Hebrew. Others favouredthe adoption of Greek, though, as one man put it, things wouldcertainly be simpler for Americans if they stuck on to English ____7____and made the British learn Greek. At the end, as everyone ____8____knows, the two countries adopted the practical and satisfactorysolution of carrying with the same language as before. ____9____Since nearly two hundred years now, they have shown the world ____10____that political independence and national identity can be completewithout sacrificing the enormous mutual advantages of a common language.07专八真题短文改错From what has been said, it must be clear that no one canmake very positive statements about how language originated.There is no material in any language today and in the earliest 1__________ records of ancient languages show us language in a new and 2__________emerging state. It is often said, of course, that the language 3_________ originated in cries of anger, fear, pain and pleasure, and the 4__________ necessary evidence is entirely lacking: there are no remotetribes, no ancient records, providing evidence ofa language with a large proportion of such cries 5__________than we find in English. It is true that the absenceof such evidence does not disprove the theory, but in 6__________other grounds too the theory is not very attractive.People of all races and languages make rather similarnoises in return to pain or pleasure. The fact that 7___________such noises are similar on the lips of Frenchmenand Malaysians whose languages are utterly different,serves to emphasize on the fundamental difference 8___________between these noises and language proper. We maysay that the cries of pain or chortles of amusementare largely reflex actions, instinctive to large extent, 9____________ whereas language proper does not consist of signsbut of these that have to be learnt and that are 10___________wholly conventional2006专八短文改错We use language primarily as a means of communication withother human beings. Each of us shares with the community in which welive a store of words and meanings as well as agreeing conventions as 1_______to the way in which words should be arranged to convey a particular 2_______ message: the English speaker has in his disposal vocabulary and a 3_______set of grammatical rules which enables him to communicate his 4_______ thoughts and feelings, in a variety of styles, to the other English 5_______speakers. His vocabulary, in particular, both that which he uses active-ly and that which he recognises, increases in size as he growsold as a result of education and experience. 6_________But, whether the language store is relatively small or large, the systemremains no more than a psychological reality for the individual, unlesshe has a means of expressing it in terms able to be seen by another 7_________ member of his linguistic community; he bas to give the system aconcrete transmission form. We take it for granted the two most 8____________ common forms of transmission-by means of sounds produced by ourvocal organs (speech) or by visual signs (writing). And these are 9_____________ among most striking of human achievements. 10____________2005年专八真题短文改错The University as BusinesA number of colleges and universities have announced steep tuition increases for next year much steeper than the current,very low rate of inflation. They say the increases are needed becauseof a loss in value of university endowments heavily investing in common 1 ________ stock. I am skeptical. A business firm chooses the price that maximizesits net revenues, irrespective fluctuations in income; and increasingly the 2 _________ outlook of universities in the United States is indistinguishable from those of 3 ___________ business firms. The rise in tuitions may reflect the fact economic uncertainty 4__________ increases the demand for education. The biggest cost of beingin the school is foregoing income from a job (this is primarily a factor in 5 __________ graduate and professional-school tuition); the poor one's job prospects, 6 ___________ the more sense it makes to reallocate time from the job market to education,in order to make oneself more marketable.The ways which universities make themselves attractive to students 7 ___________ include soft majors, student evaluations of teachers, giving studentsa governance role, and eliminate required courses. 8 _________Sky-high tuitions have caused universities to regard their students ascustomers. Just as business firms sometimes collude to shorten the 9 ___________ rigors of competition, universities collude to minimize the cost to them of the athletes whom t hey recruit in order to stimulate alumni donations, so the best athletes now often bypass higher education in order to obtain salaries earlier from professional teams. And until they were stoppe d by the antitrust authorities, the Ivy League schools colluded to limit competition for the best st udents, by agreeing not to award scholarships on the basis of merit rather than purelyof need-just like business firms agreeing not to give discounts on their best 10 ____________ customer20042003改错Demographic indicators show that Americans in the postwarperiod were more eager than ever to establish families. They quickly brought down the age at marriage for both men and women and broughtthe birth rate to a twentieth century height after more than a hundred (1)__years of a steady decline, producing the “baby boom.” These young (2)__adults established a trend of early marriage and relatively largefamilies that went for more than two decades and caused a major (3)__but temporary reversal of long-term demographic patterns. Fromthe 1940s through the early 1960s, Americans married at a high rate (4)__and at a younger age than their Europe counterparts. (5)__Less noted but equally more significant, the men and women who (6)__formed families between 1940 and 1960 nevertheless reduced the (7)__divorce rate after a postwar peak; their marriages remained intact toa greater extent than did that of couples who married in earlier as well (8)__as later decades. Since the United States maintained its dubious (9)__ distinction of having the highest divorce rate in the world, thetemporary decline in divorce did not occur in the same extent in (10)__ Europe. Contr ary to fears of the experts, the role of breadwinner and homemaker was not abandoned2002改错There are great impediments to the general use of a standard in pronunciation comparable to th at existing in spelling (orthography). One is the fact thatpronunciation is learnt…naturally‟ and unconsciously, and orthography is learnt 1._____ deliberately and consciously. Large numbers of us, in fact, remainthroughout our lives quite unconscious with what our speech sounds 2______like when we speak out, and it often comes as a shock when 3______we firstly hear a recording of ourselves. It is not a voice we recognize at once, 4_______ whereas our own handwriting is something which we almost always know. 5_____We begin the …natural‟ learning of pronunciation long before we start learningto read or write, and in our early years we went on unconsciously 6.___imitating and practicing the pronunciation of those around usfor many more hours per every day than we ever have to spend 7.___learning even our difficult English spelling. This is …natural‟, 8.___therefore, that our speech-sounds should be those of our immediate circle;after all, as we have seen, speech operates as a means of holding a community 9.___and giving a sense of'belonging'. We learn quite early to recognize a …stranger‟,someone who spe aks with an accent of a different community-perhaps only a few miles far. 1020011.20001999年The hunter-gatherer tribes that today live as our prehistoric 1.______human ancestors consume primarily a vegetable diet supplementing 2._____with animal foods. An analysis of 58 societies of modem hunter- gatherers, including the Kung of southern Africa, revealed that one half emphasize gathering plant foods, one-third concentrate on fishing and only one-sixth are primarily hunters. Overall, two-thirdsand more of the hunter-gatherer‟s calories come from plants. Detailed 3.______studies of the Kung by the food scientists at the University ofLondon, showed that gathering is a more productive source of foodthan is hunting. An hour of hunting yields in average about 100 4.______edible calories, as an hour of gathering produces 240. 5.______Plant foods provide for 60 percent to 80 percent of the Kung 6._______diet, and no one goes hungry when the hunt fails. Interestingly, if they escape fatal infections or a ccidents, these contemporaryaborigines live to old ages despite of the absence of medical care. 7._______They experience no obesity, no middle-aged spread, little dental decay, no high blood pressure, o n heart disease, and their bloodcholesterol levels are very low( about half of the average American 8._______adult), if no one is suggesting what we return to an aboriginal life 9.________style, we certainly could use their eating habits as a model for 10.________ healthier diet.1998hen a human infant is born into any community in any part of the world it has two things in com mon with any infant, provided (1)_____neither of them have been damaged in any way either before (2)_____ or during birth. Firstly, a nd most obviously, new born children are completely helpless. Apart from a powerful capacity to pay attention to their helplessness lay using sound, there is nothing (3)_____the new born child can do to ensure his own survival. Without care from some other human bein g or beings, be it mother,grandmother, or human group, a child is very unlikely to survive. This helplessness of human infa nts is in marked contrast with the capacity of many new born animals to get on their feet (4)_ _____within minutes of birth and run with the herd within a few hours. Although young animals are cer tainly in risk, sometimes (5)______for weeks or even months after birth, compared with the humaninfant they very quickly develop the capacity to fend for them. (6)______ It is during this very lo ng period in which the human infantis totally dependent on the others that it reveals the second feature (7) ______which it shares with all other undamaged human infants, acapacity to learn language. For this reason, biologists now suggestthat language be "species specific" to the human race, that is (8) ______to say, they consider the human infant to be genetic programmed (9) ______in such way that it can acquire language. This suggestion implies (10)that just as human beings are designed to see three-dimensionally and in colour, and just as they are designed to stand upright rather than to move on all fours, so they are designed to learn and use language as part of their normal developments as well-formed human beings1997Classic Intention MovementIn social situations, the classic Intention Movement is "the chair-grasp". Host and guest have been talking for some time, but now the host has an appointment to keepand can get away. His urge to go is 1______held in check by his desire not be rude to his guest. 2______If he did not care of his guest's feelings he would 3______simply get up out of his chair and to announce his4______departure. This is what his body wants to do, therefore5______his politeness glues his body to the chair and refuses to let him raise. It is at this point that he 6 ______performs the chair-grasp Intention Movement. He continues to talk to the guest and listen to him , but leans forward and grasps the arms of the chair as about to push 7______himself upwards. This is the first act he would make if he were rising. If he were not hesitating, 8______it would only last a fraction of the second. He would 9______lean, push, rise, and be up. But now, instead, it lasts much longer. He holds his "readiness-to-rise" post and 10______keeps on holding it. It is as if his body had frozen at the get-ready moment.1996The second most important constituent of the biosphere is liquid water. This can only exist in a very narrow range of temperatures, since water freezes at 0°C and boils at 1 00°C . This is only a tiny range compared with the low temperatures of some other pla nets and the hot interior of the earth, let the temperatures (1) of the sun.As we know, life would only be possible on the face of a (2)planet had temperatures somewhere within this range. (3)The earth's supply of water probably remains quite fairly (4)constant in quantity. A certain number of hydrogen atoms, which are one of the main c onstituents of water, are lost by escaping from theatmosphere to out space, but they are probably just (5)about replaced by new water rising away from the depths of the (6)earth during volcanic action. The total quantity of water is not known,and it is about enough to cover the surface of the globe (7)to a depth of about two and three-quarter kms. Most of it -97% - is in the form of the salt waters of the oceans. The rest is fresh,but three quarter of this is in the form of ice at the Poles (8)and on mountains, and cannot be used by living systems when (9)melted. Of the remaining fraction, which is somewhat fewer than (10) 1% of the whole, there is 10—20 times as much stored as underground water as is actually on t he surface. There is also a minor, but extremely important, fraction of the water suppl y which is present as water vapor in the atmosphere.1995There are far too many road accidents in this country，too many deaths and too many people injured。