information systems management英文原文+翻译 学生信息管理系统的设计与发展 文献翻译

Management Information System Overview Management Information System is that we often say that the MIS, is a human, computers and other information can be composed of the collection, transmission, storage, maintenance and use of the system, system, emphasizing emphasizing the the management, management, management, stressed stressed stressed that that the modern information society In the increasingly popular. MIS is a new subject, it across a number of areas, such as scientific scientific management management management and and and system system system science, science, science, operations operations operations research, research, research, statistics statistics statistics and and and computer computer science. In these subjects on the basis of formation of information-gathering and processing methods, thereby forming a vertical and horizontal weaving, and systems. The 20th century, along with the vigorous development of the global economy, many economists have proposed a new management theory. In the 1950s, Simon made dependent on information management and decision-making ideas. Wiener published the same period of the control theory, that he is a management control process. 1958, Gail wrote: "The management will lower the cost of timely and accurate information to b etter control." During better control." During this period, accounting for the beginning of the computer, data processing in the term.1970, Walter T . Kenova just to the management information system under a definition of the . Kenova just to the management information system under a definition of the term: "verbal or written form, at the right time to managers, staff and outside staff for the past, present, the projection of future Enterprise and its environment-related information 原文请找腾讯3249114六,维^论~文.网 no no application application application model, model, model, no no mention mention of of computer applications. 1985, management information systems, the founder of the University of Minnesota professor of management at the Gordon B. Davis to a management information system a more complete definition of "management information system is a computer hardware and software resources, manual operations, analysis, planning , Control and decision -making model and the database - System. System. It It provides information to to support support enterprises enterprises or or organizations organizations of of the operation, management and decision-making function. "Comprehensive definition of this Explained Explained that that that the the the goal goal goal of of of management management management information information information system, system, system, functions functions functions and and and composition, composition, composition, but but also reflects the management information system at the time of level.With the continuous improvement of science and technology, computer science increasingly mature, the computer has to be our study and work on the run along. Today, computers are already already very low price, performance, but great progress, and it was used in many areas, the very low price, performance, but great progress, and it was used in many areas, the computer computer was was was so so so popular popular popular mainly mainly mainly because because because of of of the the the following following following aspects: aspects: aspects: First, First, First, the the the computer computer computer can can substitute for many of the complex Labor. Second, the computer can greatly enhance people's work work efficiency. efficiency. efficiency. Third, Third, Third, the the the computer computer computer can can can save save save a a a lot lot lot of of of resources. resources. resources. Fourth, Fourth, Fourth, the the the computer computer computer can can make sensitive documents more secure.Computer application and popularization of economic and social life in various fields. So that the original old management methods are not suited now more and social development. Many people still remain in the previous manual. This greatly hindered the economic development of mankind. mankind. In recent years, with the University of sponsoring scale is In recent years, with the University of sponsoring scale is growing, the number of students students in in in the the the school school school also also also have have have increased, increased, increased, resulting resulting resulting in in in educational educational educational administration administration administration is is is the the growing complexity of the heavy work, to spend a lot of manpower, material resources, and the existing management of student achievement levels are not high, People have been usin g the traditional method of document management student achievement, the management there are many shortcomings, such as: low efficiency, confidentiality of the poor, and Shijianyichang, will have a large number of of documents documents documents and and data, which is is useful useful for finding, finding, updating updating and maintaining Have brought a lot of difficulties. Such a mechanism has been unable to meet the development of the times, schools have become more and more day -to-day management of a bottleneck. bottleneck. In In In the the the information information information age age age this this this traditional traditional traditional management management management methods methods methods will will will inevitably inevitably inevitably be be computer-based information management replaced. As As part part part of of of the the the computer computer computer application, application, application, the the the use use use of of of computers computers computers to to to students students students student student student performance performance information for management, with a manual management of the incomparable advantages for example: example: rapid rapid rapid retrieval, retrieval, retrieval, to to to find find find convenient, convenient, convenient, high high high reliability reliability reliability and and and large large large capacity capacity capacity storage, storage, storage, the the confidentiality confidentiality of of of good, good, good, long long long life, life, life, cost cost cost Low. Low. Low. These These These advantages advantages advantages can can can greatly greatly greatly improve improve improve student student performance management students the efficiency of enterprises is also a scientific, standardized standardized management, management, management, and and and an an an important important important condition condition condition for for for connecting connecting connecting the the the world. world. world. Therefore, Therefore, the development of such a set of management software as it is very necessary thing.Design ideas are all for the sake of users, the interface nice, clear and simple operation as far as possible, but also as a practical operating system a good fault-tolerant, the user can misuse a timely manner as possible are given a warning, so that users timely correction . T o take full advantage advantage of the of the functions of visual FoxPro, design p owerful software powerful software at the same time, as much as possible to reduce the occupiers system resources. Visual FoxPro the command structure and working methods: Visual FoxPro was originally originally called called FoxBASE, FoxBASE, the the U.S. U.S. Fox Fox Software has introduced introduced a a database products, products, in in the run on DOS, compatible with the abase family. Fox Fox Software Software Microsoft acquisition, to be developed so that it can run on Windows, and changed its name to Visual FoxPro. Visual FoxPro is a powerful relational database rapid application development tool, tool, the the the use use use of of of Visual Visual Visual FoxPro FoxPro FoxPro can can can create create create a a a desktop desktop desktop database database database applications, applications, applications, client client client / / / server server applications applications and and and Web Web Web services services services component-based component-based component-based procedures, procedures, procedures, while while while also also also can can can use use use ActiveX ActiveX controls or API function, and so on Ways to expand the functions of Visual FoxPro.1651First, work methods 1. Interactive mode of operation (1) order operation VF in the order window, through an order from the keyboard input of all kinds of ways to complete the operation order. (2) menu operation VF use menus, windows, dialog to achieve the graphical interface features an interactive operation. (3) aid operation VF in the system provides a wide range of user-friendly operation of tools, such as the wizard, design, production, etc.. 2. Procedure means of implementation VF in the implementation of the procedures is to form a group of orders and programming language, an extension to save. PRG procedures in the document, and then run through the automatic implementation of this order documents and award results are displayed. Second, the structure of command 1. Command structure 2. VF orders are usually composed of two parts: The first part is the verb order, also known as keywords, for the operation of the designated order functions; second part of the order clause, for an order that the operation targets, operating conditions and other information . VF order form are as follows: 3. <Order verb> "<order clause>" 4. Order in the format agreed symbols 5. 5. VF in the order form and function of the use of the symbol of the unity agreement, the meaning of VF in the order form and function of the use of the symbol of the unity agreement, the meaning of these symbols are as follows: 6. Than that option, angle brackets within the parameters must be based on their format input parameters. 7. That may be options, put in brackets the parameters under specific requ ests from users choose to enter its parameters. 8. Third, the project manager 9. Create a method 10. command window: CREA T PROJECT <file name> T PROJECT <file name> 11. Project Manager 12. tab 13. All - can display and project management applications of all types of docume nts, "All" tab contains five of its right of the tab in its entirety . 14. Data - management application projects in various types of data files, databases, free form, view, query documents. 15. Documentation - display 原文请找腾讯原文请找腾讯3249114六,维^论~文.网 , statements, documents, labels and other documents. 16. Category - the tab display and project management applications used in the class library documents, including VF's class library system and the user's own design of the library. 17. Code - used in the project management procedures code documents, such as: program files (. PRG), API library and the use of project management for generation of applications (. APP). 18. (2) the work area 19. The project management work area is displayed and management of all types of document window. 20. (3) order button 21. Project Manager button to the right of the order of the work area of the document window to provide command. 22. 4, project management for the use of 23. 1. Order button function 24. New - in the work area window selected certain documents, with new orders button on the new document added to the project management window. 25. Add - can be used VF "file" menu under the "new" order and the "T ools" menu under the "Wizard" order to create the various independent paper added to the project manager, unified organization with management. 26. Laws - may amend the project has been in existence in the various documents, is still to use such documents to modify the design interface. 27. Sports - in the work area window to highlight a specific document, will run the paper.28. Mobile - to check the documents removed from the project. 29. 29. Even Even Even the the the series series series - - - put put put the the the item item item in in in the the the relevant relevant relevant documents documents documents and and and even even even into into into the the the application application executable file. Database System Design :Database design is the logical database design, according to a forthcoming data classification system and the logic of division-level organizations, is user-oriented. Database design needs of various departments of the integrated enterprise archive data and data needs analysis of the relationship between the various data, in accordance with the DBMS. 管理信息系统概要管理信息系统概要管理信息系统就是我们常说的MIS （Management Information System ），是一个由人、计算机等组成的能进行信息的收集、传送、储存、维护和使用的系统，在强调管理，强调信息的现代社会中它越来越得到普及。

管理信息系统Management Information System信息系统是由人、硬件、软件、网络和数据库组成的。

它可以在组织中收集、处理和传播信息。

Information system has five primary components: Hardware .Software .Data (information for decision making) 4.) Procedures (design, development and documentation), and 5.) People.信息系统的活动：搜集信息，处理信息，保存信息，传递信息，输出信息。

Activity of information system: collecting information, disposing information, saving information, spread information and transferring information.Management information systems are distinct from other information systems because they are used to analyze and facilitate （help）strategic and operational activities.Enterprise systems—also known as enterprise resource planning(ERP) systems—provide integrated software modules and a unified database that personnel use to plan, manage, and control core business processes across multiple locations. Modules of ERP systems may include finance, accounting, marketing, human resources, production, inventory management, and distribution.Supply chain management (SCM) systems enable more efficient management of the supply chain by integrating the links in a supply chain. This may include suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and final customers.Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help businesses manage relationships with potential and current customers and business partners across marketing, sales, and service.Knowledge management system (KMS) helps organizations help the collection, recording, organization, retrieval（search）, and spread of knowledge. This may include documents, accounting records, unrecorded procedures, practices, and skills. Knowledge management (KM) as a system covers the process of knowledge creation and acquisition from internal processes and the external world. The collected knowledge is incorporated in organizational policies and procedures, and then disseminated to the stakeholders.这门课向我们介绍了信息系统的活动，电脑的结构，然后向我们介绍了数据库的请求语言，网络操作，包括信息输出媒介，连接部分和网络协议。

建立信息管理系统在行政管理机构信息是个重要资源。

及时有效的重要信息对于高效管理职能的表现是至关重要的，例如准备，组织，领导，控制。

在一个管理机构中，信息系统就像是人体中的神经系统，它把组织的所有元件连接在一起而且还在竞争的环境中提供更好的操作和生存机会。

信息系统经常提及一个以计算机为基础的，被设计成支持组织的操作、经营和决策功能的系统。

在组织中信息系统为决策者提供信息支持。

信息系统包含交易处理系统、管理信息系统、决策支持系统和战略的信息系统。

信息由经过处理的而且是对用户是有用的数据组成。

一个系统是为了达成一个共同的目的共同操作的一组元件。

因此一个管理信息系统收集，传送，处理，储存，而且在组织资源、程序表和成就上储存数据。

系统进入经营信息之内为这些数据做合理的变换为决策者在组织里面的使用。

因此，一个管理信息系统提供支持组织管理职能的信息。

一、基本的概念1、数据和信息的比较数据提供未加工的、不被评估的事实数据、符号、物件、事件等等。

数据可能是一个在于储存事实的集合物件，像一个电话目录或者实施统计调查记录。

信息是那些已经进入一个有意义的，有用的背景而且传达到一个使用它做出决断的接受人的数据。

信息涉及智慧或知识的交流和接受。

它评价而且通知，吃惊而且刺激，减少不确定，现实另外可供选择的方案或者帮助去除无关的或者没用的信息，还影响人们并且鼓励他们做出行动。

数据的元素在一个特殊的背景下可能构成一条信息；例如，当你想联系你的朋友的时候，他或者她的电话号码就是一条信息；除此之外，它在电话号码薄里仅仅是一个数据的元素。

2、信息的特性好信息的特性是中肯的、时间性、准确性、成本效益、可靠性、可用性、无遗漏和凝聚层次。

如果它引导改良的决策，信息是有关的。

如果它重新确定之前的决定它也是有关的。

如果它对你的问题没有任何帮助那它就是无关的。

例如，如果你在一月考虑去巴黎，那有关巴黎一月的天气情况的信息对你来说就是有关的。

否则，这信息就是无关的。

管理的角色和技能管理角色亨利·明茨伯格对执行者行为的研究让他得出这样的结论:经理都需要承担大量的角色。

一个角色是一组预期的行为对一个特定的位置。

明茨伯格的角色可以分为三大类如图1.1所示:信息角色(管理信息);人际角色(管理通过人)和决策角色(管理行动)。

每个角色代表活动经理承担最终完成的功能规划、组织、领导、控制。

重要的是要记住,真正的工作的管理不能练习作为一组独立的部分;所有的角色交互的方式在现实世界的管理。

图1.1 管理角色信息角色描述活动用来维持和发展一个信息网络。

这三个信息角色监督者、传播者和发言人。

监督者涉及从许多来源寻求当前的信息。

经理获得信息来自他人和扫描书面材料来保持消息灵通。

传播者和发言人的角色是正好相反。

经理把当前信息传递给他人,内部和外部的组织,才能使用它。

与授权趋势的低级别员工,很多经理都共享尽可能丰富的信息。

由于人际角色让经理们被叫去与众多组织和个人交互。

这三个人际角色是挂名首脑、领袖和交流与合作者。

这个挂名首脑角色专注于管理正式的和象征性的活动的部门或组织。

经理代表本组织在他或她作为单位的负责人的正式管理能力。

领导的作用是指经理的工作在激励下属,以满足单位的目标。

交流与合作者的作用来自于经理的责任与各种团体在组织内外交流。

一个例子是一个面对面讨论控制器和计划主管之间解决关于预算的一种误解。

决策角色指管理的决策过程。

这些角色通常需要概念以及人类的技能。

这四种管理角色都属于这一类企业家,障碍处理者,资源分配者,谈判代表。

一个管理者承担一个企业家的角色当他或她启动项目来提高部门或工作单位时。

当问题比如错过了交付关键客户的出现,经理必须采用一个障碍处理的角色。

决定如何分配单位的金钱、时间、材料和其他资源,称为经理的资源分配角色。

最后,谈判者角色指的是这种情况,经理必须代表单位和其他人的利益,如供应商、客户和政府。

根据一篇经典文章由罗伯特·l·卡茨,管理上的成功主要取决于性能而不是人格特质。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Management Information SystemIt is the MIS(Management Information System ) that we constantly say that the management information system , and is living to emphasize the administration , and emphasizes that it changes into more and more significantly and more and more is universalized in the contemporary community of message . MIS is a fresh branch of learning, and it leaped over several territories, and for instance administers scientific knowledge, system science, operational research, statistic along with calculating machine scientific knowledge. Is living on these the branches of learning base, and takes shape that the message is gathered and the process means, thereby take shape the system that the crossbar mingles.1. The Management Information System Summary20 centuries, in the wake of the flourishing development of whole world economy, numerous economists propose the fresh administration theory one by one. Xi Men propose the administration and was dependent on idea to message and decision of strategic importance in the 50’s 20 centuries. The dimension of simultaneous stage is admitted issuing cybernetics, and he thinks that the administration is a control procedure. In 1958, Ger. write the lid: “the administrationshall obtain without delay with the lower cost and exact message, completes the better control “. This particular period, the calculating machine starts being used accountancy work. The data handling term has risen.In 1970, Walter T.Kennevan give administration that has raised the only a short while ago information system term to get off a definition: “ either the cover of the book shape with the discount, is living appropriately time to director, staff member along with the outside world personnel staff supplies the past and now and message that internal forecasting the approaching relevant business reaches such environment, in order to assist they make a strategic decision”. Is living in this definition to emphasize, yet does not emphasize using the pattern, and mention the calculating machine application in the way of the message support decision of strategic importance.In 1985, admonishing information system originator, title Buddhist nun Su Da university administration professor Gordon B.Davis give the management information system relatively integrated definition, in immediate future “ administer the information system is one use calculating machine software and hardware resources along with data bank man - the engine system.It be able to supply message support business either organization operation, administration or the decision making function. Comprehensive directions of this definition management information system target and meritorious service capacity and component, but also make known the management information system to be living the level that attains at that time.1.1The Developing History of MISThe management information system is living the most primarily phase is counting the system, the substance which researched is the regular pattern on face between the incremental data, it what may separate into the data being mutually related and more not being mutually related series, afterwards act as the data conversion to message.The second stage is the data are replaced the system, and it is that the SABRE that the American airline company put up to in the 50’s 20 centuries subscribes to book the bank note system that such type stands for. It possess 1008 bank note booking spots, and may access 600000 traveler keep the minutes and 27000 flight segments record. Its operation is comparatively more complex, and is living whatever one “spot ”wholly to check whether to be the free place up some one flight numbers. Yet through approximately attending school up to say, it is only a data andreplaces the system, for instance it can not let know you with the bank note the selling velocity now when the bank note shall be sell through, thereby takes remedying the step. As a result it also is administer information system rudimentary phase.The third phase is the status reports system, and it may separate into manufacture state speech and service state and make known and research the systems such as status reports and so on. Its type stands for the production control system that is the IBM corporation to the for instance manufacture state speech system. As is known to all, the calculating machine corporation that the IBM corporation is the largest on the world, in 1964 it given birth to middle-sized calculating machine IBM360 and causes the calculating machine level lift a step, yet form that the manufacture administration work. Yet enormously complicatedly dissolve moreover, the calculating machine overtakes 15000 difference components once more, in addition the plant of IBM extends all over the American various places to every one components once more like works an element, and the order of difference possess difference components and the difference element, and have to point out that what element what plant what installation gives birth to, hence not merely giving birth to complexly, fitting, installation and transportation wholly fully complex. Have to there be a manufacture status reports system that takes the calculating machine in order to guarantee being underway successfully of manufacture along with else segment as the base. Hence the same ages IBM establish the systematic AAS of well-developed administration it be able to carry on 450 professional work operations. In 1968, the corporation establishes the communal once more and manufactures informationsystem CMIS and runs and succeeds very much, the past needs 15 weeks work, that system merely may be completed in the way of 3 weeks.It is the data handling system that the status reports system still possess one kind of shape , and that it is used for handles the everyday professional work to make known with manufacture , and stress rests with by the handwork task automation , and lifts the effectiveness with saves the labor power . The data handling system ordinarily can not supply decision of strategic importance message.Last phase is the support systems make a strategic decision, and it is the information system being used for supplementary making a strategic decision. That system may program and the analysis scheme, and goes over key and the error solve a problem. Its proper better person-machine dialogue means, may with notparticularly the personnel staff who have an intimate knowledge of the calculating machine hold conversation. It ordinarily consists of some pattern so as to come into being decision of strategic importance message, yet emphasize comprehensive administration meritorious service capacity.1.2 The Application of Management Information SystemThe management information system is used to the most base work, like dump report form, calculation pay and occurrences in human tubes and so on, and then developing up business financial affairs administrations and inventory control and so on individual event operational control , this pertains to the electron data handling ( EDP Data Processing ) system . When establish the business data bank, thereby possess the calculating machine electric network to attain data sharing queen , the slave system concept is start off , when the implementation the situation as a whole is made program and the design information system ,attained the administration information system phase . In the wake of calculating machine technique progress and the demand adjust the system of people lift further, people emphasize more furthermore administer the information system phase. Progress and people in the wake of the calculating machine technique lift at the demand adjust the system further, people emphasize more furthermore to administer the information system whether back business higher level to lead makes a strategic decision this meritorious service capacity, still more lay special emphasis on the gathering to the external message of business and integrated data storehouse, model library , means storehouse and else artificial intelligence means whether directly to decision of strategic importance person , this is the support system ( DDS ) mission making a strategic decision.There is the part application that few business start MIS inner place the limit of the world at the early days of being living in the 70’s 20 centuries. Up at the moment, MIS is living, and there be the appropriatePopularization rate in every state nation in world, and nearly covered that every profession reaches every department.1.3 The Direction of MIS DevelopmentClose 20 curtains; external grand duke takes charge of having arisen3 kinds of alternations:A. Paying special attention to the administration being emphasized toestablishing MIS’s system, and causing the administration technique headfor the ageing.B. The message is the decision of strategic importance foundation, and MISsupplies the message service in the interest of director at all times.C. Director causes such management program getting in touch with togetherwith the concrete professional work maneuver by means of MIS. notmerely big-and-middle-sized business universally establish MIS somesmall-size business also not exceptions of self, universally establish thecommunal data network, like the electronic mail and electron dataexchange and so on, MIS supplied the well support environment to theapplication of Intranet’s technique to speedily developing of INTERNETespecially in the past few years in the interest of the business.Through international technique development tendency is see, in the 90’s 20 centuries had arisen some kinds of brand-new administration technique.（1）Business Processes Rebuild (BPR)A business should value correctly time and produce quality, manufacturing cost and technical service and so on several section administrations, grip at the moment organization and the process compose once more,andcompletes that meritorious service capacity integrationist, operation processization and organization form fluctuation. Shall act as the service veer of middle layer management personnel staff the decision of strategic importance of the director service?（2）Intelligentization Decision Support System (IDSS)The intelligentization decision of strategic importance support system was sufficiently consider demand and the work distinguishing feature of business higher level personnel staff.（3）Lean Production (LP)Application give birth to on time, comprehensive quality control and parallel project that picked amount is given birth to and so on the technique, the utmost product design cutting down and production cycle, raise produce quality and cuts down the reproduced goods to reserve, and is living in the manufacture promote corps essence, in order to meet the demand that client continuously changes.（4）Agile Manufacture (AM)One kind of business administration pattern that possess the vision, such distinguishing feature is workers and staff members’ quality is high, and the organization simplifies and the multi-purpose group effectiveness GAO message loading is agile and answers client requires swiftly.2. The Effect To The Business Administration of MIS DevelopmentThe effect to the business administration of the management information system development is administered the change to business and business administration of information system development and come into being and is coming into being the far-reaching effect with.Decision of strategic importance, particularly strategic decision-making may be assisted by the administration information system, and its good or bad directly affects living and the development up the business. The MIS is impeding the orientation development that the administration means one another unites through quality and ration. This express to utilize the administration in the calculation with the different mathematical model the problem in the quantitative analysis business. The past administer that the problem is difficult to test, but MIS may unite the administration necessaries, and supply the sufficient data, and simulates to produce the term in the interest of the administration.In the wake of the development of MIS, much business sit up the decentralized message concentration to establish the information system ministry of directly under director, and the chief of information system ministry is ordinarily in the interest of assistant manager’s gr ade. After the authority of business is centralized up high-quality administration personnel staff’s hand, as if causing much sections office work decrease, hence someone prophesy, middle layer management shall vanish. In reality, the reappearance phase employed layer management among the information system queen not merely not to decrease, on the contrary there being the increase a bit.This is for, although the middle layer management personnel staff getting off exonerate out through loaded down with trivial details daily routine, yet needs them to analyses researching work in the way of even more energy, lift further admonishing the decision of strategic importance level. In the wake of the development of MIS, the business continuously adds to the demand of high technique a talented person, but the scarce thing of capability shall be washed out gradually. This compels people by means of study and cultivating, and continuously lifts individual’s quality. InThe wake of the news dispatch and electric network and file transmission system development, business staff member is on duty in many being living incomparably either the home. Having caused that corporation save the expenses enormously, the work efficiency obviously moves upward American Rank Zeros corporation the office system on the net, in the interest of the creativity of raiseoffice personnel staff was produced the advantageous term.At the moment many countries are fermenting one kind of more well-developed manufacturing industry strategy, and become quickly manufacturing the business. It completely on the basis of the user requirement organization design together with manufacture, may carry on the large-scale cooperation in the interest of identical produce by means of the business that the flow was shifted the distinct districts, and by means of the once more programming to the machinery with to the resources and the reorganization of personnel staff , constituted a fresh affrication system, and causes that manufacturing cost together with lot nearly have nothing to do with. Quickly manufacturing the business establishes a whole completely new strategy dependence relation against consumer, and is able to arouse the structure of production once more revolution.The management information system is towards the self-adoption and Self-learning orientation development, the decision procedure of imitation man who is be able to be better. Some entrepreneurs of the west vainly hope that consummate MIS is encircles the magic drug to govern the business all kinds of diseases; Yet also someone says, and what it is too many is dependent on the defeat that MIS be able to cause on the administration. It is adaptable each other to comprehend the effect to the business of MIS, and is favor of us to be living in development and the research work, and causes the business organization and administer the better development against MIS of system and administration means, and establish more valid MIS.译文管理信息系统MIS （Management Information System），它就是我们所说的管理信息系统，它强调在生活上的应用，并且在当今信息社会普及的背景下应用得越来越广泛。

Analysis of management informationsystemABSTRACTThis paper discusses the history of the development of management information systems , and management information system role , function and structure model . Outlines the management information system on the impact and importance of social enterprises and development process . Simple analysis of the future trend of development , and management information systems of management information systems are increasingly transforming our work and lifestyle .Keywords : MIS case studies ; the MIS impact ; MIS development process ;1 Introduction1.1 Management Information System IntroductionManagement Information Systems Management Information System MIS( Management Information Systems referred to MIS is an evolving new disciplines the MIS definition are constantly updated with the progress of computer technology and communication technology , at this stage generally considered by human and computer equipment or other information processing means and used for management information system .Five aspects of the management information by the information acquisition , information transmission, information storage , information processing , information maintenance and use of the information . Sound management information system MIS has the following four criteria: determine the information needs of information can be collected and can be processed by the program provides managers with information, information management . Database with unified planning MIS important sign of maturity , it symbolizes the Management Information System MIS software engineering product management information system MIS is a cross- discipline , part of : computer science ( network communications, database, computer language ) , mathematics ( statistics , operations research , linear programming , management, simulation ) and other subjects . Information is a very important resource in the management , the success or failure of management depends on the ability to make effective decisions , the correct decision depends largely on the quality of information too . So whether the effective management of information has become the mostimportant issue , management information system MIS increasingly gained popularity in the modern society, stress management , emphasis on information . Management information system in the modernization of management plays give enough light weight . Not only is it an effective way to modernize management , at the same time , also contributed to the process of modernization of enterprise management .1.2 Management Information System Overview20th century, with the rapid development of the global economy , many economists have proposed a new theory of management . In the 1950s , Simon asked the management relies on the idea of information and decision-making . The same period Wiener cybernetics , he thinks management is a process . In 1958, Gail wrote: "management at a lower cost to get timely and accurate information , and to achieve better control of this period, the computer begins for accounting , data processing term .1970 , Walter T.Kennevan , the term management information system to just under a definition: " oral or written form , at the right time to the manager, staff and outside personnel past, present , and predict the future information about the enterprise and its environment , in order to help them make decisions . " this definition emphasizes the use of information to support decision-making , but didnot emphasize the application model, no mention of computer applications .In 1985, the founder of the management information system , the University of Minnesota professor of management at Gordon B.Davis to the management information system with a more complete definition of " management information system is a computer hardware and software resources , manual work, analysis , plan control and decision-making model and database man - machine system can provide information to support the operation and management of the business or organization and decision-making functions . " this definition is a comprehensive description of the objectives of the management information system , functions and composition , but also reflects the management information system in the level reached at the time .Management information system was initially applied to the most basic work , such as print statements , calculation of wages , personnel management , and further the development of corporate financial management , inventory management , and individual business management , which is a system of electronic data processing( EDP Electronic Date Processing ) . When the establishment of the enterprisedatabase , a computer network so as to achieve data sharing , the departure from the system point of view , the implementation of the global planning and design of system information , reached the stage of the management information system . With the advances in computer technology and people to further improve the system requirements , a greater emphasis on management information systems can support the decision-making of this feature of the corporate senior leadership , is more focused on the collection of information outside the enterprise , integrated database , model base , method library and other artificial intelligence based on the ability for policy makers , which is the task of the decision support system ( DSS , Decision Support system ) . End of the 1970s , a small number of companies began to topical application of MIS , at present, China has become quite common , its scope of application covering almost every industry and sector , with a wide range of future development .1.3 Management information1.3.1 Management information is a very important resourceFor businesses, people , materials , energy , capital , information important resources . People , materials, energy , capital , these are visible tangible resources, and information is an intangible resources . People pay more attention tangible resources , access to the information society and knowledge economy era , information resources is becoming increasingly important . Because information resources determine how to make more effective use of material resources . Information resources is the crystallization of knowledge derived from the struggle of human beings and nature , master of information resources , you can make better use of physical resources , the physical resources to maximize the benefit .1.3.2 Management information base decisionsDecision-making by objective circumstances , the objective external circumstances , the external case , the understanding of the internal situation in order to make the right judgments and decisions . Therefore , decision-making and have a very close relationship . Some rule of thumb or racking our brains kind of decision - making is often caused by the decision-making mistakes , and now more and more clear information is the basis for decision-making .1.3.3 Management information is the basis for administrative controlIn the management control information to control the entire process of production , the operation of the service process , also rely on the feedback of information to constantly correct the existing scheme , rely on the management information to implement control . There are a lot of things can not be well controlled, its root cause is not a good grasp of comprehensive information .1.3.4 Management information contact outside the organization link Contactwith the outside world the link between the various functionaldepartments of internal information to communicate with each other . Therefore,to communicate with the contact of the various departments , so that the whole enterprise is able to coordinate the work necessary to rely on the information . Therefore, it is a link, both within and outside the organization to communicate information it is impossible to communicate well both inside and outside of thecontact and in unison to work together .1.4 Management Information System DefinitionBy this figure , we can see that the management information system is a man-machine system , the machine includes computer hardware and software ( thesoftware includes business information systems , knowledge work systems , decision-making and Executive Support System) , a variety of office machinery and telecommunications equipment ; personnel including high-level decision makers, mid-level functions and grass-roots business people , man-machine system bythese people and machines to form a harmonious act in harmony .So , some people say that the management information system is a technical system , it was said management information system is a social system , the reason we said above , we say that the management information system is a social system, and then a social and technical system . System designers should be very good analysis of what more appropriate to the computer to do , what to do more appropriate , how to contact people and machines , to give full play to their respective strengths of humans and machines . There is also a computer - based management information system( computer - based ) say , is to give full play to the role of the computer information systems . In order to design good system , system designers must not only knowhow to computers, and want to know how to analyze .We say that the management information system is an integrated system or integrated system , This means that the management information system for enterpriseinformation management is a departure from the overall , comprehensive consideration , to ensure that the various functional departments to share data , reduce data redundancy to ensure data compatibility and consistency. Strictly speaking, only the information of the centralized and unified information to enterprise resources . Data integration does not limit the individual functional subsystems can save its own dedicated data integration in order to ensure , first of all have a global system plan , every little system implementation under the guidance of the master plan . Secondly, through a standard outline and procedures to achieve system integration . So that data and programs to meet the requirements of the plurality of users of the equipment of the system should also be compatible with each other , even in the case of distributed systems and distributed database , ensure data consistency is also very important . Database with centralized and unified planning is an important sign of maturity of the management information system , it symbolizes see Department of Management Information Midi design and build , it marks the information has to be concentrated into shared resources for a variety of users . Databases have their own full-featured database management system manages data organization , data entry, data access , data for a variety of user services .Management information system is a computer application system to provide the necessary information for the organization of the middle-level management oversight and control of the business activities , the efficient allocation of resources , which mainly use the TPS data collected to generate the required system of management planning and control business activities . It is an emerging science , whose main task is to maximize the use of modern computer and network communication technology to strengthen the enterprise information management , investigate and understand human, material and financial resources , equipment , technology and other resources owned by enterprises , the establishment of data processing and the preparation of a variety of information in a timely manner available to management, for the right decisions , and constantly improve the management level of enterprises and economic benefits . At present, the computer network has become an important means of technological transformation of enterprises and improve enterprise management level .2 Management Information System2.1 Management Information System characteristics1 ) management information system for the management decisions2)management information system of information collection, storage, processing, transmission and processing .3 ) management information system is a people , computers andrelated equipment and data integrated information system.4 ) management information system is comprehensive , adaptability, ease of use .2.2 The role of the management information system1)on the market to make rapid response2 ) shorten the production cycle3 ) to reduce production costs4 ) To grasp information2.3 Management Information System has the followingbasic functions1 ) Data processing functions2 ) Planning functionBased on existing conditions and constraints , the plans of the various functional departments . Such as production planning, financial planning , procurement plan . And in accordance with the different levels of management plan report .3 ) Control functionsAccording to the data provided by the various functional departments , supervision, inspection, comparative implementation of program differences onthe implementation of the plan , analysis of differences and the reasons for the differences , assist management control in a timely manner .4 ) Prediction functionThe use of modern mathematical methods , statistical methods , orsimulation methods to predict the future based on available data .5) decision support functionsThe corresponding mathematical model , derived from a large number of data issues related to the optimal solution and satisfactory solution , auxiliary management decision-making . Rational use of resources in order to obtain greater economic benefits .2.4 Management Information System division1) Based on the functions of the organization are dividedMIS can be divided according to the functions of the organization office systems, decision-making systems, production systems and information systems .2) Based on the level of information processing divisionMIS divided based on the information processing level for the implementationof the number - oriented systems, value - oriented accounting system , the report of the monitoring system , the analysis of information systems , planning and decision-making systems , information pyramid is formed from the bottom up .3) Based on the historical development divisionThe first generation of MIS is by manual operation , file cabinets, notebooks and other tools . The second generation of MIS the mechanical aid office equipment,such as typewriters, cash registers , automatic billing machine . The third generationof MIS computer , telex , telephone , printers and other electronic devices .4 ) based on the size of the framingWith the rapid development of telecommunications and computer technology , modern MIS from the geographical division has gradually by the local range to the wide area .5 ) MIS of an integrated structureMIS can be divided into horizontally integrated structure and verticallyintegrated structure , horizontal structure refers to the various departments of the same management level synthesis, such as labor and personnel departments . Vertically integrated structure have some functions of the management of the business together , as lower-level counterparts .3 Management information system development processThe development of management information systems can be divided into system planning, system analysis, system design , system implementation ,system maintenance and evaluation of the five stages . The various stages of the main summary of the work described below.1 ) System planning stageSystem planning phase of the mission are: the development of the requirements of the new system on the basis of a preliminary investigation on the original system , according to needs and possible, given the general scheme of the new system , andprogram feasibility analysis , resulting in system development plan twodocuments and feasibility study report .2 ) Systems analysis phaseSystems analysis phase of the mission is based on the extent determined by the system development plan , the existing system conduct a thorough investigation , describing the current system of business processes , pointed out the limitations and inadequacies of the current system to determine the basic objectives of the new system and logical model , this stage is also known as the logical design phase . The results of the work of the systems analysis phase is reflected in the system analysis statement , which is an essential document of the system construction . It is presented to the user's documents , but also the basis for the work of the next phase , systems analysis manual should be easy to understand , through which users can learn about the features of the new system to determine whether the required system . Based on system analysis statement once the assessment is passed , is the basis of system design , system final acceptance .3 ) System design stageSystem analysis stage to answer the new system "what to do " , the system design phase of the mission is to answer the "how" of the problem , according to the functions specified in the manual system analysis requirements , consider theactual conditions , the specific design logic model the technical solution , i.e. the design of the physical model of the new system . So this stage is also calledphysical design stage . It consists of two phases of the overall design and detailed design , produce technical documentation system design specification .4 ) System implementation phaseSystem implementation phase of the mission , including the purchase of computer hardware , installation and commissioning , application preparation and commissioning, personnel training , data file conversion, system debugging and conversion . Implementation of the system according to the implementation plan completed in stages , each stage should write the implementation progress report . System test after the write system test report .5 ) System maintenance and evaluation phasesSystem put into operation , the need for frequent maintenance record system operational , according to certain procedures to make the necessary modifications tothe system , the quality of the work of the evaluation system and economic benefits .4 The impact and development of management informationsystems4.1 Management Information System4.1.1 Management information systems for businesses and organizations Increasedcompetition among enterprises , leading enterprises increasingly rely on management information systems . Management information system to promotethe reorganization and optimization of the organizational structure of enterprises ,standardize enterprise management and business activities . Improve the efficiencyof enterprises .4.1.2 Management information system impact on societyInformation industry in the economy growing proportion , to promote social and economic development . E-government system to help governments and authoritiesto improve office efficiency and improve the quality of service . Changed people'slifestyle and habits . Online education provides a convenient conditions for thepeople's education and learning .4.2 the role of the management information systemManagement information systems in order to adapt to the needs of modern management , management science, system science , information science andcomputer science disciplines on the basis of the formation of a science , which studiesthe whole process of information processing and decision-making in the managementsystem , and to explore the computer the realization method . It is composed of apeople, computers, communications equipment and other hardware and software ,management information collection , processing , storage , transmission ,maintenance and use of the system . Management information systems can contributeto the information-oriented , so that enterprises in a sensitive , scientific management ,decision-making accurate virtuous circle , higher economic benefits for the enterprise .Therefore, the management information system is an important symbol of modernenterprises , the only way for the development of enterprises .Information systems in the management of the affairs of universal application , promote the upgrading of the enterprise management . Management informationsystem for management services , to get rid of backward management, effective way to modernize the management of the development and establishment of the enterprise .Management information systems management unification , standardization and modernization , which greatly improves the efficiency of the management , modern management to form a unified and efficient system . The traditional management methods based on the manual operation of the human subject , the management put a lot of time, effort , however, the individual's ability is limited , so management will inevitably limitations , or personal subjectivity and one - sidedness .Management information systems to use systems thinking built up, man-machine systems computer information processing means of modern communications equipment transfer tool , the ability to provide decision-makers with information services , which is undoubtedly the Modernisation and Management standards, science and technology major initiatives to improve the quality of management . Management information system will be a large number of complex information processing to the computer , people and computers give full play to their strengths , a harmonious, organized and efficient system , bring convenience for modern management .In modern management , computer management information system has become indispensable helper of enterprise management , its wide application has become an important symbol of modern management . In the modernization of enterprise management , organization , methods , control can not be separated from the modern management tools modernization . With the development of science and technology , especially information technology and the development of communication technology , computer and network gradually applied to modern management . The face of a growing number of information resources and increasingly complex corporate internal and external environment , enterprises need to establish efficient and practical management information system , to provide protection for enterprise management decision-making and control , which is the inevitable trend to modernize management .4.3 the development of management information systems4.3.1 Social challenges faced by the management information systemHow deeply aware of the management information system is not only a technical system , but it is also a social system ?How to improve the scientific management level , to create favorableconditions for the utility of the information system ?How to use information technology to promote the organization andmanagement ?How to improve the organization's culture and to cultivate a new generation of staff to adapt to the challenges of the application of new technologies and business transformation ?Government departments on how to promote the use and development of management information systems . The development of management information systems to the management department of the government has put forward higher requirements ?4.3.2 Management information system technical challengesCross-platform, data exchange to support a variety of applications and a high level of system integration , workflow definition and restructuring of highly modular , personalized user interface , high reliability and security , support organizations , support intelligent information processing and distributed applications, with a the scalable operational framework and a standard external interface , support a wider range of applications .4.3.3 The development trend of the management information systemManagement information system development trends in networking trends , intelligent trend , the value of the trend , the trend , integration trends . Management information system in the modernization of management plays give enough light weight . Not only is it an effective way to modernize management , at the same time , also contributed to the process of modernization of enterprise management .。

中英文对照翻译信息管理系统对于“管理信息系统”并没有一致的定义。

一些作者喜欢用其他术语代替，例如：“信息处理系统”“信息与决策系统”“组织信息系统”，或者干脆将“信息系统”用组织内具有支持操作、管理、决策职能的计算机信息处理系统代替。

这篇文章使用“管理信息系统”一词，是因为它是通俗易懂的，当涉及组织信息系统时也常用“信息系统”代替“管理信息系统”。

一个管理信息系统的定义，通常被理解为：一种集成用户机器系统，为组织提供信息支持运作、管理、决策职能。

该信息系统利用计算机硬件和软件；手工处理程序；模拟分析法计划、控制和决策；和数据库。

事实上，它是一个集成系统并不意味着它是单一的，单块集成结构；相反，它意味着零件适合加入整体设计。

内容定义如下：计算机为主的用户机器系统理论上，管理信息系统可以脱离计算机上而存在，但是计算机的存在可以让管理信息系统可行。

问题不是计算机是否被使用在管理信息系统中，而是信息的使用被计算机化的程度。

用户机器系统的概念暗示了, 一些任务最好由人执行, 其他的最好由机器做。

MIS的使用者是那些负责输入输入数据、指示系统或运用系统信息产品的人。

因为许多问题，用户和计算机建立了一个联合系统，其结果通过一套在计算机和用户之间的相互作用得到。

用户机器的相互作用是由用户连接在计算机上的输入-输出设备（通常是一个视觉显示终端）推动的。

计算机可以使一台个人机器服务于一名用户或者一台大规模的机器为一定数量通过终端由通信线路连接的用户服务。

用户输入-输出设备允许直接输入数据和紧接着输出结果。

例如：一个人使用计算机交互的在金融理财上通过在终端键盘输入提交“如果什么，怎么办？”之类的问题，结果几秒钟后便被显示在屏幕上。

MIS的计算机为主的用户机器特征影响系统开发商和系统用户的知识要求。

“计算机为主”意味着管理信息系统的设计者必须拥有计算机和对处理有用的知识。

“用户机器”的概念意味着系统设计者也应该了解人作为系统组成部分（信息处理器）的能力和人作为信息使用者的行为。

英文文献翻译二〇年月日科技文章摘译Definition of a Management Information SystemThere is no consensus of the definition of the term "management information system". Some writers prefer alternative terminology such as "information processing system", "information and decision system", "organizational information system", or simply "information system" to refer to the computer-based information processing system which supports the operations, management, and decision-making functions of an organization. This text uses “MIS” because it is descriptive and generally understood; it also frequently uses “information system” instead of “MIS” to refer to an organizational information system.A definition of a management information system, as the term is generally understood, is an integrated, user-machine system for providing information to support operations, management, and decision-making functions in an organization. The system utilizes computer hardware and software; manual procedures; models for analysis planning, control and decision making; and a database. The fact that it is an integrated system does not mean that it is a single, monolithic structure; rather, it means that the parts fit into an overall design. The elements of the definition are highlighted below.1 Computer-based user-machine systemConceptually, management information can exist without computer, but it is the power of the computer which makes MIS feasible. The question is not whether computers should be used in management information system, but the extent to which information use should be computerized. The concept of a user-machine system implies that some tasks are best performed by humans, while others are best done by machine. The user of an MIS is any person responsible for entering input data, instructing the system, or utilizing the information output of the system. For many problems, the user and the computer form a combined system with results obtained through a set of interactions between the computer and the user.User-machine interaction is facilitated by operation in which the user’s input-output device (usually a visual display terminal) is connected to the computer. The computer can be a personal computer serving only one user or a large computer that serves a number of users through terminals connected by communication lines. The user input-output device permits direct input of data and immediate output of results. For instance, a person using the computer interactively in financial planning poses “what if” questions by entering input at the terminal keyboard; the results are displayed on the screen in a few second.The computer-based user-machine characteristics of an MIS affect the knowledge requirements of both system developer and system user. “computer-based” means that the designer of a management information system must have knowledge of computers and of their use in processing. The “user-machine” concept means the system designer should also understand the capabilities of humans as system components (as information processors) and the behavior of humans as users of information.Information system applications should not require users to be computer experts. However, users need to be able to specify their information requirements; some understanding of computers, the nature of information, and its use in various management function aids users in this task.2 Integrated systemManagement information system typically provides the basis for integration of organizational information processing. Individual applications within information systems are developed for and by diverse sets of users. If there are no integrating processes and mechanisms, the individual applications may be inconsistent and incompatible. Data item may be specified differently and may not be compatible across applications that use the same data. There may be redundant development of separate applications when actually a single application could serve more than one need. A user wanting to perform analysis using data from two different applications may find the task very difficult and sometimes impossible.The first step in integration of information system applications is an overall information system plan. Even though application systems areimplemented one at a time, their design can be guided by the overall plan, which determines how they fit in with other functions. In essence, the information system is designed as a planed federation of small systems.Information system integration is also achieved through standards, guidelines, and procedures set by the MIS function. The enforcement of such standards and procedures permit diverse applications to share data, meet audit and control requirements, and be shares by multiple users. For instance, an application may be developed to run on a particular small computer. Standards for integration may dictate that the equipment selected be compatible with the centralized database. The trend in information system design is toward separate application processing form the data used to support it. The separate database is the mechanism by which data items are integrated across many applications and made consistently available to a variety of users. The need for a database in MIS is discussed below.3 Need for a databaseThe term “information” and “data” are frequently used interchangeably; however, information is generally defined as data that is meaningful or useful to the recipient. Data items are therefore the raw material for producing information.The underlying concept of a database is that data needs to be managed in order to be available for processing and have appropriate quality. This data management includes both software and organization. The software to create and manage a database is a database management system.When all access to any use of database is controlled through a database management system, all applications utilizing a particular data item access the same data item which is stored in only one place. A single updating of the data item updates it for all uses. Integration through a database management system requires a central authority for the database. The data can be stored in one central computer or dispersed among several computers; the overriding requirement is that there is an organizational function to exercise control.4 Utilization of ModelsIt is usually insufficient for human recipients to receive only raw data or even summarized data. Data usually needs to be processed andpresented in such a way that the result is directed toward the decision to be made. To do this, processing of data items is based on a decision model. For example, an investment decision relative to new capital expenditures might be processed in terms of a capital expenditure decision model.Decision models can be used to support different stages in the decision-making process. “Intelligence” models can be used to search for problems and/or opportunities. Models can be used to identify and analyze possible solutions. Choice models such as optimization models maybe used to find the most desirable solutionIn other words, multiple approaches are needed to meet a variety of decision situations. The following are examples and the type of model that might be included in an MIS to aid in analysis in support of decision-making; in a comprehensive information system, the decision maker has available a set of general models that can be applied to many analysis and decision situations plus a set of very specific models for unique decisions. Similar models are available for planning and control. The set of models is the model base for the MIS.The management information system (MIS) not only supports the underlying bed administrator, moreover may support the intermediate deck personnel's control check, for high level also can provide certain information. The management information system frame by four parts: Information source, information processor, information user and information superintendent. The information source is the information production place; Information processor burden task/role and so on information transmission, processing, save; The information user is the information user, carries on the decision-making using the information; The information superintendent is responsible for the information system the design, the implementation and the safeguarding. The management information system is regarded as generally a pyramid shape the structure, divides into from the lower level handling of traffic to the operating control, the control check, the topmost story strategic planning. The most basic unit greatly processes the numerous and diverse transaction information and the state information framing by the task/role.In a word, the management information system (Management InformationSystem, MIS), is by the artificial leadership, using the computer hardware, the software, the network communicates these devices and other office equipments carries on the information the collection, the transmission, the processing, the storage, the update and the safeguarding by achieved the enterprise strategy competes superior, enhances the benefit and the efficiency target, supports the enterprise the high level decision-making, the intermediate deck check and the basic unit operation integration man-machine system. MIS is the superintendent provides the report, provides the enterprise the recent situation as well as the historic record. This system main localization is aims at in the enterprise, for control function and so on level plan, check and decision-making serves, provides the data generally by the lower level handling of traffic system. MIS will be able the actual enterprise's each kind of run situation, and using the past historical data forecast future, embarks the assistance enterprise from the enterprise overall situation angle to carry on the decision-making, used the message control enterprise the behavior, helped the enterprise to achieve its plan管理信息系统的定义对于“管理信息系统”并没有一致的定义。

LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Managing the Digital FirmCase Study: DaimlerChrysler’s Agile Supply ChainSection 1.1: Why Information Systems?Why Information Systems MatterHow Much Does IT Matter?Why IT Now? Digital Convergence and the Changing Business EnvironmentSection 1.2: Perspectives on Information SystemsWhat Is an Information System?Window on Organizations:Cemex: A Digital Firm in the MakingWindow on Technology: UPS Competes Globally with Information TechnologyIt Isn’t Just Technology: A Business Perspective on Information SystemsDimensions of Information SystemsSection 1.3: Contemporary Approaches to Information SystemsTechnical ApproachBehavioral ApproachApproach of This Text: Sociotechnical SystemsSection 1.4: Learning to Use Information Systems: New Opportunities with TechnologyThe Challenge of Information Systems: Key Management IssuesIntegrating Text with Technology: New Opportunities for LearningLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Database Exercise: Adding Value to Information for ManagementDecision Making.Dirt Bikes U.S.A.: Preparing a Management Overview of the CompanyElectronic Commerce Project: Analyzing Shipping CostsGroup Project: Analyzing a Business SystemCase Study: Dollar General: Heavy on Organization, Light on SystemsLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upLearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Information Systems in the EnterpriseCase Study: Fast Fashion, Hot SystemsSection 2.1: Major Types of Systems in OrganizationsDifferent Kinds of SystemsFour Major Types of SystemsRelationship of Systems to One AnotherSection 2.2: Systems from a Functional PerspectiveSales and Marketing SystemsManufacturing and Production SystemsWindow on Organizations:Product Life Cycle Management Systems:Faster Products, Faster ProcessesFinance and Accounting SystemsHuman Resources SystemsSection 2.3: Integrating Functions and Business Processes: Introduction to Enterprise ApplicationsBusiness Processes and Information SystemsSystems for Enterprise-Wide Process IntegrationOverview of Enterprise ApplicationsWindow on Technology: Haworth Overhauls Supply Chain ManagementSection 2.4: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Improving Supply ChainManagementDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Analyzing Financial PerformanceElectronic Business Project: Planning Transportation LogisticsGroup Project: Describing Management Decisions and SystemsCase Study: Snyder’s of Hanover: New Systems for an Old Family CompanyLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Information Systems, Organizations, Management, and StrategyCase Study: Gallo Winery Leads by Blending Business with TechnologySection 3.1: Organizations and Information SystemsWhat Is an Organization?Common Features of OrganizationsUnique Features of OrganizationsWindow on Organizations:E-Commerce North and South of the BorderOrganizing the IT FunctionSection 3.2: How Information Systems Impact Organizations and Business Firms Economic ImpactsOrganizational and Behavioral ImpactsThe Internet and OrganizationsSection 3.3: The Impact of IT on Management Decision MakingHow IT Affects Management Decision MakingThe Role of Managers in OrganizationsModels of Decision MakingImplications for the Design and Understanding of Information SystemsSection 3.4: Information Systems and Business StrategyBusiness-Level Strategy: The Value Chain ModelWindow on Technology: Hotel Loyalty Programs Become CompetitiveWeaponsFirm-Level Strategy and Information TechnologyIndustry-Level Strategy and Information Systems: Competitive Forces andNetwork EconomicsSection 3.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Database Exercise: Using a Database for StrategicBusiness DevelopmentDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Performing a Competitive Analysis for Dirt BikesElectronic Commerce Project: Configuring and Pricing an AutomobileGroup Project: Identifying Opportunities for Strategic Information SystemsCase Study: Can Albertsons Trounce Wal-Mart with Advanced InformationTechnology?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up The Digital Firm: Electronic Business and Electronic CommerceCase Study: Corrugated Supplies: The Internet Helps a Small Company Act BigSection 4.1: Electronic Business, Electronic Commerce, and the Emerging Digital Firm Internet Technology and the Digital FirmNew Business Models and Value PropositionsSection 4.2: Electronic CommerceCategories of Electronic CommerceCustomer-Centered RetailingBusiness-to-Business Electronic Commerce: New Efficiencies andRelationshipsElectronic Commerce Payment SystemsWindow on Technology: Volkswagen Revs Up Its B2B NetworkSection 4.3: Electronic Business and the Digital FirmHow Intranets Support Electronic BusinessIntranet Applications for Electronic BusinessWindow on Organizations:CARE’s Humanitarian IntranetsBusiness Process IntegrationSection 4.4: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Analyzing a Dot-Com BusinessDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Developing an E-Commerce StrategyElectronic Commerce Project: Comparing Online Storefront Hosting ServicesGroup Project: Performing a Competitive Analysis of E-Commerce SitesCase Study: Can the Music Industry Change Its Tune?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Ethical and Social Issues in the Digital FirmCase Study: “Attention Shoppers: Background Checks for Sale”Section 5.1: Understanding Ethical and Social Issues Related to SystemsA Model for Thinking About Ethical, Social, and Political IssuesFive Moral Dimensions of the Information AgeKey Technology Trends That Raise Ethical IssuesSection 5.2: Ethics in an Information SocietyBasic Concepts: Responsibility, Accountability, and LiabilityEthical AnalysisProfessional Codes of ConductSome Real-World Ethical DilemmasSection 5.3: The Moral Dimensions of Information SystemsInformation Rights: Privacy and Freedom in the Internet AgeProperty Rights: Intellectual PropertyAccountability, Liability, and ControlSystem Quality: Data Quality and System ErrorsWindow on Technology: When Software Kills: What Happened atPanama’s National Cancer InstituteQuality of Life: Equity, Access, and BoundariesWindow on Management: Can the Spamming Monster Be Tamed?Section 5.4: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Word Processing and Web Page Development ToolExercise: Creating a Simple Web SiteDirt Bikes USA: Developing a Web Site Privacy PolicyElectronic Commerce Project: Using Internet Newsgroups for Online Market ResearchGroup Project: Developing a Corporate Ethics CodeCase Study: Security Versus Privacy: Does Terrorism Change the Debate?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up IT Infrastructure and PlatformsCase Study: Hong Kong’s New World Telecommunications Prospers with a New IT InfrastructureSection 6.1: IT InfrastructureDefining IT InfrastructureLevels of IT InfrastructureEvolution of IT Infrastructure: 1950–2005Technology Drivers of Infrastructure EvolutionSection 6.2: Infrastructure ComponentsComputer Hardware PlatformsOperating System PlatformsEnterprise Software ApplicationsData Management and StorageNetworking/Telecommunications PlatformsInternet PlatformsConsulting and System Integration ServicesSection 6.3: Contemporary Hardware Platform TrendsThe Integration of Computing and Telecommunications PlatformsGrid ComputingOn-Demand Computing (Utility Computing)Autonomic ComputingWindow on Management: On-Demand Computing at Qantas Airwaysand Ford Motor Company EuropeEdge ComputingSection 6.4: Contemporary Software Platform TrendsThe Rise of Linux and Open-Source SoftwareJava Is EverywhereWindow on Technology: Two Canadian Cities Go for LinuxSoftware for Enterprise IntegrationSoftware OutsourcingSection 6.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Evaluating Computer Hardwareand Software OptionsDirt Bikes USA: Analyzing the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of Desktop SoftwareAssetsElectronic Business Project: Planning and Budgeting for a Sales ConferenceGroup Project: Evaluating Server Operating SystemsCase Study: 99 Cents Only Stores: IT Infrastructure on a BudgetLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up IT Infrastructure and PlatformsCase Study: Better Data Help Virgin Mobile Australia Win the Customer WarsSection 7.1: Organizing Data in a Traditional File EnvironmentFile Organization Terms and ConceptsProblems with the Traditional File EnvironmentSection 7.2: The Database Approach to Data ManagementDatabase Management SystemsTypes of DatabasesWindow on Organizations: A Database Helps P&G Manage ProductInformationSection 7.3: Creating a Database EnvironmentDesigning DatabasesDistributing DatabasesEnsuring Data QualitySection 7.4: Database TrendsMultidimensional Data AnalysisData Warehouses and Data MiningWindow on Technology: Large Data Warehouses: When Bigger IsBetterDatabases and the WebSection 7.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Database Exercise: Building a Relational Database fora Small BusinessDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Redesigning the Customer DatabaseElectronic Commerce Project: Searching Online DatabasesGroup Project: Creating Company-Wide Data StandardsCase Study: Database Woes Plague Homeland Security and Law EnforcementLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-upTelecommunications, Networks, and the InternetCase Study: Okanagan-Skaha School District Does More with Less Using Networking and the InternetSection 8.1: Telecommunications and Networking in Today’s Business World The Business Telecommunications EnvironmentNetworking and Communications TrendsThe Business Value of Telecommunications and NetworkingSection 8.2: Contemporary Networking InfrastructureNetworks and Corporate InfrastructureKey Digital Networking TechnologiesPhysical Transmission MediaTypes of NetworksBroadband Network Services and TechnologiesSection 8.3: The InternetInternet Addressing, Architecture, and GovernanceInternet ServicesThe Internet and Business ValueThe World Wide webIntranets and ExtranetsNext-Generation Networks and Internet2Section 8.4: Technologies and Tools for Communication and E-BusinessE-Mail, Chat, Instant Messaging, and Electronic DiscussionsGroupware, Teamware, and Electronic ConferencingInternet TelephonyWindow on Organizations: Internet Telephones: Why Not?Virtual Private NetworksSection 8.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesWindow on Management: Monitoring Employees on Networks:Unethical or Good Business?Learning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Analyzing Web Site VisitorsDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Using Internet Tools to Increase Efficiency and ProductivityElectronic Commerce Project: Using Web Search Engines for Business ResearchGroup Project: Identifying Strategic Opportunities for Networking TechnologyCase Study: Can REI Climb Higher with Networking and the Internet?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up The Wireless RevolutionCase Study: The Boston Public Library Goes WirelessSection 9.1: The Wireless Computing LandscapeThe Wireless RevolutionBusiness Value of Wireless NetworkingWireless Transmission Media and DevicesCellular Network Standards and GenerationsMobile Wireless Standards for Web AccessSection 9.2: Wireless Computer Networks and Internet AccessBluetoothWi-FiWiMax and EV-DOWindow on Management: Wi-Fi: Starbuck’s Solution to GoSection 9.3: M-Commerce and Mobile ComputingM-Commerce Services and ApplicationsAccessing Information from the Wireless WebDigital Payment Systems and M-CommerceM-Commerce ChallengesSection 9.4: Wireless Technology in the EnterpriseWireless Applications for Customer Relationship ManagementWireless Supply Chain Management and Radio Frequency Identification(RFID)Wireless in Health CareWireless Sensor Networks and Pervasive ComputingWindow on Organizations: Does RFID Threaten Privacy?Section 9.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Comparing Wireless ServicesDirt Bikes U.S.A.: Determining the Cost of RFID SystemsElectronic Business Project: Identifying Wi-Fi Hotspots for Nomadic ComputingGroup Project: Comparing Mobile Internet Access SystemsCase Study: UPS versus FedEx: Two Competitors, Two Wireless StrategiesLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Security and ControlCase Study: Wesfarmers Outsources to a Managed Security ServiceSection 10.1: System Vulnerability and AbuseWhy Systems Are VulnerableMalicious Software: Viruses, Worms, Trojan Horses, and SpywareHackers and CybervandalismComputer Crime and CyberterrorismInternal Threats: EmployeesSoftware VulnerabilitySection 10.2: Business Value of Security and ControlWindow on Technology: The Rush to PatchLegal and Regulatory Requirements for Electronic Records ManagementElectronic Evidence and Computer ForensicsSection 10.3: Establishing a Management Framework for Security and Control Types of Information Systems ControlsRisk AssessmentSecurity PolicyEnsuring Business ContinuityThe Role of Auditing in the Control ProcessSection 10.4: Technologies and Tools for Security and ControlWindow on Management: Deutsche Bank Ties Business ContinuityPlanning to the BusinessAccess ControlFirewalls, Intrusion Detection Systems, and Antivirus SoftwareSecuring Wireless NetworksEncryption and Public Key InfrastructureEnsuring Software ReliabilitySection 10.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Performing a Security RiskAssessmentDirt Bikes USA: Developing a Disaster Recovery PlanElectronic Business Project: Evaluating Security Outsourcing ServicesGroup Project: Analyzing Security VulnerabilitiesCase Study: Royal Bank of Canada’s Software WoesLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upLearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Enterprise Applications and Business Process IntegrationCase Study: PNC Bank on Enterprise ApplicationsSection 11.1: Enterprise SystemsWhat Are Enterprise Systems?How Enterprise Systems WorkBusiness Value of Enterprise SystemsSection 11.2: Supply Chain Management SystemsThe Supply ChainInformation and Supply Chain ManagementSupply Chain Management ApplicationsSupply Chain Management and the InternetBusiness Value of Supply Chain Management SystemsSection 11.3: Customer Relationship Management SystemsCustomer Relationship Management and Partner Relationship ManagementCustomer Relationship Management ApplicationsOperational and Analytical CRMBusiness Value of Customer Relationship Management SystemsSection 11.4: Enterprise Integration TrendsExtending Enterprise SoftwareWindow on Organizations: CRM Drives Sales at Mercedes and SaabService Platforms and Business Process ManagementSection 11.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesWindow on Management:Why Novartis Backed Off from EnterpriseSoftwareSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Database Exercise: Managing Customer ServiceRequestsDirt Bikes USA: Identifying Supply Chain Management SolutionsElectronic Business Project: Evaluating Supply Chain Management ServicesGroup Project: Analyzing Enterprise Process IntegrationCase Study: Can Information Systems Restore Profitability to Restoration Hardware?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Managing Knowledge in the Digital FirmCase Study: Cott Struggles to Manage Unstructured InformationSection 12.1: The Knowledge Management LandscapeImportant Dimensions of KnowledgeOrganizational Learning and Knowledge ManagementThe Knowledge Management Value ChainTypes of Knowledge Management SystemsSection 12.2: Enterprise-Wide Knowledge Management SystemsStructured Knowledge SystemsSemistructured Knowledge SystemsKnowledge Network SystemsWindow on Management: An Enterprise-Wide Knowledge ManagementSystem Pays Off for CuatrecasasSupporting Technologies: Portals, Collaboration Tools, and LearningManagement SystemsSection 12.3: Knowledge Work SystemsKnowledge Workers and Knowledge WorkRequirements of Knowledge Work SystemsWindow on Organizations: The U.S. Navy Creates the World’s LargestClassroomExamples of Knowledge Work SystemsSection 12.4: Intelligent TechniquesCapturing Knowledge: Expert SystemsOrganizational Intelligence: Case-Based ReasoningFuzzy Logic SystemsNeural NetworksGenetic AlgorithmsHybrid AI SystemsIntelligent AgentsSection 12.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Expert System Exercise: Building a Simple ExpertSystem for Retirement PlanningDirt Bikes USA: Identifying Opportunities for Knowledge ManagementElectronic Commerce Project: Using Intelligent Agents for Comparison ShoppingGroup Project: Rating Knowledge Network SystemsCase Study: Can Knowledge Management Systems Help PfizerLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Enhancing Decision Making for the Digital FirmCase Study: Daimler’s Bremen Plant Optimizes Deliveries with a DSSSection 13.1: Decision Making and Decision-Support SystemsBusiness Intelligence and Decision SupportBusiness Value of Improved Decision MakingBusiness Decision Making and the Decision-Making ProcessTrends in Decision Support and Business IntelligenceSection 13.2: Systems for Decision SupportThe Difference between MIS and DSSTypes of Decision-Support SystemsWindow on Technology: Harrah’s Finds Diamonds in the Data MineComponents of DSSBusiness Value of DSSWeb-Based Customer Decision-Support SystemsWindow on Management: GIS Help the Elderly in SwedenSection 13.3: Group Decision-Support SystemsWhat Is a GDSS?Overview of a GDSS MeetingBusiness Value of GDSSSection 13.4: Executive Support in the EnterpriseThe Role of Executive Support Systems in the FirmBusiness Value of Executive Support SystemsExecutive Support Systems and the Digital FirmSection 13.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Performing Break-Even Analysisand Sensitivity AnalysisDirt Bikes USA: Analyzing the Impact of Component Price ChangesElectronic Commerce Project: Using a Web-Based DSS for Retirement PlanningGroup Project: Designing a University GDSSCase Study: Optimizing Operations at UPSLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Redesigning the Organization with Information SystemsCase Study: Australia’s Victoria Country Fire Authority Responds with New SystemsSection 14.1: Systems as Planned Organizational ChangeLinking Information Systems to the Business PlanEstablishing Organizational Information RequirementsSystems Development and Organizational ChangeSection 14.2: Business Process Reengineering and Process ImprovementBusiness Process ReengineeringSteps in Effective ReengineeringProcess Improvement: Business Process Management, Total QualityManagement, and Six SigmaSection 14.3: Overview of Systems DevelopmentSystems AnalysisSystems DesignCompleting the Systems Development ProcessModeling and Designing Systems: Structured and Object-OrientedMethodologiesSection 14.4: Alternative Systems-Building ApproachesTraditional Systems Life CyclePrototypingEnd-User DevelopmentApplication Software Packages and OutsourcingWindow on Technology: New Systems Keep Elie Tahari a Top FashionInnovatorSection 14.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesWindow on Organizations: Wall Street Firms Grapple with Build VersusBuySolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Database Exercise: Designing a Customer System forAuto SalesDirt Bikes USA: Designing an Employee Training and Skills Tracking SystemElectronic Business Project: Redesigning Business Processes for Web ProcurementGroup Project: Preparing Web Site Design SpecificationsCase Study: Blue Rhino Slows Down to Get AheadLearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-upUnderstanding the Business Value of Systems and Managing Change Case Study: HSBC Malaysia: Master of Change ManagementSection 15.1: Understanding the Business Value of Information SystemsTraditional Capital Budgeting ModelsCase Example: Capital Budgeting for a New Supply Chain ManagementSystemStrategic ConsiderationsInformation Technology Investments and ProductivitySection 15.2: The Importance of Change Management in Information Systems Success and FailureInformation Systems Problem AreasWindow on Organizations: What’s Wrong with ?Change Management and the Concept of ImplementationCauses of Implementation Success and FailureWindow on Management: The Navy/Marine Corps Intranet Turns into aBattlegroundChange Management Challenges for Business Process Reengineering,Enterprise Applications, and Mergers and AcquisitionsSection 15.3: Managing ImplementationControlling Risk FactorsDesigning for the OrganizationSection 15.4: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesSolution GuidelinesLearning SupplementsMake IT Your BusinessSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsDiscussion QuestionsApplication Software Exercise: Spreadsheet Exercise: Capital Budgeting for a NewCAD SystemDirt Bikes USA: Analyzing the Return on a New System InvestmentElectronic Business Project: Buying and Financing a HomeGroup Project: Identifying Implementation ProblemsCaseStudy: Can the IRS Modernize Its Systems?LearningObjectives Web Link Video Management Wrap-upPrentice Hall © 2006 | Azimuth Interactive Inc. © 2006LearningObjectives Web Link VideoManagementWrap-up Managing International Information SystemsCase Study: Dräger Safety Creates a Global Supply ChainSection 16.1: The Growth of International Information SystemsDeveloping an International Information Systems ArchitectureThe Global Environment: Business Drivers and ChallengesState of the ArtSection 16.2: Organizing International Information SystemsGlobal Strategies and Business OrganizationGlobal Systems to Fit the StrategyReorganizing the BusinessSection 16.3: Managing Global SystemsA Typical Scenario: Disorganization on a Global ScaleGlobal Systems StrategySection 16.4: Technology Issues and Opportunities for Global Value Chains Technology Challenges of Global SystemsManaging Global Software DevelopmentWindow on Management: Getting Systems to Work in China—SlowlySection 16.5: Management Opportunities, Challenges, and SolutionsOpportunitiesManagement ChallengesWindow on Organizatoins: Offshore Outsourcing: Good or Bad?Solution GuidelinesLearning Supplements。

Management Information SystemA management information system (MIS) is a system or process that provides information needed to manage organizations effectively . Management information systems are regarded to be a subset of the overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems.At the start, works in businesses and other organizations, internal reporting was made manually and only periodically, as a by-product of the accounting system and with some additional statistic(s), and gave limited and delayed information on management performance. Previously, data had to be separated individually by the people as per the requirement and necessity of the organization. Later, data was distinguished from information, and instead of the collection of mass of data, important, and to the point data that is needed by the organization was stored.Early on, business computers were mostly used for relatively simple operations such as tracking sales or payroll data, often without much detail. Over time these applications became more complex and began to store increasing amounts of information while also interlinking with previously separate information systems. As more and more data was stored and linked man began to analyze this information into further detail, creating entire management reports from the raw, stored data. The term "MIS" arose to describe these kinds of applications, which were developed to provide managers with information about sales, inventories, and other data that would help in managing the enterprise. Today, the term is used broadly in a number of contexts and includes (but is not limited to): decision support systems, resource and people management applications, ERP, SCM, CRM, project management and database retrieval application.The first true database system was developed by IBM in the 1960s in support of NASA’s Apollo moon landing program. The number of components in the Saturn V launch vehicle, the Apollo Command and Service Module, and the Lunar Lander far exceeded anything that had been build up to that time. Every component had to be tested more exhaustively than anything had ever been tested before because they were all going to have to withstand the rigors of an environment that was more hostile and more unforgiving than any environment that humans had ever attempted to work in.Flat file systems were out of the question. IBM’s solution, which it later transformed into a commercial database product named IMS, kept track of each individual component, as well its complete history. When the ill-fated Apollo 13’s main oxygen tank ruptured on the way to the Moon, engineers worked frantically to come up with a plan to save the lives of the three astronauts onboard. The engineers succeeded and transmitted a plan to the astronauts that worked. After the crew had returned safely to Earth, querying IMS about the oxygen tank that failed showed that somewhere between its manufacture and its installation in Apollo 13, it had been dropped on the floor. It was retested for its ability to withstand the pressure it would have to contain during the mission, and then replaced in stock after passing the test. In this case, the test did not detect the hidden damage to the tank, but at least the history stored in IMS showed that passing a pressure test is not enough to assure that a dropped tank is undamaged. No dropped tanks were ever used on subsequent Apollo missions.1669 For a collection of data to be useful, you must be able to easily and quickly retrieve the particular data you want, without having to wade through all the rest of the data. One way to make this happen is to store the data in a logical structure. Flat files don’t have much structure, but d atabases do. Historically, the hierarchical database model and the network database model were developed before the relational model. Each one organizes data in a different way, but all three produce a highly structured result. As a result, starting in the 1970s, any new development projects were most likely to be done using one of three database models: either the hierarchical model, the network model, or the relational model. I explore database models further in the “Competing Database Models” section, la ter in this chapter. Of all the operations that people perform on a collection of data, the retrieval of specific elements out of the collection is the most important. This is because retrievals are performed more often than any other operation. Data entry is done only once. Changes to existing data are made infrequently, and data is deleted only once. Retrievals, on the other hand, are performed frequently, and the same data elements may be retrieved many times. Thus, if you could optimize only one operation performed on a collection of data, that one operation should be data retrieval. As a result, modern database management systems put a great deal of effort into making retrievals fast. Retrievals are performed by queries. A modern database management system analyzes a query that is presented to it and decides how best to perform it. Generally there are multiple ways of performing a query, some much faster than others. A good DBMS consistently chooses a near-optimal execution plan. Of course, it helps if the query is formulated in an optimal manner to begin with. I discuss this subject in depth in Book VII, which covers database tuning.An 'MIS' is a planned system of the collecting, processing, storing and disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry out the functions of management. In a way it is a documented report of the activities that were planned and executed. According to Philip Kotler "A marketing information system consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decision makers."The terms MIS and information system are often confused. Information systems include systems that are not intended for decision making. The area of study called MIS is sometimes referred to, in a restrictive sense, as information technology management. That area of study should not be confused with computer science. IT service management is a practitioner-focused discipline. MIS has also some differences with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) as ERP incorporates elements that are not necessarily focused on decision support.Any successful MIS must support a businesses Five Year Plan or its equivalent. It must provide for reports based up performance analysis in areas critical to that plan, with feedback loops that allow for titivation of every aspect of the business, including recruitment and training regimens. In effect, MIS must not only indicate how things are going, but why they are not going as well as planned where that is the case. These reports would include performance relative to cost centers and projects that drive profit or loss, and do so in such a way that indentifies individual accountability, and in virtual real-time.Professor Allen S. Lee states that "...research in the information systems field examines more than the technological system, or just the social system, or even the two side by side; in addition, it investigates the phenomena that emerge when the two interact."A management information system should be effectively fulfill four functions:Collect the data storage of data update data processing dataIt is the value, the ability of management information systems, data, so that it can be accumulated by manipulating or processed into information. A computer program data processing, merger, selection, and sorting it according to the need of the management information system of the user. Once the computer to execute these functions, prepare the material, distributed management personnel.Collecting dataIn a management information system to produce information, someone must support its data. In determining whether a MIS system, the data are three questions to ask:1. Data accurate?2. Timely data?3. Data is too expensive?Inaccurate or obsolete date is useless. And some data, is accurate and timely may not be worth the cost of collecting. This data to determine the cost benefit analysis.Stored dataData storage is saved for later use. Once the collection, management information system of input data into the computer processing after the information into. The computer system can store data in two places in the main memory, or auxiliary storage devices, such as tape, hard disk or diskette. As mentioned above, the main memory has programs and data of computer is used. Permanent storage, use can depend on. Secondary storage devices as backup disks.The data type is used to decide the auxiliary storage equipment use of storage. Data, seldom visit, read or write, often stored on tape rather like the audio or video tapes. Tapes are used to access data retrieval sequence. In other words, if the user wants to find a particular file, the computer must read all the entries in front of the documents, then you can access the file. A typical 24 feet a tape can be stored up to 150 million words.Hard disk to store millions of words, you can random access. Random access means a computer can retrieve data from the source of any period at the same time as any other pieces, and the time needed to enter the records will not greater than required. Therefore, random access is opposite order. For several years, flexible disk or CD, and the random access ability, has been one of the most common auxiliary storage device. Floppy disks can accommodate 1.2 megabytes, is quite cheap.Update the dataData will be no value, if it cannot be updated and improved. Updated three types: add, modify and delete. For example, a store of information management system will include its inventory. The shop will increase, the new type of merchandise inventory. It may also need to existing data. Finally, store can delete items from stock.Characteristics of Management Information SystemComprehensive MIS has the following four criteria: to identify information needs, information can be collected and processed through the procedure to provide information for managers to manage the information. With the unified planning of the MIS database is an important indicator of maturity, it symbolizes the MIS is a product of software engineering. Value-added information through the MIS, statistical analysis of mathematical models with data in decision-making. MIS is the development and change, MIS life cycle.MIS development must be based on scientific management. Only at a reasonable management system, a sound regulatory framework, a stable production order, and scientific management methods and accurate based on the raw data in order to carry out the development of MIS. Therefore, in order to meet the demand for MIS development, enterprise management must be gradually improved the following: the management of the program, the department has the appropriate processes; the standardization of management, all departments have the appropriate operating rules; statements documents unified, fixed content, cycle, form; data and code of perfect.Management Information Systems division of(1) Based on the division of organization functionsMIS can be divided by organizational functions for the office system, decision-making systems, production systems and information systems.(2)Based on the division of information processing levelsMIS-based information processing is divided into levels for the implementation of the number of systems, value-oriented accounting systems, report control system, analysis of information systems, planning and decision-making system, the formation of bottom-up information pyramid.(3)Based on the history of the development division ofMIS is the first generation of hand-operated tool is the use of filing cabinets, notebooks and so on. An increase of second-generation MIS mechanical office equipment, such as typewriters, cash registers, automatic billing and so on. The third generation of MIS using a computer, telex, telephone, printer and other electronic equipment.(4) Based on the scale of divisionAs telecommunications technology and the rapid development of computer technology, the modern division of MIS from the geographical scope has been gradually shifting from local to wide-area scope.Integrated structure 5.MISMIS can be divided into horizontal and vertical integrated structure of an integrated structure, horizontal structure refers to the same integrated management of various functional departments of the level of integrated, such as labor, personnel departments. Vertically integrated structure with a function refers to the management of the business together, as lower-level counterparts.The development of management information systems principlesThe principle of innovation, reflecting the advanced nature. Computer technology have developed rapidly, it is necessary to keep abreast of new technologies, the use of new technologies, so that the target system than the original system is a qualitative leap.General principle, embodied integrity. Corporate governance can be understood as a reasonable 'closed loop' system. The target system should be the 'closed loop' system to improve. Enterprises to achieve a complete computer management does not have to be in all aspects of business at the same time, but must complete all aspects of the design of the system.The continuous development of the principle embodied advanced. In order to improve the utilization and effective role played by MIS, we should pay attention to technology development and the environment changes. MIS in the development process should focus on awareness of ongoing development and advance.Economic principles, practical embodiment. All-inclusive and sophisticated MIS is not a measure of success. In fact many of the failure of MIS is the blind pursuit of high-tech as a result of the neglect of their practicality. Blind pursuit of a comprehensive MIS to the neglect of the technological level of the unit, management level and the quality of personnel.Management information system development methodsMIS the way the development of self-development, commissioned by the development, joint development, the purchase of a second off-the-shelf packages to develop several forms. Generally speaking in accordance with technological strength, resources and external environment.Management Information System Development StrategyDevelopment method is not feasible: the organizational structure of law, in accordance with the machinery division of the existing organization systems, not considering the development of the principles of MIS.Database law, the development of the database design from the beginning of the development of the existing system.Made to imagine the system, a developer based on the existing system as the basis for the development of imagination.The development of viable methods: top-down (Top__Down), the overall business management from the design, moving from the abstract to the concrete, from the outline design to detailed design, reflect the structure of the design idea. Bottom-up (Bottom__Up), the design of system components, the form of architecturein a building block of the entire system, is to ignore the shortcomings of the organic components associated system.A combination of both the development process is the actual method used. The system through an analysis of the logic of the system model, logic model and then find the best physical model. Logical model and physical model of such a spiral pattern of the cycle to optimize the design reflects the top-down, bottom-up combined with the design idea.Management Information System development methodologyComplete documentation is a practical success of the Peugeot MIS. The development of science from the feasibility study, through system analysis, system design, system implementation, such as the main stage. Each stage should have documentation, and in the development process of continuous improvement and enrichment. The development of methods currently used have the following two:(1)Waterfall model (life cycle methodology)Structural analysis, structural design, structural design (the SA-SD-SP method) model used to simulate the waterfall. Various stages of the work of top-down from the abstract to the specific order. Waterfall model means that between the various stages of the life cycle of the existence of a strict sequence and interdependence. Waterfall model is the early design of the main means of MIS.(2)Rapid prototyping method (object-oriented approach)Also known as rapid prototyping method in recent years, object-oriented method for the (SA-SD-SP) of the defects in the design of new ways to put forward is to adapt to the current progress in computer technology and the tremendous demand for software and emerging growth. Is a fast, flexible, interactive software development methodology. The core of which is interactive, and quickly built up to replace the form of a prototype, rigid (not revised) large fast specifications, users running on the computer and try to develop a prototype to provide real feedback. Rapid prototyping is one of the realization of the basis of visual appearance of the fourth-generation language.The combination of the two methods, the use of object-oriented method to develop MIS, the work focused on the analysis of life cycle stages. Analysis of the various stages of object model is also applicable to the design stage and the realization phase. Practice has proved that the combination of the two methods is a practical and effective way.。

International Journal of Information Management 29(2009)104–110Contents lists available at ScienceDirectInternational Journal of InformationManagementj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /i j i n f o m gtManagement information systems and strategic performances:The role of top team compositionDavid Naranjo-Gil ∗Pablo de Olavide University,Carretera Utrera Km.1,41013Sevilla,Spaina r t i c l e i n f o Keywords:Management information systems Information characteristics Strategic performanceTop management team compositiona b s t r a c tOrganizations adopt sophisticated management information systems,which provide top managers with an ample range of information to achieve multiple strategic performances.However,organizations differ in the extent to which they improve their performance.This paper analyzes the role of top management team in the relationship between management information systems and strategic ing data collected from 92top management teams,it analyses how different team compositions interact with a sophisticated management information system,and how this interaction affects strategic performances,which are focused on cost reduction and flexibility.The findings show how the effect of management information system on strategic performance (focused on flexibility)is moderated by top management team diversity.©2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionThe enhanced competition in the private and public sector has spurred organizations into delivering greater efficiency,quality and more flexibility of services (Kaul,1997).This condition imposes additional demands on the organization’s information processing capabilities.In trying to achieve these strategic objectives,organi-zations adopt more sophisticated and comprehensive management information systems (MISs)(Choe,1996;Ghorab,1997).These provide top managers with a comprehensive and broad range of information about multiple dimensions of the firm’s operations (Choe,1996,2004),facilitating decision-making and performance achievement (Kaplan &Norton,1996;Kim &Lee,1986).Organiza-tions,however,differ in the extent to which they achieve strategic performance successfully.This paper addresses the relationship between sophisticated MIS and top management teams (TMTs),as the set of managers ultimately responsible for strategy manage-ment and organizational performance.Management literature has recognized that TMTs with different demographical characteristics (e.g.age,tenure,experience and education)are generally expected to gather diverse information and display higher-quality decisions (Carpenter,Geletkanycz,&Sanders,2004;Finkelstein &Hambrick,1996).Management and information literatures have recognized (implicitly)the use of information by managers,and the ques-tion that remains is how (explicitly)different top managers use∗Tel.:+34954349847.E-mail address:dnargil@upo.es .MIS for strategic management (Lin,2006;Hagan,Watson &Barron,2007).Although the effect of MIS on performance is widely recognized,prior findings on the direct and indirect relationship between and (strategic)performance far are mixed and confused (Fuller-Love &Cooper,1996;Choe,2004).The present study attempts to pro-vide some clarification of the relationship between MIS design and strategic performance,by explicitly analyzing the role of TMT composition.Our general hypothesis is that diversity of TMT com-position supports more sophisticated MIS in ways that contribute to multiple strategic performance,which are focused on cost con-trol and flexibility (Gupta &Govindarajan,1984;Lederer &Smith,1989).We follow upper echelon literature,which views organiza-tions as a reflection of their TMT (Hambrick &Mason,1984).Upper echelon theory focuses on observable,demographic characteristics of TMT members to explain organizational outcomes (Finkelstein &Hambrick,1996).This study also uses a contingency approach for analyzing the interaction fit between MIS sophistication and TMT composition.Contingency approach is the only one which asserts that performance depends on the existence of an alignment between several organizational characteristics,such as information systems,organizational structure and strategy (Choe,1996;Kim &Lee,1986).Data were collected from 92TMTs in public hospitals in Spain,where organizations have to implement strategies focused both on cost-efficiency,flexibility and quality of service (Naranjo-Gil &Hartmann,2006).This paper attempts to contribute to the manage-ment and information literature in several ways.First,this research provides evidence of the important role of TMT composition in the0268-4012/$–see front matter ©2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2008.05.009D.Naranjo-Gil/International Journal of Information Management29(2009)104–110105effectiveness of MIS on strategic performance.While prior research suggests that the MIS design enables organizations to enhance strategic performance,this paper directly tests the presence of this relationship and examines a strategic performance outcome of the enabling effect.Second,the present study offers a more integral explanation of the alignment between MIS design and performance by explicit consideration of different characteristics of the TMT (Hagan et al.,2007).Third,we test our hypotheses in a setting where similar organizations have to achieve multiple strategic per-formances,albeit to different extents(Madorrán&Val Pardo,2005; Brittain&Macdougall,1995).Thus,this context provides an oppor-tunity to analyze the interactive effect of TMT diversity and MIS design on strategic performance,as it control the diversity as an antecedent of management information use and processing(Yoo& Alavi,2001).Fourth,this paper adds to the limited knowledge on the relevance of management information system design forfirms achieving multiple strategic objectives.The remainder of this paper is structured as follows.Section2 develops the hypotheses about the relationships between TMT,MIS and performance.Section3describes the empirical survey study and the measurement of variables.Section4presents the results. Finally,Section5presents the discussion and conclusions of this study.2.Theoretical development and hypotheses formulation2.1.MIS and strategic performanceManagers operating in competitive contemporary environ-ments need comprehensive information in order to manage the important parts of the organization’s operations and thus achieve different strategic goals(Kaplan&Norton,1996).Managers’per-ception is an important factor that influences the actual use of MIS and the acceptance of new information systems(Ghorab, 1997,p.250).MIS can provide managers with a variety of infor-mation,thus Choe(1996)identified MIS design according to the perceived usefulness of four information dimensions:scope,aggre-gation,integration and timeliness(Chenhall&Morris,1986;Choe, 1996).These dimensions have been analyzed extensively in man-agement and information system literatures(Choe,1996,2004; Lederer&Smith,1989).Scope refers to the type and extension of MIS information in time and space.Narrow-scope information is derived fromfinancial information internal to the organization and with a historic orientation.Alternatively,broad-scope information includes external,non-financial and future oriented information (Choe,1996).Aggregation refers to the way data is aggregated over time periods,departments or functions.Integration refers to the interaction and coordination of information among differ-ent functions in the organization.Finally,timeliness refers to the frequency and speed of reporting(e.g.,short or long run).Sev-eral authors have extended the four information characteristics to describe accounting systems in terms of MIS sophistication(Choe, 1996;Ghorab,1997;Naranjo-Gil,2004).MIS sophistication refers to a range of information available for managers,which is perceived as being useful.The sophisticated MIS design provides informa-tion which has a high average level of information content in the four information dimensions.That is,it provides information which is broad-scope,high coordinated,high reporting frequency,and integrated among different organizational functions(Choe,1996, 2004).A sophisticated MIS provides managers with a comprehensive range of information to achieve different strategic goals(Fuller-Love &Cooper,1996;Kaplan&Norton,1996).Following Porter(1985) and Miller(1988)we distinguish two strategic goals,such as cost reduction andflexibility strategic goals.In this vein,Fuller-Love and Cooper(1996)asserted that increases in expenditure on pub-licfirms have led governments worldwide to attempt to reduce these costs and to increase organizationalflexibility to be more competitive(Miller,1988;Madorrán&Val Pardo,2005).A cost-based strategic objective focuses on internal efficiency and cost control,and thus tends to emphasize current organizational struc-tures rather than adopt new ones(Miller,1988;Porter,1985).A flexibility-based strategic goal focuses on diversification,coordi-nation and decentralization within the organization(Fuller-Love& Cooper,1996;Porter,1985).Organizations are unlikely to achieve one strategic performance(e.g.,cost reduction)to the extent of excluding the other(Porter,1985).Furthermore,organizations may often perform better on one strategic objective than the other since they have different organizational capabilities(Gupta& Govindarajan,1984;Miller,1988).Asflexibility-related strategic goals require cross-functional interaction and decentralization,it allows relationships between inputs and outputs of activities to be less clear(Miller,1988; Porter,1985).Managers will require an extended set of man-agement information that provide more insight in the various parts of the transformation processes(Fuller-Love&Cooper,1996; Kyung,1990).In contrast cost-related strategic performances focus on standardization and comparability of activities and processes (Naranjo-Gil&Hartmann,2006),which demands the use of a narrow set of information,which expresses cost control objec-tives infinancial(monetary)and aggregated terms(Choe,1996), facilitating comparability of tasks and outputs across the orga-nization(Chang,Chang,&Paper,2003,Kyung,1990).Thus,we argue that a sophisticated MIS supports strategic performances in overall,but that this support may be more crucial for achieving flexible-related strategic performance than cost-related strategic performance.Therefore,we propose the following hypotheses:H1.There is a positive relationship between a sophisticated MIS and strategic performances focused on(a)flexibility and(b)cost reduction.H2.A sophisticated MIS is more positively related to strategic performance focused onflexibility than to strategic performance focused on cost reduction.2.2.MIS,TMT diversity and performanceThe MIS provides the same information to each manager in a TMT,but the actual selection and use of information is deter-mined by personal preferences.Upper echelon literature argues that these preferences are based on managers’characteristics,such as experience,age,tenure and educational background(Hambrick &Mason,1984).One important determinant of TMTs’ability to process information and optimize decision-making is the TMTs’diversity in terms of demographic background(Carpenter et al., 2004;Finkelstein&Hambrick,1996).Heterogeneous TMTs,con-sisting of managers with varying skills and demographic profiles, have been argued to process different types of information and make better-informed decisions(Carpenter et al.,2004;Hagan et al.,2007).In contrast,homogeneous TMTs,consisting of managers with similar demographical characteristics,have been associated to high group cohesiveness and enhanced control over members (Finkelstein&Hambrick,1996;Hambrick&Mason,1984).A heterogeneous TMT has a greater variety of professional perspectives,know more of operations,and can pay more atten-tion to different organizational activities(Carpenter et al.,2004; Simons,Pelled,&Smith,1999).A diverse TMT will search,interpret and gather information from a variety of sources,as determined by their background and cognitive make-up(Hagan et al.,2007; Wiersema&Bantel,1992).We argue that sophisticated and broad106 D.Naranjo-Gil /International Journal of Information Management 29(2009)104–110Fig.1.The general model.management information system will be especially valued by TMT with a diverse composition.One reason is that TMT is more effective in complex decision-making when composed of indi-viduals having a variety of knowledge,abilities and perspectives (Gupta &Govindarajan,1984;Carpenter et al.,2004),and thus a heterogeneous TMT will understand the relevance of sophisticated information to achieve multiple strategic performances.We expect that TMT diversity not only spurs managers to broad information but also enables managers to process a comprehensive range of management information (Young,Yang &Shortell,2001).A diverse TMT will attach higher value to sophisticated MIS,which provide a broader range of information to achieve multiple strategic per-formances.Thus,we can expect that sophisticated MIS contribute more to strategic performances when diversity is high in the TMT.Therefore,we will test the moderating effect of TMT diversity on the relationship between sophisticated MIS and strategic performances focused on both flexibility and cost reduction (see Fig.1).The following hypothesis is formulated:H3.Top Management Team diversity will moderate the rela-tionship between sophisticated MIS and strategic performances focused on (a)flexibility and (b)cost reduction.3.Empirical studyData were collected in a survey study among 884members of top management teams in 218hospitals in Spain.The Public Hospital sector has been the object of some recent studies exploring the rela-tionship of management information systems,performance and strategy (Zheng et al.,2006;Lorence &Spink,2004).Furthermore,the health care industry,not only in Spain but also worldwide,is undergoing fundamental shifts in managing and operating demand changes into an effective and flexible new health care system (Liang,Xue,Byrd,&Rainer,2004;Madorrán &Val Pardo,2005).Span-ish authorities encourage public hospitals to achieve performance goals focused on controlling cost and increasing organizational flex-ibility and decentralization.This assures that the issues central to this study are relevant for the target population.This also had positive consequences for the willingness to cooperate.The TMTs data was obtained through the Spanish National Cat-alogue of Hospitals,and updated through Internet and telephone calls.TMTs consist on average of a CEO,a Medical director,a Nurs-ing director,and an Administrative-Financial director.We sent the questionnaire to every member of a TMT individually,following the distribution and recollection procedures suggested by Dillman (2000).A satisfactory response rate was achieved with 496(56.10%)questionnaires returned of which 473(53.51%)were deemed usefulfor further analysis.From these data,92full TMTs were formed for which all members responded.3.1.Measurement of variablesSophisticated MIS was measured following Chenhall and Morris (1986)and Choe (1996).We developed an instrument to measure the usefulness of available management accounting information.We asked questions regarding different informational dimensions,such as scope,timeliness,aggregation and integration.Managers had to state the extent to which they perceived that their hospi-tal’s MIS provided each of the dimensions identified.We treated all information characteristics as complementary to construct the variable sophistication of MIS design by averaging the scores for all items (Naranjo-Gil,2004).The Cronbach alpha for the overall scale was 0.782,exceeding the recommended minimum level (Nunally,1978).The appendix contains details of variables and questions included in the questionnaire.Top management team diversity was measured following the upper echelons tradition (Carpenter et al.,2004;Finkelstein &Hambrick,1996),which focuses on four demography character-istics of TMTs,such as age,tenure,education and experience.Regarding age and tenure,managers were asked to indicate their age and tenure in management position in their actual organization 1.Then age diversity and tenure diversity were mea-sured using the coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by the mean),which is the superior measure as it provides a direct,and scale-invariant measure of dispersion (Allison,1978).Scale invariant measures are desirable because they are sensitive to relative rather than absolute differences.Regarding education and experience,managers were asked to indicate their educa-tional university degree and their years of functional experience;the responses were coded in two broad areas (Wiersema &Bantel,1992)2:External-Administrative Oriented (e.g.Business,Economics,Law)and Internal-Process Oriented (e.g.Medicine,Nursing,Biology and Chemistry).Educational diversity and expe-rience diversity were measured using Blau’s (1977)index of heterogeneity,since categorical variables are not amenable to the coefficient of variation measure.Blau Heterogeneity Index is cal-culated as (1− 2i ),where p i is the proportion of the team in the i th educational (or functional)category.A score of zero would1Managers’tenures lie between 2and 11years.Managers’ages lie between 30and 56years.2We used two categories since the vast majority of managers (89.1%)indicated to have a degree related to either Business-Economics-Law or Medical-Nursing.D.Naranjo-Gil/International Journal of Information Management29(2009)104–110107Table1Descriptive statistics for variables(n=92).Variable Mean S.D.Theoretical range Actual range1.Age diversity0.780.080.00–1.000.72–0.912.Tenure diversity0.650.150.00–1.000.59–0.713.Experience diversity0.510.110.00–1.000.00–1.00cation diversity0.560.090.00–1.000.00–1.005.MIS sophistication 3.610.22 1.00–5.00 1.00–5.006.Cost-based strategic performance 2.910.44 1.00–5.00 1.56–4.007.Flexibility-based strategic performance 3.050.47 1.00–5.00 2.00–4.20indicate perfect managerial homogeneity(functional or educa-tional).Higher scores on this index indicate higher diversity on functional background between members of the TMT.We mea-sured TMT diversity as a construct formed by the following four variables:age,tenure,education and experience diversity.The reli-ability and validity analyses showed that all items were loading higher in this construct.Since members in every TMT have different demographical characteristics,we computed inter-rater reliabil-ity coefficient for assessing the appropriateness of aggregation of individual members’characteristics to a team level.All coeffi-cients computed were above0.70,which indicates good agreement among judgments made by the team members(cf.James,Demaree and Wolf,1984).Strategic performance focused on cost andflexibility was measured with a nine-item instrument,based on the works by Govindarajan (1988)and Gupta and Govindarajan(1984).We adapted the instru-ment to the Spanish context,thus respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which the following dimensionsfit their per-sonal situation:decentralization of responsibility,programs of cost reduction and cooperation with others units or departments inside the hospital and others institutions.The factor analysis revealed two factors:flexibility-based strategic performance(explaining 31.24%of variance)and cost-based strategic performance(explain-ing24.98%of variance).The Cronbach-alphas were of0.71and0.76 respectively,exceeding the recommended minimum level(Nunally, 1978).We included a control variable:hospital size,which was mea-sured by the number of beds(Madorrán&Val Pardo,2005).The test for potential non-response bias involved comparing survey respondents to the original mailing list and comparing early and late respondents(Pedhazur&Pedhazur,1991).Chi-square tests and independent-samples t-tests did not reveal any sign of non-response bias3.4.ResultsThe hypotheses were analyzed using the Partial Least Squares technique(PLS),which is a second-generation statistical tech-nique for the estimation of path models involving latent constructs indirectly measured by several indicators(Chin,1998).Different from covariance-based structural models(e.g.LISREL,EQS),PLS explains variance and resembles ordinary least squares regression, with regard to output and assumptions(Chin,Marcolin,&Newsted, 2003).As such,PLS allows smaller sample sizes than covariance-based models.PLS does not report on thefit of the whole model (Yoo&Alavi,2001;Chin et al.,2003),and thus overcomes some of the theoretical and estimation problems associated with the use of covariance-based models.The path coefficients in the PLS struc-tural model are interpretable asˇ-statistics from ordinary least 3The result of the Chi-square test for the size of the original mailing list and surveyrespondents was 2=4.729(p=0.152).The result of the Chi-square test for the size comparing early and late respondents was 2=1.921(p=0.336).Table2Correlations from PLS model(n=92).12341.MIS sophistication 1.0002.TMT diversity0.152 1.0003.Cost-based strategicperformance0.188a0.209b 1.0004.Flexibility-based strategicperformance0.304c0.257c0.412c 1.000a Significant at0.1level(two tailed).b Significant at0.05level(two tailed).c Significant at0.01level(two tailed).Table3Results from PLS analysis(path coefficients,n=92).From ToCost-based strategicperformanceFlexibility-based strategicperformanceMIS sophistication0.192a0.271cTMT diversity0.1580.233bTMT diversity×MISsophistication0.1690.226bR20.2110.258a Significant at0.1level(two tailed).b Significant at0.05level(two tailed).c Significant at0.01level(two tailed).squares regression,and are comparable with principal component analysis as regards the measurement model.Table1shows the descriptives of the variables and Table2shows the correlation anal-ysis.The PLS analysis confirms the reliability and unidimensionality of the variables,with general loadings of manifest variables on latent variables exceeding0.60.We also assessed for discrimi-nant validity of the measurement model by calculating the Average Variance Extracted(AVE)and comparing this with the squared cor-relations between constructs.Results showed that discriminant validity was satisfactory because the AVE’s were higher than the correlations in all cases(Yoo&Alavi,2001;Chin et al.,2003).Fig.2displays the PLS model tested.Table3contains the detailed output statistics of the analysis of the path coefficients in the struc-tural model and reports on the significance of the standardizedˇs that resulted from this analysis,based on a bootstrapping procedure that used500samples with replacement.This table also reports the R-squared statistic for the dependent variable4.Consistent with expectations,Table3shows support for H1, since the path coefficient between sophisticated MIS and strate-gic performance focused onflexibility is positive and significant (p=0.001).Table3also shows a positive but marginally significant path coefficient(p=0.092)between sophisticated MIS and strate-gic performance focused on cost reduction.Thus,results in Table34The control variable size did not reveal any significant path with MIS sophisti-cation,TMT diversity,or strategic performances.108 D.Naranjo-Gil /International Journal of Information Management 29(2009)104–110Fig.2.PLS model:sophisticated MIS,TMT diversity,strategic performances.show support for H2since the path coefficient between sophisti-cated MIS and strategic performance focused on flexibility is higher that the path coefficient between sophisticated MIS and strategic performance focused on cost reduction.Regarding the role of TMT diversity on the relationship between sophisticated MIS and strategic performances,results in Table 3provide support for the moderating effect of TMT diversity on the relationship between sophisticated MIS and strategic performance focused on flexibility.In this case the path coefficient of the interac-tion term was positive and significant.Summarizing,support was found for hypothesis 3a .However,Table 3shows no support for hypothesis 3b ,which posed a moderating effect of TMT diversity on the relationship between sophisticated MIS and strategic perfor-mance focused on cost reduction.In this case,the path coefficient of the interaction term was positive but not significant.We cal-culated the explicative power of the interaction model,through comparison of the R 2for the significant interaction model with the R 2for the main effects model (without the interaction term).The difference between the squared multiple correlations is used to assess the overall effect size f 2for the interaction (Chin et al.,2003,p.211)5.Results show that the interaction construct has an effect size f of 0.21,which is between a medium and large effect.Thus,the results suggest a good fit of the data to the moderation model.To gain a better understanding of the shape of the interac-tion we found between sophisticated MIS and TMT diversity,the relationship between these two variables was also assessed using a two-way ANOVA.Sophisticated MIS was split on the basis of the median scores to create two groups:high sophisticated MIS (above median)and traditional or low sophisticated MIS (below median).TMT diversity was also split at the median to create two groups:TMT heterogeneity (above median)and TMT homo-geneity (below median)6.The mean scores for flexibility-based5f 2=(R 2interaction model −R 2main model)/(1−R 2main model).Interaction effect sizes are small if 0.02,medium if 0.15,and large if 0.35.6Since ANOVA assumes equality of variance between groups,previously we checked the variance using the Levene test.The significance value ofTable 4ANOVA results:mean flexibility-based performance scores (n =92).TMT heterogeneityTMT homogeneity High sophisticated MIS 3.24n =24 2.91n =29Low sophisticated MIS2.95n =213.16n =18strategic performance shown in Table 4indicate that performance is highest when sophisticated MIS is matched with TMT diver-sity.That is,performance is highest when sophisticated MIS is high and TMT diversity is also high,and when sophisticated MIS and TMT diversity are both low.The results of the ANOVA pro-vide general support that these differences are indeed due to the interactive effect of sophisticated MIS and TMT diversity 7(also see Fig.3).To add some intuitive appeal to the results and extend the PLS findings,we assessed a model relating the four characteristics of TMT diversity (age,tenure,experience and education diversity)directly to strategic performance focused on flexibility and cost.Table 5shows that education diversity and experience diversity are positively related to strategic performance based on both flex-ibility and cost reduction.However,results in Table 5shows that age and tenure diversity are not related to strategic performance focused on flexibility and cost reduction.These results are in line with some findings from previous studies (Carpenter et al.,2004;Wiersema &Bantel,1992).Finkelstein and Hambrick (1996)argued that occupational TMT diversity (e.g.experience and education),rather than temporal TMT diversity (e.g.age and tenure)has a stronger influence on innovativeness and firms’long-term perfor-mance.Wiersema and Bantel (1992)also concluded that age and tenure diversity are less important than experience and educa-tion diversity in capturing the underlying constructs of diversity of information.the Levene statistic was 0.177(higher than 0.05),showing homogeneity of variance.7The two-way interaction was significant (F =7.01,p <0.05).。

附件： 2.外文原文Our Work In Management Information SystemsINTRODUCTION TO MISWhat is "Management Information Systems (MIS)"?Field Began in Early 80s MIS bridges the gap between end-users and technical staffs (e.g. programmers) Consider the three key words (management, information, & systems) that have significant implications:Management:Managing resources that include people, machinery (technology and computers),money, and time, etc. You have to consider three managerial factors together in MIS: effectiveness, efficiency and profitability.Effectiveness – how well a firm is pursuing a goal or objective of its business; for instance, providing quality product/service can be a business goal that is usually stated in a firm's mission statement; Management by objective (MBO), etc.Efficiency – best use of resources, a synonym is productivity = output divided by input. Productivity is measured in general by a ratio of OUTPUT to INPUT. Here, output indicates revenue, market share, etc., while input indicates labor, raw materials, administrative costs, operations costs, and IT related costs.Profitability - The empirical studies in the IS literature have reported that on the contrary to the management's belief, there exists no significant difference in the profitability between before and after the new IS implementation. In other words, the new IS does not make significant profitability increase whatsoever. In general, the bottom line in any business is the profitability. If it does not enhance the profitability, then what is a point to go through all the trouble to develop/implement a new IS? Using IT is not the perfect solution for every business situation. Whenever a new IT or information systems (IS) are implemented, additional costs incur. They can be costs related to hardware, software, training, maintenance, etc. Therefore, the cost-benefit analysis should be conducted prior to a new systems implementation.InformationRelates to the computer; refers to knowledge. Data are a source for the information. If the data are processed in a meaningful way, they become "information." Here, IT can contribute. Information can be extracted easily through IT (e.g. computer) if data are properly processed. Therefore, the second word in M.I.S. indicates IT or computer. Of course, information can be obtained by a primitive way such as manual sorting, etc. by a clerk. Using IT definitely outperform any other means in history, in terms of processing data.SystemsIf a nice system is made, it is self-running which leads to reducing the people necessary to the business process. Systems Theory, Systems approach Systematically doing business Systems comes from systems theory that stresses the importance of systems approach to problem solving and a structured way to control and adjust automatically. Computer programmers and software engineers/developers realized it was only way to reduce a possibility of encountering errors later in the systems development process. When you construct a new/better system for the current business operations/decision-making process, you don't want to make a computer program based on the current business way. Instead, you develop a new model after serious analysis of the current system, so later can save resource in terms of time and money by avoiding a possible mistake/error. Therefore, business process reengineering (BPR) is unthinkable without a sound understanding of systems theory/concepts.MIS is a field of science that studies on (1) how better we can manage technologies (2) how better we can design information systems, in order to enhance a firm's effectiveness, efficiency and profitability.MIS is a new subject in the last ten to fifteen years. The idea is still being researched since the concept is being evolved. A teacher's bias has a large impact on this type of subject. Classification of Specialties in MIS∙Systems Planning∙Systems Development∙Systems Review and Enhancement∙Special Computer ApplicationsSystems Planning - facilities planning, distributed processing systems, systems organization, management and staff development and training, and application of new technologies.Systems Development - feasibility study and cost benefit analysis, development of detailed system specifications, equipment selection and configuration, software procurement / technical supervision of programming, implementation assistance, documentation and user training.Systems Review and Enhancement - re-evaluation of information processing requirements, complete information system productivity audits, hard-ware/software performance evaluation and fine tuning, assessment and improvement of application program efficiency, staff productivity, data processing operations, studies of system development and testing procedures, environment, security and reliability.Special Computer Applications - production planning and scheduling, inventory control,re-source allocation, transportation and distribution logistics, least-cost formulation, personnel planning and administration, project management/control, system simulation, corporate models, information retrieval and analysis, process control, scientific and engineering applications.Our Approach to MIS DesignAll modern organizations are characterized by the need for management information. However this need is met, from the simplest verbal reporting system to the most sophisticated computerized system, certain basic principles must be observed if the information provided is to contribute to effective management, at a reasonable cost. Management information must be timely, accurate and in a format that lends itself to decision making. The cost of obtaining it must not exceed its value in the decision making process.RMC believes that an information system must be designed to take account of the nature of the client's business, the structure of the organization and the managerial styles of the system users. Data to be processed should be captured once only - and preferably by those who originate it and are most familiar with it. This means that the information system must be geared for simple yet efficient use by operators with minimal system training, and must facilitate input error detection and correction. Our goals in information system design are to provide maximum flexibility and growth capacity for the system while minimizing operating costs and implementation disruptions.System Performance AuditOnce established, an information system must be audited periodically to ensure that it is performing all the tasks required of it as efficiently and effectively as possible. Growth of the organization, increased volume of business, changes in the business environment, technological changes and newly conceived information requirements all place increased demands on existing information systems and often cause them to be modified or extended on an ad hoc basis.Our staff has the specialized skills and experience to perform a thorough audit on existing information systems and to recommend changes in design, equipment, software and procedures, to bring them up-to-date and to peak performance.An information system audit should be performed every three years, or when processing capacity appears to be strained and upgrading of facilities is being considered.Typical AssignmentsAs part of the Guyana Health Sector Policy and Institutional Development Program funded by IADB, RMC designed a financial MIS/accounting system for health care delivery at the national/regional level and for the principal acute care facility in Georgetown.IS/IT Strategic Planning Review for the Trinidad & Tobago Ministry of Health. Assessment of the IS/IT requirements of the Directorate of Quality Management, and a recommended course of action with respect to the multi-year $135 million IADB funded Health Sector Reform Program leading to the establishment of a National Health Information Centre and the coordination of IS/IT upgrades for the principal medical sciences centre in the country.Secondment of a Senior Principal for a one year period to be the Director of the Project Management Office (PMO) of a Smart Systems for Health project of the Ontario Ministry of Health. The objectives for the PMO was to design infrastructure to deliver Smart System products and services; establish standards and policy for the future use of the technology; recommend governance, financing and security policies; coordinate efforts of health sector and technology partners; and raise health policy issues for determination by the Ministry of Health. About 80 professionals, including three from RMC were involved during the course of the project.In RMC's capacity as Advisors to the Estonia / World Bank Health Project, several information systems were developed and implemented for the Project Coordination Unit (PCU) at the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs. These included:a comprehensive project accounting system to address all of the financial reporting requirements.a project management system to facilitate the planning, scheduling and progress monitoring of project tasks. This system schedules and monitors project procurement activities for performance, scheduling and cost control.Corporate Subject Database Profiles to serve as the initial guide for developing a comprehensive information system to support the broad information requirements associated with Estonia's future health financing system.Similar to the Estonia project, an assignment was conducted for the Republic of Georgia World Band Health Project; and for the Albania World Bank Health Project.As part of RMC's work advising Poland on restructuring its health services, our professional staff assisted the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare to develop an information systems strategy and determine appropriate computer hardware and software requirements. At the national and regional levels, the scope of our work included establishing MIS for planning andmonitoring the delivery of health services. At the institutional level, our work covered the development of a comprehensive program for the acquisition of computer systems.RMC designed a comprehensive portfolio of computerized health management information systems for the Ugandan Ministry of Health to support national and district health information needs. This included systems to gather and manage data resources; analyze the public's health status; plan the program, service and resource requirements; monitor the effectiveness, cost and efficiency of the health care delivery systems; and support research and development initiatives. Conceptual design of an integrated health care planning system and related planning models was also developed as a by-product of this project.RMC analyzed the existing accounting and management information system for the delivery of health care services in the Bahama s, then designed and initiated an implementation program of an improved, integrated, computerized accounting and management information system for the Ministry of Health and the two hospitals. RMC also developed productivity standards for the MIS based on the Canadian Health Association's MIS guidelines, modified to reflect the Bahamian environment.RMC worked jointly with the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario and Nova Scotia on computer assisted planning for Alberta Hospitals and Medical Care. The Phase 1 feasibility study assessed extent, costs and implications of developing a computer-based tool to facilitate all pre-design and functional planning. Phase 2 included development of software and hardware requirements.。

The Design and Development of the Students' Information Management SystemAs information technology advances, various management systems have emerged to change the daily lives of the more coherent, to the extent possible, the use of network resources can be significantly reasonable reduction of manual management inconvenience and waste of time.Accelerating the modernization of the 21st century, the continuous improvement of the scientific and cultural levels, the rapid growth of the number of students will inevitably increase the pressure information management students, the inefficient manual retrieval completely incompatible with the community\'s needs. The Student Information Management Systemis an information management one kind within system, currently information technique continuously of development, the network technique has already been applied in us extensively nearby of every trade, there is the network technical development, each high schools all make use of a calculator to manage to do to learn, the school is operated by handicraft before of the whole tedious affairs all got fast and solve high-efficiencily, especially student result management the system had in the school very big function, all can be more convenient, fast for the student and the teacher coming saying and understand accurately with management everyone noodles information. AbstractIt is a very heavy and baldness job of managing a bulky database by manpower. The disadvantage, such as great capacity of work, low efficiency and long period, exist in data inputting, demanding and modification. So the computer management system will bring us a quite change.Because there are so many students in the school, the data of students' information is huge, it makes the management of the information become a complicated and tedious work. This system aims at the school, passing by practically of demand analysis, adopt mighty VB6.0 to develop the student information managementsystem. The whole system design process follow the principle of simple operation, beautiful and vivid interface and practical request. The student information management system including the function of system management, basic information management, study management, prize and punishment management , print statement and so on. Through the proof of using, the student information management system which this text designed can satisfy the school to manage the demand of the aspect to students' information. The thesis introduced the background of development, the functions demanded and the process of design. The thesis mainly explained the point of the system design, the thought of design, the difficult technique and the solutions. The student managed the creation of the system to reduce the inconvenience on the manpower consumedly, let the whole student the data management is more science reasonable.The place that this system has most the special features is the backstage database to unify the management to student's information.That system mainly is divided into the system management, student profession management, student file management, school fees management, course management, result management and print the statement.The interface of the system is to make use of the vb software creation of, above few molds pieces are all make use of the vb to control a the piece binds to settle of method to carry out the conjunction toward the backstage database, the backstage database probably is divided into following few formses:Professional information form, the charges category form, student the job form, student the information form, political feature form of student, the customer logs on the form The system used Client/Server structure design, the system is in the data from one server and a number of Taiwan formed LAN workstations. Users can check the competence of different systems in different users submit personal data, background database you can quickly given the mandate to see to the content.Marks management is a important work of school,the original manual management havemany insufficiencies,the reasons that,students' population are multitudinous in school,and each student's information are too complex,thus the work load are extremely big,the statistics and the inquiry have been inconvenient.Therefore,how to solve these insufficiencies,let the marks management to be more convenient and quickly,have a higher efficiency,and become a key question.More and more are also urgent along with school automationthe marks management when science and technology rapid development,therefore is essential to develop the software system of marks register to assist the school teaching management.So that can improve the marks management,enhance the efficiency of management.Systems Analysis and Design SystemsWorking under control of a stored program, a computer processes data into information. Think about that definition for a minute. Any given computer application involves at least three components: hardware, software, and data. Merely writing a program isn’t enough, because the program is but one component is in a system.A system is a group of components that work together to accomplish an objective. For example, consider a payroll system. Its objective is paying employees. What components are involved? Each day, employees record their hours worked on time cards. At the end of each week, the time cards are collected and delivered to the computer center, where they are read into a payroll program. As it runs, the program accesses data files. Finally, the paychecks are printed and distributed. For the system to work, people, procedures, input and output media, files, hardware, and software must be carefully coordinated. Note that the program is but one component in a system.Systems AnalysisComputer-based systems are developed because people need information. Those people,called users, generally know what is required, but may lack the expertise to obtain it. Technical professionals, such as programmers, have the expertise, but may lack training in the user’s field. To complicate matters, users an d programmers often seem to speak different languages, leading to communication problems. A systems analyst is a professional who translates user needs into technical terms, thus serving as a bridge between users and technical professionals.Like an engineer or an architect, a systems analyst solves problems by combining solid technical skills with insight, imagination, and a touch of art. Generally, the analyst follows a well-defined, methodical process that includes at least the following steps: Problem definitionAnalysisDesignImplementationMaintenanceAt the end of each step, results are documented and shared with both the user and the programmers. The idea is to catch and correct errors and misunderstandings as early as possible. Perhaps the best way to illustrate the process is through example.Picture a small clothing store that purchases merchandise at wholesale, displays this stock, and sells it to customers at retail. On the one hand, too much: stock represents an unnecessary expense. On the other hand, a poor selection discourages shoppers. Ideally, a balance can be achieved: enough, but not too much.Complicating matters is the fact that inventory is constantly changing, with customer purchases depleting stock, and returns and reorders adding to it. The owner would like to track inventory levels and reorder any given item just before the store runs out. For a single item, the task is easy-just count the stock-on-hand. Unfortunately, the store has hundreds of different items, and keeping track of each one is impractical. Perhaps a computer might help.Problem DefinitionThe first step in the systems analysis and design process is problem definition. Theanalyst’s objective is determining what the user needs. Note that, as the process begins, the user possesses the critical information, and the analyst must listen and learn. Few users are technical experts. Most see the computer as a “magic box,” and are not concerned with how it works. At this stage, the analyst has no business even thinking about programs, files, and computer hardware, but must communicate with the user on his or her own terms.The idea is to ensure that both the user and the analyst are thinking about the same thing. Thus, a clear, written statement expressing the analyst’s underst anding of the problem is essential. The user should review and correct this written statement. The time to catch misunderstandings and oversights is now, before time, money, and effort are wasted. Often, following a preliminary problem definition, the analyst performs a feasibility study. The study, a brief capsule version of the entire systems analysis and design process, attempts to answer three questions:1.Can the problem be solved?2.Can it be solved in the user’s environment?3.Can it be solved at a reasonable cost?If the answer to any one of these questions is no, the system should not be developed. Given a good problem definition and a positive feasibility study, the analyst can turn to planning and developing a problem solution.AnalysisAs analysis begins, the analyst understands the problem. The next step is determining what must be done to solve it. The user knows what must be done; during analysis, this knowledge is extracted and formally documented. Most users think in terms of the functions to be performed and the data elements to be manipulated. The objective is to identify and link these key functions and data elements, yielding a logical system design. Start with the system’s basic functions. The key is keeping track of the stock-on-hand for each product in inventory. Inventory changes because customers purchase, exchange, and return products, so the system will have to process customer transactions. The store’s owner wants to selectively look at the inventory level for any product in short supply and,if appropriate, order replacement stock, so the system must be able to communicate with management. Finally, following management authorization, the system should generate a reorder ready to send to a supplier.Given the system’s basic functions, the analyst’s next task is gaining a sense of their logical relation. A good way to start is by describing how data flow between the functions. As the name implies, data flow diagrams are particularly useful for graphically describing these data flows. Four symbols are used. Data sources and destinations are represented by squares; input data enter the system form a source, and output data flow to a destination. Once in the system, the data are manipulated or changed by processes, represented by round-corner rectangles. A process might be a program, a procedure, or anything else that changes or moves data. Data can be held for later processing in data stores, symbolized by open-ended rectangles. A data store might be a disk file, a tape file, a database, written notes, or even a person’s memory. Finally, data flow between sources, destinations, processes, and data stores over data flows, which are represented by arrows. Preliminary data flow diagram for the inventory system. Start a CUSTOMER. Transactions flow from a customer into the system, where they are handled by Process transaction. A data store, the STOCK, holds data on each item in inventory. Process transaction changes the data to reflect the new transaction. Meanwhile, MANAGEMENT accesses the system through Communicate, evaluating the data in STOCK and, if necessary, requesting a recorder. Once a reorder is authorized, Generate reorder sends necessary data to the SUPPLIER, who ships the items to the store. Note that, because the reorder represents a change in the inventory level of a particular product or products, it is handled as a transaction.The data flow diagram describes the logical system. The next step is tracing the data flow. Start with the destination SUPPLIER. Reorders flow to suppliers; for example, the store might want 25 pairs of jeans. To fill the order, the supplier needs the product description and the reorder quantity. Where do these data elements come from? Since they are output by Generate reorder, they must either be input to or generated by this process. Data flow into Generate reorder for STOCK; thus, product and reorder quantities must be stored inSTOCK.Other data elements, such as purchased and the purchase quantity, are generated by CUSTOMER. Still others, for example selling price and reorder point, are generated by or needed by MANAGEMENT. The current stock –on-hand for a given item is an example of a data element generated by an algorithm in one of the procedures. Step by step, methodically, the analyst identifies the data elements to be input to, stored by, manipulated by, generated by, or output by the system.To keep track of the data elements, the analyst might list each one in a data dictionary. A simple data dictionary can be set up on index cards, but computerized data dictionaries have become increasingly popular. The data dictionary, a collection of data describing and defining the data, is useful throughout the systems analysis and design process, and is often used to build a database during the implementation stage.The idea of analysis is to define the system’s major functions and data elements methodically. Remember that the objective is translating user needs into technical terms. Since the system starts with the user, the first step is defi ning the user’s needs. Users think in terms of functions and data. They do not visualize programs, or files, or hardware, and during this initial, crucial analysis stage, it is essential that the analyst think like a user, not like a programmer.Data flow diagrams and data dictionaries are useful tools. They provide a format for recording key information about the proposed system. Also, they jog the analyst’s memory; for example, if the analyst doesn’t have sufficient information to complete a data dictionary entry, he or she has probably missed something. Perhaps most importantly, the data flow diagram and the data dictionary document the analyst’s understanding of the system requirements. By reviewing these documents, the user can correct misunderstanding or oversights. Finally, they represent an excellent starting point for the next step, design.DesignAs we enter the design stage, we know what the system must do, and thus can begin thinking about how to do it. The objective is to develop a strategy for solving the problem.At this stage, we are not interested in writing code or in defining precise data structures; instead, we want to identify, at a black box level, necessary programs, files, procedures, and other components.The data flow diagram defines the system’s necessary functions; how might they be implemented? One possibility is writing one program for each process. Another is combining two or more processes in a single program; there are dozens of alternative solutions. Let’s focus on one option a nd document it.A system flowchart uses symbols to represent programs, procedures, hardware devices, and the other components of a physical system. Our flowchart shows that transaction data enter the system through a terminal, are stored on an inventory by a data collection program, and then are stored on an inventory file. Eventually, the inventory file is processed by a Report and reorder program. Through it, management manipulates the data and authorizes reorders.Look at the system flowchart. It identifies several hardware components, including a computer, a disk drive, a data entry terminal, a printer, and a display terminal. Tow programs are needed: Process transaction and Report and reorder. In addition to the hardware and the programs, we’ll need dat a structures for the inventory file and for data flows between the I/O devices and the software. Note that system flow chart illustrates one possible solution; a good analyst will develop several feasible alternatives before choosing one.The flowchart maps the system, highlighting its major physical components. Since the data link the components, the next task is defining the data structures. Consider, for example, the inventory file. It contains all the data elements from the data store STOCK. The data el ements are listed in the data dictionary. Using them, the file’s data structure can be planned.How should the file be organized? That depends on how it will be accessed. For example, in some applications, data are processed at regular, predictable intervals. Typically, the data are collected over time and processed together, as a batch. If batch processing is acceptable, a sequential file organization is probably best.It is not always possible to wait until a batch of transactions is collected, however. For example, consider an air defense early warning system. If an unidentified aircraft is spotted, it must be identified immediately; the idea of waiting until 5:00 p. m because “that’s when the air defense program is run” is absurd. Instead, because of the need for quick response, each transaction must be processed as it occurs. Generally, such transaction processing systems call for direct access file.Our inventory system has tow programs. One processes transactions. A direct access inventory file seems a reasonable choice. The other allows management to study inventory data occasionally; batch processing would certainly do. Should the inventory file be organized sequentially or directly? Faced with such a choice, a good analyst considers both options. One possible system might accept transactions and process them as they occur. As an alternative, sales slips might be collected throughout the day and programs would deal with direct access files; in the second system, they would be linked to sequential files. A program to process direct access data is different from a program to process sequential data. The data drive the system. The choice of a data structure determines the program’s structure. Note that the program is defined and planned in the context of the system.ImplementationOnce the system’s major components have been identified, we can begin to develop them. Our system includes two programs, several pieces of equipment, and a number of data structures. During implementation, each program is planned and written using the techniques described in Chapter 7. Files are created, and their contents checked. New hardware is purchased, installed, and tested. Additionally, operating procedures are written and evaluated. Once all the component parts are ready, the system is tested. Assuming the user is satisfied, the finished system is released.SummaryA system is a collection of hardware, software, data, and procedural components that work together to accomplish an objective. A program is but one component in a system. System are planned and designed by system analysts who generally follow a well-defined,methodical process. The first step in the process is problem definition, when the analystattempts to discover exactly what the user needs. Often, following a preliminary problem definition, a feasibility study is conducted to determine if the problem can be solved. Given a clear problem definition, analysis begins. During this stage, the analyst develops a logical model of the system. Key functions are linked through a data flow diagram. Using the diagram as a tool, the data flows are traced, and the system’s data elements are identified and recorded in a data dictionary. After the logical system isreviewed with the user, design begins.During design, the analyst develops a model of the physical system. A system flowchart can be used to map the system, defining each physical component as a symbol. A good systems analyst considers a number of alternative solutions to the problem before settling on one. Implementation follows design. Programs are planned and written; hardware is ordered and installed; procedures are written; files and databases are initialized; and, finally, the pieces are assembled and tested. Following release of the system, maintenancebegins.学生信息管理系统的设计与发展随着信息技术的日新月异,各种管理系统的相继出现,让日常生活变的更加具有条理化, 尽可能的合理的运用网络资源可以大大的减少人工管理上带来的不便及时间的浪费.二十一世纪现代化程度的不断加速,科学文化水平的不断提高,学生数量的急剧增长，势必增加了管理学生信息带来的压力，人工检索的低效完全不符合整个社会的需要.学生信息管理系统是信息管理系统中的一种，目前信息技术不断的发展，网络技术已经广泛的应用于我们身边的各行各业，有了网络技术的发展，各高校都利用计算机来管理办学，以前学校靠手工操作的一切繁琐事情都得到了快速且高效率的解决，特别是学生成绩管理系统在学校中起到了很大的作用，对于学生和教师来说都能够更方便、快捷、准确地了解和管理各方面信息。

Establishing a management information system Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant information is vital for effective performance of managerial functions such as planning, organizing, leading, and control. An information system in an organization is like the nervous system in the human body: it is the link that connects all the organization's components together and provides for better operation and survival in a competitive environment.The term information system usually a computer-based system, one that is designed to support the operations, management, and decision functions of an organization. Information systems in organizations thus provide information support for decision makers. Information systems encompass transaction processing systems, management information systems, decision support systems, and strategic information systems.Information consists of data that have been processed and are meaningful to a user. A system is a set of components that operate together to achieve a common purpose. Thus a management information system collects, transmits, processes, and stores data on an organization's resources, programmes, and accomplishments. The system makes possible the conversion of these data into management information for use by decision makers within the organization. A management information system, therefore, produces information that supports the management functions of an organization (Davis & Olson, 1985; Lucas, 1990; McLeod, 1995).Basic conceptsData versus InformationData refers to raw, unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of facts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records.Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Information involves the communication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies, surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate irrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of data may constitute information in a specific context; for example, when you want to contact your friend, his or her telephone number is a piece of information; otherwise, it is just one element of data in the telephone directory.Characteristics of InformationThe characteristics of good information are relevance, timeliness, accuracy, cost-effectiveness, reliability, usability, exhaustiveness, and aggregation level. Information is relevant if it leads to improved decision making. It might also be relevant if it reaffirms a previous decision. If it does not have anything to do with your problem, it is irrelevant. For example, information about the weather conditions in Paris in January is relevant if you are considering a visit to Paris in January. Otherwise, the information is not relevant.Timeliness refers to the currency of the information presented to the users. Currency of data or information is the time gap between the occurrence of an event in the field until its presentation to the user (decision maker). When this amount of time is very short, we describe the information system as a real-time system.Accuracy is measured by comparing the data to actual events. The importance of accurate data varies with the type of decisions that need to be made. Payroll information must be exact. Approximations simply will not suffice. However, a general estimate of how much staff time was devoted to a particular activity may be all that is needed.Value of InformationInformation has a great impact on decision making, and hence its value is closely tied to the decisions that result from its use. Information does not have an absolute universal value. Its value is related to those who use it, when it is used, and in what situation it is used. In this sense, information is similar to other commodities. For example, the value of a glass of water is different for someone who has lost his way in Arctic glaciers than it is to a wanderer in the Sahara Desert.Economists distinguish value from cost or price of a commodity incurred to produce or procure the commodity. Obviously, the value of a product must be higher than its cost or price for it to be cost-effective.The concept of normative value of information has been developed by economists and statisticians and is derived from decision theory. The basic premise of the theory is that we always have some preliminary knowledge about the occurrence of events that are relevant to our decisions. Additional information might modify our view of the occurrence probabilities and consequently change our decision and the expected payoff from the decision. The value of additional information is, hence, the difference in expected payoff obtained by reduced uncertainty about the future event.Information supports decisions, decisions trigger actions, and actions affect the achievementsor performance of the organization. If we can measure the differences in performance, we can trace the impact of information, provided that the measurements are carefully performed, the relationships among variables are well defined, and possible effects of irrelevant factors are isolated. The measured difference in performance due to informational factors is called the realistic value or revealed value of information.For most information systems, particularly those supporting middle and top management, the resulting decisions often relate to events that are not strictly defined and involve probabilities that cannot be quantified. The decision-making process often is obscure and the outcomes are scaled by multiple and incomparable dimensions. In such cases, we may either attempt to perform a multiattribute analysis or derive an overall subjective value. The subjective value reflects people's comprehensive impression of information and the amount they are willing to pay for specific information (Ahituv, Neumann, & Riley, 1994).Information as an Aid to Decision MakingSimon (1977) describes the process of decision making as comprising four steps: intelligence, design, choice, and review. The intelligence stage encompasses collection, classification, processing, and presentation of data relating to the organization and its environment. This is necessary to identify situations calling for decision. During the decision stage, the decision maker outlines alternative solutions, each of which involves a set of actions to be taken. The data gathered during the intelligence stage are now used by statistical and other models to forecast possible outcomes for each alternative. Each alternative can also be examined for technological, behavioural, and economic feasibility. In the choice stage, the decision maker must select one of the alternatives that will best contribute to the goals of the organization. Past choices can be subjected to review during implementation and monitoring to enable the manager to learn from mistakes. Information plays an important role in all four stages of the decision process. Classification of Management Information SystemsThere are various types of management information systems. Mason and Swanson (1981) describe four categories of management information systems: (1) databank information system, (2) predictive information system, (3) decision-making information system, and (4) decision-taking information system. The classification is based on the level of support that the information system provides in the process of decision making. Sachdeva (1990) comprehensively presents these four types of systems:Databank Information System.The responsibility of this information system is to observe, classify, and store any item of data which might be potentially useful to the decision maker.Predictive Information System. This system moves beyond pure data collection and the determination of trends over time. Predictive information systems provide for the drawing of inferences and predictions that are relevant to decision making. If data from the above examples were to be used in this way, it is possible to obtain information useful for making predictions or for drawing inferences.Decision-Making Information System. This system goes one step further in the process of decision making and incorporates the value system of the organization or its criteria for choosing among alternatives. An extension organization's values are many and varied. They include concerns for resolving farmer problems, increasing and providing for stability of farmer incomes, and improving the quality of farm life. But they also including and providing for stability of farmer incomes, and improving the quality of farm life. But they also include an intent to provide well for staff members (training, adequate salaries, etc.) and to aid in the process of bringing about rural economic development.Decision-Taking Information System. Examples of decision-taking information systems are not usually found in an extension organization. This is a decisionsystem in which the information system and the decision maker are one and the same. Management is so confident in the assumptions incorporated in the system that it basically relegates its power to initiate action to the system itself. Airplanes carry automatic pilot systems, which are an example of a decision-taking system. Once activated, the system itself keeps the plane on course and at the proper speed and altitude (according to parameters determined by the pilot). Another example of decision-taking information systems is found in modem factory production. In automobile production, continuous inventories of parts are maintained by computer as cars move down an assembly line. Orders are placed automatically by the computer when additional parts are needed. This is done without the intervention of a manager.Role of MIS in the management of agricultural extension programmersNational agricultural extension systems, especially in developing countries, tend to be very large. For example, in India, the national agricultural extension system employs about 125,000 people. Extension managers at various levels need relevant information in order to make effective decisions. In the absence of such information, they act only on the basis of their intuition and pastexperience. Data that have been processed, stored, and presented properly will aid them in analysing situations and to make effective decisions.As suggested above, at every phase of the management process, managers need information in order to make effective decisions. This we call management information. It does not include purely functional information or technical information, such as packages of practices for rice or wheat cultivation. Management information is the information required by managers as they make their decisions, such as the number of extension personnel employed by category, their training requirements, career development plans, job descriptions, budgets, forecasts, benchmark surveys, reports on socioeconomic conditions of people served, and existing facilities (Ramesh Babu & Singh, 1987).Need for automationAn automated MIS system contains data just as a manual system does. It receives input, processes input, and delivers the processed input as output. Some input devices allow direct human-machine communication, while others require data to be recorded on an input medium such as a magnetizable material (specially coated plastic flexible or floppy disks and magnetic tapes). The keyboard of a workstation connected directly to a computer is an example of a direct input device. Use of automation makes it possible to store immense quantities of information, to avoid many of the errors that find their way into manual records, and to make calculations and comparisons that would be practically impossible in a manual system.Organization of a databaseData are usually generated at the field level through transaction-processing systems, but once the data are captured, any echelon along the organizational hierarchy may use them, provided that information requirements have been well defined, appropriate programmers have been implemented, and a means has been arranged for the sharing of the data. This would imply that the same data can be used by different sets of programmers; hence we distinguish between the database (a set of data) and the applications (a set of programmers). In a decision support system (DSS), this set of programmers is the model base (Keen & Morton, 1978).The term database may refer to any collection of data that might serve an organizational unit.A database on a given subject is a collection of data on that subject that observes three criteria: comprehensiveness (completeness), nonredundancy, and appropriate structure. Comprehensiveness means that all the data about the subject are actually present in the database.Nonredundancy means that each individual piece of data exists only once in the database. Appropriate structure means that the data are stored in such a way as to minimize the cost of expected processing and storage (Awad & Gotterer, 1992).The idea of a large corporate database that can be flexibly shared by several applications or model bases has been realized by means of software packages specially devised to perform such tasks. These packages, called database management systems (DBMSs), are available in the market under different trade names such as ORACLE, SYBASE, INGRES, FOXBASE, and dBASE. Illustrative computer-based MISA national agricultural extension system is a nationwide system managed by the national government. In India, agriculture is a state subject under the division of powers between the national and the state levels. Nevertheless, the national government supplements the financial resources of the states and provides coordination at the national level. The state's administrative machinery is divided into districts, districts into subdivisions, subdivisions into blocks. A block is a group of villages and the basic unit for the administration of an agricultural extension programmer. Data collected at the block level need to be integrated at higher administrative levels to provide an integrated view at the district and state levels to support planning, monitoring, and decision making.However, the actual design may vary with the size of the state and other considerations. An integrated database for the entire state may be supported by a mainframe/minicomputer at the state headquarters. Suitable programmes for the analysis of data may be designed to provide an interactive decision support system at the state level. Each district and subdivision may be provided with a mini/micro computer, depending on the volume of data to be handled. The computers in the districts and subdivisions may be networked with the state computer. The local data may be stored and processed in the district/subdivision, and the shared data with appropriate level of aggregation may be transmitted to the state headquarters to update the integrated database. The districts and subdivisions would have direct access to the integrated database with proper authorizations assigned to them through their passwords. The blocks may have only theinput-output terminals connected to the subdivision computer to feed data to the subdivision and make on-line inquiries as and when necessary.。

英语专业资料Management Information System is that we often say that the MIS (Management Information System), emphasizing the management, stressed that the information in modern society it has become increasingly popular. MIS is a new subject, it across a number of areas, such as scientific management and system science, operations research, statistics and computer science. In these subjects on the basis of formation of information-gathering and processing methods, thereby forming a vertical and horizontal cutting system.Management information system of modern information management is an indispensable part of the work, is to meet modern standards of high-tech information management requirements, to promote scientific management, standardization of the necessary conditions. Only information practices, in order to offer better living environment and convenient living space.Information management is an extremely important resource, management depends on the success or failure of an effective decision-making, and the correct degree of decision-making depends largely on the quality of information.In the 21st century, mankind will enter the knowledge economy era, the era of knowledge economy is the rapid development of technology and knowledge, information was explosive expansion of the times. The threat of the so-called information that this is the human face to deal with the large amount of information it difficult to deal with the state, and cause confusion results.The emergence of a computer to solve this problem, because the computer quickly and accurately as information collection, processing, use,may be provided for.With computer technology, communications technology, network technology as the representative of modern information technology leap in development, human being from the industrial age into the information age, there is growing importance of information resources development and use of "information" has become a country Economic and social development of the key links, the level of information has become the level of a country's level of modernization and an important indicator of overall national strength.Management Information System is a computer and composed, to manage information collection, transmission, processing, preservation, maintenance and use of the system, it measured the national economy and enterprises, to help achieve its planned objectives.The development of computer-aided management has experienced four stages: transaction processing, handling systems to support decision-making, integrated services.In modern society, social trends and the expansion of social demand for our products so that enterprises in production and business activities relating to the expansion of the accumulation of internal and external information, with the rapid progress of science and technology and rapid development of production, so that human knowledge of the accelerating growth rate, the increase in the amount of information , Changes in the external environment becomes faster, artificial have not qualified. How to collect sufficient information resources, strong message and take advantage of the positive and timely development of effective use of information explosion of information resources has become a modern social problems. The emergence of a computer to solve this problem, because the computer quickly and accurately as information collection, processing, use, may be provided for. Computer technology and communications technologies with great modern information technology to promote the development of national information to speed up the process, the international community to build the information highway and an upsurge of Chinese workers, "the" famous works as the representative of national projects undertaken, so that China's Enterprise Information facing the new situation.Electronic computers adapt to modern society rapidly growing amount of information management, information life short, require timely conversion problem. Information systems from electronic data processing, information reporting system, decision support system to the further development of expert systems and support the leadership of the implementation of the decision-making process information in support of strategic decision-making competition in the strategic information systems. Today's society of modern information technology extensively to the rapid penetration of social life in various fields but in the management information system applications are still very imperfect, is the initial stage. Computer support for the work of the management, not only data processing, but also to support decision-making tools, from the mass of information collection, collation, analysis provided to managers, policy-related information, relevantpolicy analysis, and even managers Interactive dialogue to generate decision-making. At present the various sectors of the computer processing of information management, in large part are still individual business rationale, in the electronic data-processing stage, and units from transaction processing system to support system to deal with the real has also established a predictive control and support functions of management decision-making Information systems. Although the information system has a certain development, business process automation control office has made great progress, but far from perfect. Should make full use of the computer processing of information, we must start from the current situation, look to the future, the development of suitable units, a small industry management system, or even one-step, such as salary management system, and then gradually improve, and constantly expanded. Management Information System is one of the characteristics of centralized data, using the database. Use database technology to address data sharing issues. Database with a certain data model organization of data, data-oriented systems, procedures independent of the data, and data independence, to reduce data redundancy and inconsistency, and easy programming, expansion, removal. In particular, the 20th century the late 1970s distributed, in the face of object database, so that data and data from the operation as an object database management system to better use and reduce the possibility of problems. Attribute their inheritance in object share data And operation of great convenience to the users. All in all management information system is set scientific。

The Design and Development of the Students' Information Management SystemAs information technology advances, various management systems have emerged to change the daily lives of the more coherent, to the extent possible, the use of network resources can be significantly reasonable reduction of manual management inconvenience and waste of time.Accelerating the modernization of the 21st century, the continuous improvement of the scientific and cultural levels, the rapid growth of the number of students will inevitably increase the pressure information management students, the inefficient manual retrieval completely incompatible with the community\'s needs. The Student Information Management Systemis an information management one kind within system, currently information technique continuously of development, the network technique has already been applied in us extensively nearby of every trade, there is the network technical development, each high schools all make use of a calculator to manage to do to learn, the school is operated by handicraft before of the whole tedious affairs all got fast and solve high-efficiencily, especially student result management the system had in the school very big function, all can be more convenient, fast for the student and the teacher coming saying and understand accurately with management everyone noodles information. AbstractIt is a very heavy and baldness job of managing a bulky database by manpower. The disadvantage, such as great capacity of work, low efficiency and long period, exist in data inputting, demanding and modification. So the computer management system will bring us a quite change.Because there are so many students in the school, the data of students' information is huge, it makes the management of the information become a complicated and tedious work. This system aims at the school, passing by practically of demand analysis, adopt mighty VB6.0 to develop the student information managementsystem. The whole system design process follow the principle of simple operation, beautiful and vivid interface and practical request. The student information management system including the function of system management, basic information management, study management, prize and punishment management , print statement and so on. Through the proof of using, the student information management system which this text designed can satisfy the school to manage the demand of the aspect to students' information. The thesis introduced the background of development, the functions demanded and the process of design. The thesis mainly explained the point of the system design, the thought of design, the difficult technique and the solutions. The student managed the creation of the system to reduce the inconvenience on the manpower consumedly, let the whole student the data management is more science reasonable.The place that this system has most the special features is the backstage database to unify the management to student's information.That system mainly is divided into the system management, student profession management, student file management, school fees management, course management, result management and print the statement.The interface of the system is to make use of the vb software creation of, above few molds pieces are all make use of the vb to control a the piece binds to settle of method to carry out the conjunction toward the backstage database, the backstage database probably is divided into following few formses:Professional information form, the charges category form, student the job form, student the information form, political feature form of student, the customer logs on the form The system used Client/Server structure design, the system is in the data from one server and a number of Taiwan formed LAN workstations. Users can check the competence of different systems in different users submit personal data, background database you can quickly given the mandate to see to the content.Marks management is a important work of school,the original manual management havemany insufficiencies,the reasons that,students' population are multitudinous in school,and each student's information are too complex,thus the work load are extremely big,the statistics and the inquiry have been inconvenient.Therefore,how to solve these insufficiencies,let the marks management to be more convenient and quickly,have a higher efficiency,and become a key question.More and more are also urgent along with school automationthe marks management when science and technology rapid development,therefore is essential to develop the software system of marks register to assist the school teaching management.So that can improve the marks management,enhance the efficiency of management.Systems Analysis and Design SystemsWorking under control of a stored program, a computer processes data into information. Think about that definition for a minute. Any given computer application involves at least three components: hardware, software, and data. Merely writing a program isn’t enough, because the program is but one component is in a system.A system is a group of components that work together to accomplish an objective. For example, consider a payroll system. Its objective is paying employees. What components are involved? Each day, employees record their hours worked on time cards. At the end of each week, the time cards are collected and delivered to the computer center, where they are read into a payroll program. As it runs, the program accesses data files. Finally, the paychecks are printed and distributed. For the system to work, people, procedures, input and output media, files, hardware, and software must be carefully coordinated. Note that the program is but one component in a system.Systems AnalysisComputer-based systems are developed because people need information. Those people,called users, generally know what is required, but may lack the expertise to obtain it. Technical professionals, such as programmers, have the expertise, but may lack training in the user’s field. To complicate matters, users an d programmers often seem to speak different languages, leading to communication problems. A systems analyst is a professional who translates user needs into technical terms, thus serving as a bridge between users and technical professionals.Like an engineer or an architect, a systems analyst solves problems by combining solid technical skills with insight, imagination, and a touch of art. Generally, the analyst follows a well-defined, methodical process that includes at least the following steps: Problem definitionAnalysisDesignImplementationMaintenanceAt the end of each step, results are documented and shared with both the user and the programmers. The idea is to catch and correct errors and misunderstandings as early as possible. Perhaps the best way to illustrate the process is through example.Picture a small clothing store that purchases merchandise at wholesale, displays this stock, and sells it to customers at retail. On the one hand, too much: stock represents an unnecessary expense. On the other hand, a poor selection discourages shoppers. Ideally, a balance can be achieved: enough, but not too much.Complicating matters is the fact that inventory is constantly changing, with customer purchases depleting stock, and returns and reorders adding to it. The owner would like to track inventory levels and reorder any given item just before the store runs out. For a single item, the task is easy-just count the stock-on-hand. Unfortunately, the store has hundreds of different items, and keeping track of each one is impractical. Perhaps a computer might help.Problem DefinitionThe first step in the systems analysis and design process is problem definition. Theanalyst’s objective is determining what the user needs. Note that, as the process begins, the user possesses the critical information, and the analyst must listen and learn. Few users are technical experts. Most see the computer as a “magic box,” and are not concerned with how it works. At this stage, the analyst has no business even thinking about programs, files, and computer hardware, but must communicate with the user on his or her own terms.The idea is to ensure that both the user and the analyst are thinking about the same thing. Thus, a clear, written statement expressing the analyst’s underst anding of the problem is essential. The user should review and correct this written statement. The time to catch misunderstandings and oversights is now, before time, money, and effort are wasted. Often, following a preliminary problem definition, the analyst performs a feasibility study. The study, a brief capsule version of the entire systems analysis and design process, attempts to answer three questions:1.Can the problem be solved?2.Can it be solved in the user’s environment?3.Can it be solved at a reasonable cost?If the answer to any one of these questions is no, the system should not be developed. Given a good problem definition and a positive feasibility study, the analyst can turn to planning and developing a problem solution.AnalysisAs analysis begins, the analyst understands the problem. The next step is determining what must be done to solve it. The user knows what must be done; during analysis, this knowledge is extracted and formally documented. Most users think in terms of the functions to be performed and the data elements to be manipulated. The objective is to identify and link these key functions and data elements, yielding a logical system design. Start with the system’s basic functions. The key is keeping track of the stock-on-hand for each product in inventory. Inventory changes because customers purchase, exchange, and return products, so the system will have to process customer transactions. The store’s owner wants to selectively look at the inventory level for any product in short supply and,if appropriate, order replacement stock, so the system must be able to communicate with management. Finally, following management authorization, the system should generate a reorder ready to send to a supplier.Given the system’s basic functions, the analyst’s next task is gaining a sense of their logical relation. A good way to start is by describing how data flow between the functions. As the name implies, data flow diagrams are particularly useful for graphically describing these data flows. Four symbols are used. Data sources and destinations are represented by squares; input data enter the system form a source, and output data flow to a destination. Once in the system, the data are manipulated or changed by processes, represented by round-corner rectangles. A process might be a program, a procedure, or anything else that changes or moves data. Data can be held for later processing in data stores, symbolized by open-ended rectangles. A data store might be a disk file, a tape file, a database, written notes, or even a person’s memory. Finally, data flow between sources, destinations, processes, and data stores over data flows, which are represented by arrows. Preliminary data flow diagram for the inventory system. Start a CUSTOMER. Transactions flow from a customer into the system, where they are handled by Process transaction. A data store, the STOCK, holds data on each item in inventory. Process transaction changes the data to reflect the new transaction. Meanwhile, MANAGEMENT accesses the system through Communicate, evaluating the data in STOCK and, if necessary, requesting a recorder. Once a reorder is authorized, Generate reorder sends necessary data to the SUPPLIER, who ships the items to the store. Note that, because the reorder represents a change in the inventory level of a particular product or products, it is handled as a transaction.The data flow diagram describes the logical system. The next step is tracing the data flow. Start with the destination SUPPLIER. Reorders flow to suppliers; for example, the store might want 25 pairs of jeans. To fill the order, the supplier needs the product description and the reorder quantity. Where do these data elements come from? Since they are output by Generate reorder, they must either be input to or generated by this process. Data flow into Generate reorder for STOCK; thus, product and reorder quantities must be stored inSTOCK.Other data elements, such as purchased and the purchase quantity, are generated by CUSTOMER. Still others, for example selling price and reorder point, are generated by or needed by MANAGEMENT. The current stock –on-hand for a given item is an example of a data element generated by an algorithm in one of the procedures. Step by step, methodically, the analyst identifies the data elements to be input to, stored by, manipulated by, generated by, or output by the system.To keep track of the data elements, the analyst might list each one in a data dictionary. A simple data dictionary can be set up on index cards, but computerized data dictionaries have become increasingly popular. The data dictionary, a collection of data describing and defining the data, is useful throughout the systems analysis and design process, and is often used to build a database during the implementation stage.The idea of analysis is to define the system’s major functions and data elements methodically. Remember that the objective is translating user needs into technical terms. Since the system starts with the user, the first step is defi ning the user’s needs. Users think in terms of functions and data. They do not visualize programs, or files, or hardware, and during this initial, crucial analysis stage, it is essential that the analyst think like a user, not like a programmer.Data flow diagrams and data dictionaries are useful tools. They provide a format for recording key information about the proposed system. Also, they jog the analyst’s memory; for example, if the analyst doesn’t have sufficient information to complete a data dictionary entry, he or she has probably missed something. Perhaps most importantly, the data flow diagram and the data dictionary document the analyst’s understanding of the system requirements. By reviewing these documents, the user can correct misunderstanding or oversights. Finally, they represent an excellent starting point for the next step, design.DesignAs we enter the design stage, we know what the system must do, and thus can begin thinking about how to do it. The objective is to develop a strategy for solving the problem.At this stage, we are not interested in writing code or in defining precise data structures; instead, we want to identify, at a black box level, necessary programs, files, procedures, and other components.The data flow diagram defines the system’s necessary functions; how might they be implemented? One possibility is writing one program for each process. Another is combining two or more processes in a single program; there are dozens of alternative solutions. Let’s focus on one option a nd document it.A system flowchart uses symbols to represent programs, procedures, hardware devices, and the other components of a physical system. Our flowchart shows that transaction data enter the system through a terminal, are stored on an inventory by a data collection program, and then are stored on an inventory file. Eventually, the inventory file is processed by a Report and reorder program. Through it, management manipulates the data and authorizes reorders.Look at the system flowchart. It identifies several hardware components, including a computer, a disk drive, a data entry terminal, a printer, and a display terminal. Tow programs are needed: Process transaction and Report and reorder. In addition to the hardware and the programs, we’ll need dat a structures for the inventory file and for data flows between the I/O devices and the software. Note that system flow chart illustrates one possible solution; a good analyst will develop several feasible alternatives before choosing one.The flowchart maps the system, highlighting its major physical components. Since the data link the components, the next task is defining the data structures. Consider, for example, the inventory file. It contains all the data elements from the data store STOCK. The data el ements are listed in the data dictionary. Using them, the file’s data structure can be planned.How should the file be organized? That depends on how it will be accessed. For example, in some applications, data are processed at regular, predictable intervals. Typically, the data are collected over time and processed together, as a batch. If batch processing is acceptable, a sequential file organization is probably best.It is not always possible to wait until a batch of transactions is collected, however. For example, consider an air defense early warning system. If an unidentified aircraft is spotted, it must be identified immediately; the idea of waiting until 5:00 p. m because “that’s when the air defense program is run” is absurd. Instead, because of the need for quick response, each transaction must be processed as it occurs. Generally, such transaction processing systems call for direct access file.Our inventory system has tow programs. One processes transactions. A direct access inventory file seems a reasonable choice. The other allows management to study inventory data occasionally; batch processing would certainly do. Should the inventory file be organized sequentially or directly? Faced with such a choice, a good analyst considers both options. One possible system might accept transactions and process them as they occur. As an alternative, sales slips might be collected throughout the day and programs would deal with direct access files; in the second system, they would be linked to sequential files. A program to process direct access data is different from a program to process sequential data. The data drive the system. The choice of a data structure determines the program’s structure. Note that the program is defined and planned in the context of the system.ImplementationOnce the system’s major components have been identified, we can begin to develop them. Our system includes two programs, several pieces of equipment, and a number of data structures. During implementation, each program is planned and written using the techniques described in Chapter 7. Files are created, and their contents checked. New hardware is purchased, installed, and tested. Additionally, operating procedures are written and evaluated. Once all the component parts are ready, the system is tested. Assuming the user is satisfied, the finished system is released.SummaryA system is a collection of hardware, software, data, and procedural components that work together to accomplish an objective. A program is but one component in a system. System are planned and designed by system analysts who generally follow a well-defined,methodical process. The first step in the process is problem definition, when the analystattempts to discover exactly what the user needs. Often, following a preliminary problem definition, a feasibility study is conducted to determine if the problem can be solved. Given a clear problem definition, analysis begins. During this stage, the analyst develops a logical model of the system. Key functions are linked through a data flow diagram. Using the diagram as a tool, the data flows are traced, and the system’s data elements are identified and recorded in a data dictionary. After the logical system isreviewed with the user, design begins.During design, the analyst develops a model of the physical system. A system flowchart can be used to map the system, defining each physical component as a symbol. A good systems analyst considers a number of alternative solutions to the problem before settling on one. Implementation follows design. Programs are planned and written; hardware is ordered and installed; procedures are written; files and databases are initialized; and, finally, the pieces are assembled and tested. Following release of the system, maintenancebegins.学生信息管理系统的设计与发展随着信息技术的日新月异,各种管理系统的相继出现,让日常生活变的更加具有条理化, 尽可能的合理的运用网络资源可以大大的减少人工管理上带来的不便及时间的浪费.二十一世纪现代化程度的不断加速,科学文化水平的不断提高,学生数量的急剧增长，势必增加了管理学生信息带来的压力，人工检索的低效完全不符合整个社会的需要.学生信息管理系统是信息管理系统中的一种，目前信息技术不断的发展，网络技术已经广泛的应用于我们身边的各行各业，有了网络技术的发展，各高校都利用计算机来管理办学，以前学校靠手工操作的一切繁琐事情都得到了快速且高效率的解决，特别是学生成绩管理系统在学校中起到了很大的作用，对于学生和教师来说都能够更方便、快捷、准确地了解和管理各方面信息。

信息管理与信息系统专业英语作文My Big Sister Studies Information Management and Information SystemsMy big sister Anna is studying a really cool major at university. It's called Information Management and Information Systems. At first, I didn't really understand what that meant, but Anna explained it to me and now I think it's super interesting!Anna told me that information management is all about how to properly collect, store, organize, and use information and data. She said that in today's world, there is SO much data and information everywhere - from computers and the internet, to businesses tracking their sales and finances, to scientists collecting measurements and research. Anna's major helps her learn the best ways to manage all of that information so it can be useful.One of the first things Anna learned was about databases. A database is like a super storage closet for data and information, but it's digital instead of physical. All the data gets organized and sorted in a database so you can easily find what you need later. Anna showed me some database software on her computer and I thought it looked like a bunch of big spreadsheets with numbersand words. But she said databases can store way more than just text and numbers - they can also save images, audio files, videos, and all sorts of other multimedia stuff!Anna said one important part of her studies is learning how to design good databases. You have to plan out exactly how to organize and categorize the data in a logical way. Otherwise, the database could become a huge unorganized mess and you wouldn't be able to find anything! Designing databases takes a lot of planning and strategy.Another big part of information management is data analytics. This is where you take all the data that has been collected and stored, and you analyze it to discover useful insights and patterns. Anna showed me some of the data visualization tools and charts she uses to look at large data sets. With colorful graphs and diagrams, she can easily spot trends over time or differences between groups. She said data analytics helps businesses make smart decisions based on evidence rather than just guessing.But Anna doesn't just learn about databases and data - she also studies computer systems and coding too. Information systems are all the software, hardware, networks and processes that allow the data and information to flow. Anna has learnedprogramming languages like Python, SQL, and JavaScript to create her own apps, websites and system integrations. She showed me one project where she built a web app that tracks inventory for a store! It looked pretty complicated to me with all those lines of code.Another time, Anna was working on designing the architecture for a business network system. She had diagrams mapping out how all the desktop computers, laptops, servers, and other devices would be connected and communicate with each other. She said a strong, secure network is crucial for companies to share information and collaborate effectively. I didn't understand all the technical details, but it sounded really important.While a lot of her studies are focused on the technology and tools, Anna also learns about information management from an organizational perspective too. How should a company structure its processes and workforce to best leverage information to achieve its goals? What policies should be in place to ensure data privacy and security? How can information be used strategically by leaders to gain a competitive advantage? Those are some of the bigger picture topics Anna has to think about.One example Anna gave me was how businesses collect and analyze customer data from online shopping patterns and social media. Then they can use that information to personalize marketing, recommend products, and improve the customer experience. But they also have to be really careful about protecting people's private information and not misusing the data. It's a delicate balance between innovation and ethics that Anna's major explores.I think information management sounds like such an interesting field because it combines technology, data, coding, strategy, and even psychology! You need to be really good at problem solving, critical thinking, and communicating too. There are so many potential career paths with this degree, like:Database administratorData analyst/scientistComputer systems analystInformation security analystManagement consultantIT project managerBusiness/data analystThe list goes on! No matter what industry or company, every organization needs professionals who understand how to properly manage their information resources.Sometimes I get a little jealous hearing about all the awesome projects Anna gets to work on. She has built really cool information systems for everything from healthcare companies to e-commerce websites to community organizations. I can't wait until I'm older so I can study something just as fascinating!Maybe I'll end up following in Anna's footsteps and pursuing a degree in information management and systems too. Or maybe I'll go into a related field like computer science, cybersecurity, business analytics, or digital marketing. Whatever I choose, I know the technology and data skills I'll gain will be super valuable. This is just the beginning of the information age!Anna said the best advice she給可挺给我两个人做出任何决定is to stay very curious, creative and open-minded. The field of information and technology is rapidly changing, so you always have to be adaptable and willing to learn new things. She told me, "There will be new systems, new tools, new challenges emerging all the time. An information manager's job is to harness the power of data and put it to its highest use - whatever that might look like in the future."I think that's what fascinates me most about Anna's major. It's all about taking chaos and lack of clarity, and imposing logical order through smart management. With keen strategy and the right technological systems in place, suddenly you can turn overwhelming amounts of data into powerful insights that invite new possibilities. That's just so cool to me! I can't wait to see what the future of information holds.。