4200-SCS 半导体特性分析系统

半导体特性分析实验（PN结I-V特性测试）在微电子和固态电子学领域，半导体PN结几乎是构成一切有源器件以及像二极管一些无源器件的最基本单元。

本实验的目的是了解PN结的基本I-V特性，包括有非线性、整流性质，学习曲线拟合方法，求出波尔兹曼常数。

一、实验目的了解PN结的基本特性，掌握PN结的伏安特性，学习曲线拟合方法，求出波尔兹曼常数。

二、实验内容测试未封装PN结的I-V特性曲线，进行曲线拟合，求出波尔兹曼常数。

三、仪器设备4200-SCS半导体特性测试系统，二极管，探针台四、实验原理1、PN结的伏安特性在半导体材料中，P型区域与N型区域的交界处附近会形成一个特殊的区域，这个区域叫PN结。

PN结是半导体器件的核心，检测半导体器件实际上就是通过外部引脚测量内部PN结。

PN结具有三个重要参数：单向导电；正向导通压降；反向击穿电压，它们是判断PN结好坏、识别无标识的半导体器件类型和各引脚电极的主要依据。

二极管就是一个单独封装的PN结。

在未封装前检测PN结，进行实时监控，可以更及时迅速发现质量问题，减少浪费。

单向导电：当给PN结施加正向电压时，即正极（连接到P区）接正、负极接负（联结到N区）接负。

PN结呈现为导通状态，有正向电流流过，并且该电流将随着正向电压的增加，急剧增大。

当给PN结施加相反的电压时，二极管呈现为截止状态，只有少量的穿透电流I BO（µA级以下）流过。

正向导通压降：PN结上加上正向电压导通后，会保持一个相对固定的端电压VF，VF称为“正向导通压降”，其数值依选用的半导体基材不同而有别，锗半导体约为0.3V；硅半导体约为0.7V。

反向击穿电压：当给PN 结施加的反向电压值达到其所能承受的极限值（反向击穿电压VZ ，大小因不同的PN 结有别）时，二极管呈现为导通状态，且在允许的反向电流范围内，其端电压会基本保持为VZ ，即PN 结反向击穿后具有“稳压特性”。

这些参数都可以在伏安特性曲线也就是PN 结的I-V 特性曲线上可以得到。

吉时利(Keithley) 仪器公司在其4200型半导体特性分析系统中新增加了脉冲信号发生和测量功能，支持脉冲式的半导体特性分析功能。

新的PIV（脉冲I-V）子系统，更便于进行高介电（High－k）材料、热敏感器件和先进存储芯片等的前沿技术研究，使其测量更加准确，产品投入市场更加快速。

据称这是第一款商用化的集成了精确、可重复的脉冲和DC测量于一体的解决方案，而且使用非常方便。

脉冲I-V （简称PIV）子系统是吉时利公司Model 4200-SCS系统的一个新增选项。

Model 4200-SCS系统适用于实验室级别的精准DC特性测量和分析，具有亚飞安级的微电流分辨率和实时绘图、数据分析和处理能力。

该系统集成了目前最先进的半导体特性分析性能，包括一台带有Windows XP操作系统和大容量存储器的嵌入式PC机。

脉冲I-V （PIV）子系统建立在一个新的双通道脉冲发生器卡上，该卡的特点是拥有两个独立的通道，频率范围从1Hz到50MHz。

它能够产生短到10纳秒的脉冲，允许对SOI和其他65nm以及更小尺寸的器件和过程进行真实的等温脉冲测量。

精细的脉冲边缘的缓慢控制允许对界面态、AC Stress测试和存储器测试进行精确的源和测量。

用户能够控制几个脉冲参数，例如：脉冲宽度、占空比、升降时间、幅度和偏移量。

把脉冲式的功能和测量同Model 4200-SCS世界领先的DC特性结合起来，这在市场上尚是唯一的。

与脉冲I-V （PIV）子系统捆绑在一起的新的、正在申请专利的软件，无论在准确度还是在可重复性方面都带来了更好的效果。

集成的软件和面向用户的友好界面都是很容易学习和使用的，所以即使是非专业的用户都能快速上手并且得到很好的脉冲I-V测量结果。

PIV软件控制着脉冲发生器和测量，设置和驱动双通道脉冲发生器的脉冲产生、触发、进行脉冲测量，并收集和提交数据。

新的PIV软件套装，具有为保证测量完整性而设置的电缆补偿算法和为精确的脉冲极限电压提取设置的Load-line校正方案。

Making I‑V and C‑V Measurements on Solar/ Photovoltaic Cells Using the Model 4200‑SCS Semiconductor Characterization SystemIntroductionBecause of the increasing demand for energy and the limited supply of fossil fuels, the search for alternative sources of power is imperative. Given that there is a vast amount of energy avail-able from the sun, devices that convert light energy into elec-trical energy are becoming increasingly important. Solar or photovoltaic (PV) cells convert light energy into useful electrical power. These cells are produced from light-absorbing materials. When the cell is illuminated, optically generated carriers produce an electric current when the cell is connected to a load.A variety of measurements are made to determine the elec-trical characteristics of PV cells. Characterizing the cells often involves measuring the current and capacitance as a func-tion of an applied DC voltage. The measurements are usually done at different light intensities and temperature conditions. Important device parameters can be extracted from the current-voltage (I-V) and capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurements, such as the conversion efficiency and the maximum power output. Electrical characterization is also important to determine losses in the PV cell. Essentially, electrical characterization is neededto determine ways to make the cells as efficient as possible with minimal losses.To make these important electrical measurements, using a tool such as the Model 4200-SCS Semiconductor Characterization System can simplify testing and analysis. The 4200-SCS is a meas-urement system that includes instruments for both I-V and C-V measurements, as well as software, graphics, and mathematical analysis capability. The software includes tests for making I-V and C-V measurements specifically on solar cells and deriving common PV cell parameters from the test data. This application note describes how to use the Model 4200-SCS to make electrical measurements on PV Cells. Topics include the basic principlesof PV cells, connections of the cell in the measurement circuits, forward and reverse I-V measurements, C-V measurements, meas-urement considerations, and sources of error.Basic Photovoltaic Cell Circuitand Device ParametersA photovoltaic cell may be represented by the equivalent cir-cuit model shown in Figure 1. This model consists of current due to optical generation (I L), a diode that generates a current [I s(e qV/kT)], a series resistance (r s), and shunt resistance (r sh). The series resistance is due to the resistance of the metal contacts, ohmic losses in the front surface of the cell, impurity concentra-tions, and junction depth. The series resistance is an important parameter because it reduces both the short-circuit current and the maximum power output of the cell. Ideally, the series resis-tance should be 0Ω (r s = 0). The shunt resistance represents the loss due to surface leakage along the edge of the cell or due to crystal defects. Ideally, the shunt resistance should be infinite (r sh = ∞).Photon hυRLFigure 1. Idealized equivalent circuit of a photovoltaic cellIf a load resistor (R L) is connected to an illuminated PV cell, then the total current becomes:I = I S(e qV/kT – 1) – I Lwhere: I S = current due to diode saturationI L = current due to optical generationSeveral factors determine the efficiency of the solar cell,including the maximum power point (P max), the energy conver-sion efficiency (η), and the fill factor (FF). These points are illus-trated in Figure 2, which shows a typical forward bias I-V curve of an illuminated PV cell. The maximum power point (P max)is the product of the maximum cell current (I max) and voltage (V max) where the power output of the cell is greatest. This point is located at the “knee” of the curve.Imaxmax oc Figure 2. Typical forward bias I‑V characteristics of a PV cellNumber 2876 Application NoteSe r iesThe fill factor is a measure of how far the I-V characteristics of an actual PV cell differ from those of an ideal cell. The fill factoris defined as:I max V max FF = ___________ I sc V ocwhere: I max = the current at the maximum power outputV max = the voltage at the maximum power outputI sc = the short-circuit currentV oc = the open-circuit voltageAnother important parameter is the conversion efficiency (η), which is defined as the ratio of the maximum power output tothe power input to the cell:P max η = ______ P in where: P max = the maximum power output P in = the power input to the cell defined as the total radiant energy incident on the surface of the cell These described parameters of the solar cell can be deter-mined through electrical characterization of the device.Using the 4200-SCS to Make I-V and C-V Measurements on the Solar CellTo simplify testing, a project has been created for the 4200-SCS that makes both I-V and C-V measurements on a solar cell and also extracts common measurement parameters such as maxi-mum power, short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, etc. The project is called “CVU_Pvcell” and is included with all 4200-SCS systems running KITE version 7.0 or later. A screen shot of the project is shown in Figure 3. This project has five tests, called ITMs (Interactive Test Modules), that perform a forward bias I-V sweep (fwd-ivsweep ), reverse bias I-V sweep (rev-ivsweep ), C-V sweep (cvsweep ), 1/C 2 vs. V plot (C-2vsV ) and C-f sweep (cfsweep).Figure 3. Screen Shot of PV Cell Project for the 4200I-V Measurements Using the 4200-SMU As described previously, many important device parameters can be determined from current-voltage (I-V) measurementsof the solar cell. The I-V characteristics are measured using one of the Model 4200-SCS’s Source Measure Units (SMUs), which can source and measure both current and voltage. Twotypes of SMUs are available for the 4200-SCS: the Model 4200-SMU, which can source/sink up to 100mA, and the 4210-SMU,which can source/sink up to 1A. If the output current of the cellexceeds these current levels, then the output current may have tobe reduced. One way of reducing the output is to reduce the areaof the cell. If this is not possible, then the Keithley Series 2400 SourceMeter ® instruments, which are capable of sourcing/sinking higher currents, may be used.Making connections to the PV Cell A solar cell connected to the 4200-SCS’s SMU for I-V measure-ments is shown in Figure 4. A four-wire connection is made toeliminate the lead resistance that could otherwise affect the measurement accuracy. With the four-wire method, a voltage is sourced across the PV cell using one pair of leads (Force HI and Force LO), and the voltage drop across the cell is measured across a second set of leads (Sense HI and Sense LO). The sense leads ensure that the voltage developed across the cell is the pro-grammed output value and compensates for the lead resistance.4200-SMU or 4210-SMU Figure 4. Connections of 4200‑SCS’s SMU to Solar CellForward Bias I-V MeasurementsForward bias I-V measurements of the PV cell are generated under controlled illumination. The SMU is set up to source a voltage sweep and measure the resulting current. This forward bias sweep can be accomplished using the “fwd-ivsweep ” ITM. The user can adjust the sweep voltage to the desired values. As illustrated in Figure 2, the voltage source is swept from V 1 = 0 to V 2 = V OC . When the voltage source is 0 (V 1 = 0), the current is equal to the short-circuit current (I SC ). When the voltage source is an open circuit (V 2 = V OC ), then the current is equal to zero (I 2 = 0). The parameters V OC and I SC can easily be derived from the sweep data using the Model 4200-SCS’s built-in mathematicalanalysis tool, the Formulator. For convenience, the “CVU_Pvcell” project has the common parameters already calculated and the values automatically appear in the Sheet tab every time the test is executed. Figure 5 shows some of the derived parameters in the Sheet tab. These parameters include the short-circuit current (I SC ), the open circuit voltage (V OC ), the maximum power point (P max ), the maximum cell current (I max ), the maximum cell volt-age (V max), and the fill factor (FF).Figure 5. Results of Calculated Parameters Shown in Sheet TabUsing the Formulator, the conversion efficiency (η) can also be calculated if the power input to the cell is known. The current density (J) can also be derived using the area of the cell.Figure 6 shows an actual I-V sweep of an illuminated silicon PV cell generated by the 4200-SCS using the “fwd-ivsweep ” ITM. Because the system’s SMUs can sink current, the curve can pass through the fourth quadrant and allow power to be extracted from the device (I –, V +). Sometimes it may be desirable to plot log I vs. V. The Graph tab options support an easy transition betweengraphically displaying data on either a linear or a log scale.Figure 6. I‑V Sweep of Silicon PV Cell Generated with the 4200‑SMUThe series resistance, (r s ), can be determined from the for-ward I-V sweep at two or more light intensities. First, make I-V curves at two different intensities. Knowing the magnitudes of the intensities is not important. Measure the slope of this curve from the far forward characteristics where the curve becomes linear. The inverse of this slope yields the series resistance: ∆V r s = ____∆IUsing additional light intensities, this technique can beextended using multiple points located near the knee of the curves. As illustrated in Figure 7, a line is generated from which the series resistance can be calculated from the slope.C u r r e n t (m A )Figure 7. Slope Method Used to Calculate the Series ResistanceAn important measurement feature of the system’s SMU as an ammeter is that it has very low voltage burden. The voltage burden is the voltage drop across the ammeter during the meas-urement. Most conventional digital multimeters (DMMs) will have a voltage burden of at least 200mV at full scale. Given that only millivolts may be sourced to the sample, this can cause large errors. The 4200-SCS’s SMU never produces more than a few hundred microvolts of voltage burden, or voltage drop, in the measurement circuit.Reverse Bias I-V MeasurementsThe leakage current and shunt resistance (r sh ) can be derived from the reverse bias I-V data. Typically, the test is performed in the dark. The voltage is sourced from 0V to a voltage level where the device begins to break down. The resulting current is measured and plotted as a function of the voltage. Depending on the size of the cell, the leakage current can be as small as in the picoamp region. The Model 4200-SCS has a preamp option that allows making accurate measurements well below a picoamp. When making very sensitive low current measurements (nano-amps and smaller), use low noise cables and place the device in a shielded enclosure to shield the device electrostatically. This conductive shield is connected to the Force LO terminal of the 4200-SCS. The Force LO terminal connection can be made from the outside shell of the triax connectors, the black binding poston the ground unit (GNDU), or from the Force LO triax connec-tor on the GNDU.One method for determining the shunt resistance of the PV cell is from the slope of the reverse bias I-V curve, as shown in Figure 8. From the linear region of this curve, the shunt resist-ance can be calculated as: ∆V Reverse Bias r s = ______________∆I Reverse BiasFigure 8. Typical Reverse‑Bias Characteristics of a PV CellAn actual curve of a reverse-biased PV cell is shown in Figure 9. This curve was generated using the ITM “rev-ivsweep ”. In this semi-log graph, the absolute value of the current is plotted as a function of the reverse bias voltage that is on an inverted x-axis.Figure 9. Actual Reverse Bias Measurement of Silicon PV Cell Using4200‑SMUCapacitance Measurements Using the 4200-CVUIn addition to determining the I-V characteristics of a PV cell, capacitance-voltage measurements are also useful in deriv-ing particular parameters about the device. Depending on the type of PV cell, the AC capacitance can be used to derive such parameters as doping concentration and the built-in voltage of the junction. A capacitance-frequency sweep can be used to pro-vide information about the existence of traps in the depletion region. The Model 4200-CVU, the Model 4200-SCS’s optionalCapacitance-Voltage Unit, can measure the capacitance as a func-tion of an applied DC voltage (C-V), a function of frequency (C-f),or a function of time (C-t).To make a C-V measurement, a solar cell is connected to the 4200-CVU as shown in Figure 10. Like I-V measurements made with the SMU, the C-V measurement also involves a four-wire connection to compensate for lead resistance. The HPOT/HCUR terminals are connected to the anode and the LPOT/LCUR ter-minals are connected to the cathode. This connects the high DC voltage source terminal of the CVU to the anode.Not shown in the simplified diagram are the shields of the coax cables. The shields from the coax cables need to be con-nected together as close as possible to the solar cell. Connecting the shields together is necessary for obtaining the highestaccuracy because it reduces the effects of the inductance in the measurement circuit. This is especially important for capacitance measurements made at the higher test frequencies.To reduce the effects of cable capacitance, it is also important to perform a SHORT cal, OPEN cal, and Cable Correction. These simple procedures are discussed in Section 15 of the 4200-SCS Complete Reference Manual.Given that the capacitance of the cell is directly related to the area of the device, it may be necessary to reduce the area, if possible, to avoid capacitances that may be too high to measure. Also, setting the 4200-CVU to measure capacitance at a lower test frequency (10kHz) and/or lower AC drive voltage will allow mak-ing higher capacitance measurements.4200-CVUFigure 10. Connecting the 4200‑CVU to a Solar CellC-V SweepC-V measurements can be made either forward-biased or reverse-biased. However, when the cell is forward-biased, the applied DC voltage must be limited; otherwise, the conductance may get too high. The maximum DC current cannot be greater than 10mA; otherwise, the DC voltage output will not be at the desired level.Figure 11 illustrates a C-V curve of a silicon solar cell gener-ated by the 4200-CVU using the “cvsweep ” ITM. This test wasperformed in the dark while the cell was reverse-biased.Figure 11. C‑V Sweep of Silicon Solar CellInstead of plotting dC/dV, it is sometimes desirable to view the data as 1/C 2 vs. V. The doping density (N) can be derived from the slope of this curve because N is related to the capaci-tance by: 2N(a) =______________________qE S A 2[d(1/C 2)/dV]where: N(a) = the doping density (1/cm 3) q = the electron charge (1.60219 × 10–19C) E s = semiconductor permittivity (1.034 × 10–12F/cm for silicon) A = area (cm 2)C = measured capacitance (F)V = applied DC voltage (V)The built-in voltage of the cell junction can be derived from the intersection of the 1/C 2 curve and the horizontal axis. This plot should be a fairly straight line. An actual curve taken with the 4200-CVU is shown in Figure 12. This graph was generated using the “C-2vsV ” ITM. The “Linear Line Fits” graph option can be used to derive both the doping density (N) and the built-in voltage on the x-axis. The doping density is calculated as a func-tion of voltage in the Formulator and appears in the Sheet tab in the ITM. The user must input the Area of the device in theConstants area of the Formulator.Figure 12. 1/C2 vs. Voltage of a Silicon Solar CellC-f SweepThe 4200-CVU can also measure capacitance as a function offrequency. The curve in Figure 13 was generated by using the “cfsweep ” ITM. The user can adjust the range of sweep frequencyas well as the bias voltage.Figure 13. C‑f Sweep of Solar CellConclusionMeasuring the electrical characteristics of a solar cell is critical for determining the device’s output performance and efficiency. The Model 4200-SCS simplifies cell testing by automating the I-V and C-V measurements and provides graphics and analysis capa-bility. In addition to the tests described here, the 4200-SCS can also be used to make resistivity measurements on the materials used for the PV cells, a process that is described in a separate Application Note, #2475, “Four-Probe Resistivity and Hall Voltage Measurements with the Model 4200-SCS,” which is available for download from .Specifications are subject to change without notice.All Keithley trademarks and trade names are the property of Keithley Instruments, Inc.All other trademarks and trade names are the property of their respective companies.A G R E A T E R M E A S U R E O F C O N F I D E N C EKeIThley InSTRUMenTS, InC.■ 28775 AurorA roAd ■ ClevelAnd, ohio 44139-1891 ■ 440-248-0400 ■ Fax: 440-248-6168 ■ 1-888-KeiThleY ■ BelGIUMSint-Pieters-leeuw Ph: 02-363 00 40 Fax: 02-363 00 64 www.keithley.nl ChInABeijingPh: 8610-82255010Fax: 8610-82255018FInlAndespooPh: 09-88171661Fax: 09-88171662FRAnCeSaint-AubinPh: 01-64 53 20 20Fax: 01-60-11-77-26www.keithley.frGeRMAnyGermeringPh: 089-84 93 07-40Fax: 089-84 93 07-34www.keithley.deIndIABangalorePh: 080-26771071-73Fax: 080-26771076ITAlyMilanoPh: 02-553842.1 Fax: 02-55384228 www.keithley.it jAPAnTokyoPh: 81-3-5733-7555Fax: 81-3-5733-7556www.keithley.jpKoReASeoulPh: 82-2-574-7778Fax: 82-2-574-7838www.keithley.co.krMAlAySIAPenangPh: 60-4-656-2592Fax: 60-4-656-3794neTheRlAndSGorinchemPh: 0183-63 53 33Fax: 0183-63 08 21www.keithley.nlSInGAPoReSingaporePh: 65-6747-9077Fax: 65-6747-2991.sgSwedenSolnaPh: 08-50 90 46 00Fax: 08-655 26 10SwITzeRlAndZürichPh: 044-821 94 44Fax: 41-44-820 30 81www.keithley.chTAIwAnhsinchuPh: 886-3-572-9077Fax: 886-3-572-9031UnITed KInGdoMThealePh: 0118-929 75 00Fax: 0118-929 75 19© Copyright 2007 Keithley Instruments, Inc.Printed in the U.S.A.No. 2876Oct. 07 2k。

半导体Ｃ—ｖ测量基础ＬｅｅＳｔａｕｆｆｅｒ（吉时利仪器公司）通用测试电容一电压（Ｃ—Ｖ）测试广泛用于测量半导体参数，尤其是ＭＯＳＣＡＰ和ＭＯＳＦＥＴ结构。

此外，利用Ｃ—Ｖ测量还可以对其他类型的半导体器件和工艺进行特征分析，包括双极结型品体管（ＢＪＴ）、ＪＦＥＴ、ＩＩＩ—Ｖ族化合物器件、光伏电池、ＭＥＭＳ器件、有机Ｔ盯显示器、光电二极管、碳纳米管（ＣＮＴ）和多种其他半导体器件。

这类测量的基本特征非常适用于各种应用和培训。

大学的研究实验事和半导体厂商利用这类测量评测新材料、新工艺、新器件和新电路。

Ｃ—Ｖ测虽埘于产品和良率增强。

Ｔ：程师也是极其重要的，他们负责提高工艺和器件的性能。

可靠性Ｔ程师利用这类测量评估材料供货，监测工艺参数，分析失效机制。

采用一定的方法、仪器和软件，ｈＴ以得到多种半导体器件和材料的参数。

从评测外延生长的多晶开始，这些信息在整个生产链中都会用到，包括诸如平均掺杂浓度、掺杂分布和载流子寿命等参数。

在圆片Ｔ艺中，Ｃ—Ｖ测量ｎＴ用于分析栅氧厚度、栅氧电荷、游离子（杂质）和界面阱密度。

在后续的工艺步骤中也会用到这类测量，例如光刻、刻蚀、清洗、电介质和多晶硅沉积、金属化等。

当在圆片上完全制造出器件之后，在ｎｒ靠性和基本器件测试过程中可以利用Ｃ—Ｖ测量对阂值电压和其他一些参数进行特征分析，对器件性能进行建模。

半导体电容的物理特性ＭＯＳＣＡＰ结构足在半导体制造过程中形成的一种基本器件结构（如图ｌ所示）。

尽管这类器件町以用于真实电路中，但是人们通常将其作为一种测试结构集成在制造工艺中。

由于这种结构比较简单而且制造过程容易控制，因此它们足评测底层工艺的一种方便的方法。

图１Ｐ型衬底上形成的ＭＯＳＣＡＰ结构的Ｃ—Ｖ测量电路图１中的金属／多晶层是电容的一极，二氧化硅是绝缘囵鼋哥詹｛层。

由于绝缘层下面的衬底是一种半导体材料，因此它本身并不是电容的另一极。

实际上，其中的多数载流子是电容的另一极。

物理Ｉ：而言，电容ｃ町以通过下列公式中的变量计算出来：Ｃ＝Ａ（Ｋ，ｄ），其中Ａ是电容的面积；Ｋ是绝缘体的介电常数；ｄ是两极的Ｉ’日Ｊ距。