下载文档原格式
the english court structure -回复英国的法院结构是英国司法体系的基础，它的目的是确保司法程序的公正和有效。
英国的法院体系分为英格兰和威尔士法院体系和苏格兰法院体系两个主要部分。
本文将逐步介绍英格兰和威尔士法院体系的组织结构和功能。
英格兰和威尔士法院体系是英国的主要法院体系，它们由不同层级的法院组成，每个法院都有自己的特定职责和管辖范围。
英格兰和威尔士法院体系的基础是最高法院，它是英格兰和威尔士的最高上诉法院，可以审理涉及重大法律和宪法问题的案件。
最高法院的主要职责是确保法律的一致性和正确性，对辖区内其他法院的判决进行审查和上诉。
下一层级是上诉法院，它是英格兰和威尔士的上诉法院，对下级法院的判决进行审理和上诉。
上诉法院的判决具有法律约束力，可以对上诉法院的判决提起上诉。
下一层级是高等法院，它是英格兰和威尔士的主要民事和刑事法院。
高等法院处理大部分犯罪案件、民事诉讼案件和行政法案件。
高等法院下设多个部门，如刑事法庭、民事法庭和家庭法庭，每个部门负责特定类型的案件。
高等法院下面是郡法院和副郡法院，它们是地方法院，处理较小规模的民事和刑事案件。
这些法院在英格兰和威尔士各个地区设有分院，以提供更便利和容易接触的司法服务。
另外，英格兰和威尔士还有一些特殊的法院，如上诉执法庭和特别法院。
上诉执法庭处理有关警务机构和执法部门决策的上诉案件。
特别法院处理一些特殊性质的案件，如商业法院和知识产权法院。
除了英格兰和威尔士法院体系，苏格兰法院体系也是英国司法体系的一部分。
苏格兰法院体系独立于英格兰和威尔士的法庭体系，拥有自己的法律和司法程序。
苏格兰法院体系分为最高法院、上诉法庭、高等法院和地方法院等层级，每个层级都有类似英格兰和威尔士法院体系的组织结构和功能。
总的来说，英格兰和威尔士法院体系和苏格兰法院体系构成了英国司法体系的基础。
这些法院通过各自的组织结构和职能，确保司法程序的公正和效率。
英国国会两院制大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国国会，中文简称英国国会，是英国和英国海外领地（独自享有议会主权）的最高立法机关。
英国国会的首领为英国君主；它还包括上议院和下议院。
上议院议员分为两种：上议院神职议员（即英国国教中的高级神职人员）和上议院世俗议员（即贵族成员）。
上议院议员大部分是以指派方式产生。
下议院则恰恰相反，是由民主选举产生。
上议院和下议院位于大伦敦威斯敏斯特市威斯敏斯特宫（即国会大厦）不同的房间内。
英格兰国会的起源可追寻到盎格鲁撒克逊时期。
盎格鲁撒克逊国王通常由一个被称为咨议院的议会辅佐，咨议院通常由国王的儿子和兄弟组成。
郡守，或各郡的行政司法长官，以及高级神职人员在咨议院同样拥有席位。
国王仍拥有最终权力，但法律却只能通过寻求咨议院的建议（以及后期的咨议院同意）而制定。
威廉将其祖国法国的封建制度带到英格兰。
随后他便将土地赐予其重要的军事支持者，这些人又将土地赠与他们的支持者，从而形成一套封建等级制度。
那些直接从国王手中得到土地的人被称为领主，而他们的领地被称为采邑。
威廉一世是一位专制君主，但理所当然的是，他在制定法律之前也要向由领主和神职人员组成的议会寻求咨询。
在1215年制定的大宪章中，确立了国王不能随意课征任何税赋。
但实际上遵守大宪章的英国国王并不多。
国会自中世纪谏议国王的会议衍生而来。
御前会议其后成为牧师、贵族、与各郡代表的组合（其后又加入各自治镇代表）。
首届国会通称“模范议会”（于1295年举行）。
包含大主教、主教、修道院院长、伯爵、男爵、以及各郡与各自治镇代表。
国会之权威增长缓慢，随着君权之升降而起伏。
例如说，爱德华二世在位期间（1307年－1327年），贵族拥有无上权威，皇权受制，而各郡与各自治镇代表则软弱无力。
1322年，国会首次非经一般惯例或王室特许认可其职权，而是以国会自行通过确立其权威地位的方式，认可自身职权。
爱德华二世之继任者爱德华三世在位期间，事态发展更进一步。
《英语国家概况》六个国家立法机构、执法机构和司法机构立法机构英国arliament(maximum 5 years duration)Parliament consisted of the Sovereign,the House of Lords(made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal) and House of Commons(651).美国：CongressArticle I of the Constitution grants all legislative power of the federal government to a Congress composed of two chambers,aSenate(two members from each state,six year term and every even year,one-third of the Senate stands for re-election ) and a House of Representatives(based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the Constitution.435).爱尔兰：All the legislative power are vested in the national parliament.(Oireachats)Oireachats has two houses. They are the Senate(Seanad) and the House of Representives(Dail Eireann)加拿大：All the legislative power of the federal administration are vested in the Parliament of Canada,which consists of the Crown,the Senate(104) and the House of Commons(295).Therefore,laws must be passed by both Houses of Parliament and signed by the Governor-General in the Queen's name.澳大利亚：The Australian Federal Parliament is modelled on the Westminster system.It is the Legislature.It consists of the Queen and two Houses of Parliament:the House of Representatives and the Senate.新西兰：New Zealand follows the British Parliamentary system with some varitions.Since 1950 the New Zealand Parliament has had only one chamber,the House of Representatives. (every 3 years)执法机构英国:The Prime Minister is apointed by the Queen.He always sits in the House of Commons.And his residence is No.10 Downing Street in London.The party which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of supporters in the House of Commons usually forms the Government.Ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The most senior ministers compose the Cabinet.美国：The head of the departments,chosen by the President and approved by the Senate,form a council of advisers generally known as the President. This inculdes the White House staff,the Office of Management and Budget,the Council of Economic Advisers,and the Office of Emergerency Preparedness. The department are as follows(不打上来了,是书上的P305)爱尔兰：The Article 13 of the Constitution provides that the president shall appoint the prime minister(toiseach) on the nomination of the House of Representatives(Dail) and that he shall appoint the other members of the government on the nomination of the prime minister with the previous approval of the Dail.The prime minister holds office either until he chooses to resign or until he loses the support of the majority in the Dail.加拿大：Queen is represented in Canada by theGovernor-General,who is appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.In practice,the Governor-General acts only the advice of the Canada Prime Minister and the Cabinet,who also sit in the federal parliament. The Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet exercise executive power as the "Government".澳大利亚：In Australia the Queen is represented by the Govenor-General.(这里和加拿大是完全一样的)The executive is the government of the day.It is formed by the party or coalition of parties,which has a majority of seats in the House of Representatives.The Executive consists of the Prime Minister and the other members of the ministry.新西兰：The leader of the party with a majority of members in the House of Representatives becomes Prime Minister.He or she andabout 20 other chosen members,form the Cabinet.司法机构英国:Criminal Courts in England and Wales including:Magistrates Courts,Youth Courts and the Crown CourtsScotland:1.the High Courts of Justiciary 2.the sheriff court 3. the district courtNorthern Ireland:magistrates' courts,Country courts and the Crown CourtCivil Courts in England and Wales are the Country Court of which there are 270.The High Court deal with the more complicated cases. Scotland:the civil courts are the sheriff court and the Court of Session.Northern Ireland:Country courts are primarily civil law courts. The magistrates' court also deals with certain limited classes of civil cases.The High Court of Justice is the superior civil lawcourt.Appeals from country courts are dealt with by the High Court or the Court of Appeal.美国：The judicial,consists of a system of courts headed by the Supreme Court and including subordinate courts throughtout the country.And it is the organ which has the power to interpret the Constitution.The judicial system has evovlved into the present structure:the Supreme Court,11 courts of appeals,91 district courts,and three courts of special jurisdiction.爱尔兰：Statutes passed by the British Parliament before 1921 have the force of law except those repealed by the Irish Oireachats. The high court has full origianal jurisdiction and power in all matters of law.It also can determine the validity of any law within the provisions of the Constitution.The Supreme Court is the court of final appeal.(a chief jusice and six other jusices)加拿大：Canada law has its source in acts and judicial decisions,and also in British common law. Quebec is an exception since its system is based on the French civil law.The provincial and federal governments have the power to establish courts. The federal Parliament created the Supreme Court of Canada,the Federal Court and various of special jurisdiction.澳大利亚：The High Court is the most superior.It consists of a chief jusice and six other jusices.The Federal Court of Australia was established in 1977.The Family Court was established in 1976.In each state there is a Superior Court. Below it are intermediate courts commonly called District or County Courts. Below them are Magistrates Courts,Local Courts or Courts of Petty Session.。
英国政治制度结构图The political system in the UK is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. This means that there is a monarch who is the head of state, but their powers are largely ceremonial, and political decisions are made by elected representatives in Parliament.At the top of the political structure is the monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The monarch's role is mostly symbolic, and they do not have a significant role in decision-making. The monarch's powers include giving royal assent to legislation, appointing the Prime Minister, and representing the country on official visits and events.The next level in the political structure is the Parliament, which is divided into two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is the lower house and consists of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public in general elections. The House of Commons is responsible for debating and passing laws, scrutinizing the government, and representing the interests of their constituents.The House of Lords is the upper house of Parliament and is made up of appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers. The House of Lords acts as a revising chamber, examining and revising legislation proposed by the House of Commons. However, it does not have the power to veto or block legislation.The leader of the party with the most seats in the House ofCommons becomes the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is responsible for leading the country, making decisions on important policies, and representing the country on the international stage. The Prime Minister appoints other members of their party to the Cabinet, who are responsible for specific areas of government and policy.In addition to the monarch, Parliament, and the Prime Minister, there are other important political institutions and bodies in the UK. These include the judiciary, which interprets and applies the law, and the civil service, which supports the government in implementing policies and running the country.There are also devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, which have their own separate governments with powers over certain areas such as education, health, and transportation. These devolved administrations work alongside the UK government to make decisions on matters that affect their respective regions.The UK political system is known for its traditions and procedures, including the use of parliamentary debates, question time, and committees to hold the government accountable. It is also characterized by a strong adherence to the rule of law, principles of democracy, and a respect for individual rights and liberties.In summary, the political structure in the UK is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. The monarch is the head of state, but their powers are largely ceremonial. The Parliament consists of the House of Commons and the House ofLords, with the Prime Minister leading the government. There are also important political institutions and devolved administrations that contribute to the governance of the UK.。
英国司法体制分析及理论探讨发布日期：2006-05-17 文章来源：互联网（体制简介部分）英国的司法制度渊源流长。
19世纪末英国通过对其司法组织系统进行较大规模改革后初步形成了近代英国司法制度的框架，对英美法系国家的司法制度有着深远的影响。
英国没有全国统一的司法机构，尽管它是一个统一的中央集权的国家，英国分为英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰和北爱尔兰四个地区，其中后两个地区的司法体制与英格兰不同。
这是英国司法制度的一大特点。
这里所介绍的英国司法体制仅指英格兰和威尔士地区。
一、司法行政机关英国没有专门的司法部，司法行政事务在英格兰和威尔士由法务大臣和内政大臣行使，设有法务大臣办公室和内政部。
在英国，法务大臣是最高法院院长、上议院议长、内阁成员是全国司法部门的首脑，负有司法、立法、行政三种职务。
法务大臣办公室主要职能是：负责管理全国的法院系统；制定并监督执行司法方面的政策及行业标准；向议会提出修改法律的意见；管理全国的司法工作人员，包括录用、培训、考证及工资福利等；负责向全国司法机构的运转提供财政物资保障等。
内政部在司法行政方面的职权主要体现在法律和秩序的管理，对刑法制度负有总体责任，同时负责警察、监狱和其他惩戒机关。
其内部设有消防和警察司，刑事、缓刑和安置司，广播、社区计划、平等机会、移民和国籍司，监狱司，编制司、财政和综合司等多种机构。
二、律师制度英国的现代律师制度是在经历19世纪司法改革后才最终定型的。
目前所有的律师法都已由《1974年律师法》合而为一，该法是根据从1957年至1974年间与律师有关的法律和其他法律规定制定的。
该法对律师资格的取得，律师执业的权利和义务，对律师的管理等作了明确的规定。
英国律师制度最突出的特点是，根据从业方式和从业范围，将职业律师划分为出庭律师和事务律师两类。
事务律师在一定意义上是辩护律师与当事人之间的纽带。
出庭律师是专门从事高级法院辩护业务的律师。
事务律师和出庭律师两种律师资格所要求的条件不同。
英国民事司法改革架构中的ADR(2)司法制度(1) -随着诉讼费用高昂、诉讼迟延的问题日趋突出，寻求通过诉讼外方式解决纠纷自然而然地进入了人们的视野。
从法院角度看，1994年，商事法院首次发布了《诉讼实务告示》(Practice Note)，要求律师提醒当事人考虑使用ADR，并且要求在所有案件中法律顾问应该“(1)和客户及其他当事人共同考虑试图通过调解、调停或其他方法解决特定纠纷的可能性。
(2)确保向当事人全面告知解决特定纠纷的最有效的方法。
”由于这一《诉讼实务告示》仅仅规定律师负有与其客户和其他当事人考虑采取ADR的强制性义务，而并未规定当事人在法院程序中负有采取ADR的义务，因此该《诉讼实务告示》后来被废止了。
但在1995年发布的《诉讼实务告示》中，法官创造了一种“劝导”当事人使用ADR的所谓“劝导性命令”(persuasive order)，尽管该“劝导”并不是强制性的，但考虑到如果拒绝使用ADR或在使用ADR过程中从事不当行为，则法官在裁定诉讼费用时会予以考虑，毫无疑问，当事人都会认真考虑这一“劝导”。
[12] 商事法院的上述立场全面体现于1995年高等法院发布的《诉讼实务告示》中。
该《诉讼实务告示》首次明确了法官在案件管理中的作用，法官据此可以要求法律顾问至少必须在审判前两个月提供一份清单(checklist)，清单必须涉及如下问题，比如法律顾问是否与客户及其他当事方探讨使用ADR的可能性、是否考虑使用某种ADR 帮助解决或缩小争议等。
[13] 从民间角度看，民事司法改革前ADR实践的主要成就体现在ADR组织的逐步建立，从而为ADR实践奠定了必要的组织基础和人力资源基础。
在这方面，英国三大ADR组织，即专家协会(Academy of Experts)、ADR集团(ADR Group)以及纠纷解决中心(CEDR)的作用尤其重要。
这些ADR不仅解决纠纷，更重要的是在ADR人力资源建设方面做了大量工作，特别是专家协会在培训中立第三人方面成就卓著。
国外司法鉴定管理体制和司法鉴定机构设置情况一、国外司法鉴定管理体制及特点（一）国外司法鉴定管理体制1英国。
在管理主体架构上,英国司法鉴定统一管理机构是由内政部、检察院、警察局共同成立的法庭科学管理委员会,负责对全国司法鉴定工作进行指导。
该委员会设在内政部,独立于警察、检察机构。
英国内政部具体负责一些管理工作。
如对英格兰和威尔士鉴定科学服务局进行政策指导。
在管理内容上,英国虽无鉴定人资格统一的考试考核制度,但英国内政部掌握着一大批由行业协会推荐的专家名单,定期公告,起推荐和引导作用。
从1988年起,由英国两个咨询公司对司法鉴定机构进行统一的评估认证。
鉴定机构采用统一的技术标准。
目前,欧洲12个成员国已经建立了统一的DNA鉴定技术标准。
从改革的方向上,英国的司法鉴定改革趋势明显地向集中方向发展。
1995年4月,英国鉴定机构进行了改革,把7个对全国有重要影响的法庭科学实验室收归内政部统一管理,并开始办案收费制度。
2000年11月成立了专家证人注册委员会,对包括在警察局工作的现场勘验人员、社会其他鉴定人员等实行自愿注册制,定期公告专家证人的资信、能力及服务水平。
2美国。
虽然美国是联邦制国家,鉴定管理体制较为分散,鉴定人的资格主要由行业协会确定。
但也有统一管理的机构,即美国司法部的国家执法与矫正技术中心,负责建立统一的司法鉴定标准,对鉴定机构进行评估和认证工作。
目前已建立了DNA、电器、武器、毛发、车灯等数据库。
3澳大利亚。
澳大利亚司法鉴定管理体制架构上有政策的制定机构,即澳新(新西兰)司法鉴定高级管理者委员会;有实验室的统一认证机构,即澳大利亚联邦国家测试认证中心;有主要的管理机构,即澳新司法鉴定协会。
澳新司法鉴定高级管理者委员会,主要职责是制定司法鉴定实验室的管理政策,委员会有6名执行委员会,下设专家委员会,每年召开1次年会。
澳大利亚联邦政府通过司法鉴定协会体现对司法鉴定的管理职能。
管理的内容主要有:一是每两年对全国所有的鉴定人进行登记注册。
