金融风险管理主编朱淑珍大学出社课后习题解答

金融风险管理（22金融升本）学习通课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年
1.结构风险的特征主要有（）
参考答案:
是一种结果风险###伴随其他风险产生###不可避免性
2.存贷比例等于存款总额比贷款总额，比值越大，流动性越强，流动性风险越
小
参考答案:
错
3.关于资本金结构风险，以下说法正确的是（）
参考答案:
保持较多的主动型负债，资本金结构风险小###定期存款和长期借款权重过高，资本金结构风险大###是由于金融机构资产、负债结构搭配不合理而引发的风险
4.（）是指投资期限短，信誉好，变现能力强的资产。

参考答案:
流动性资产
5.结构风险的产生既有机构内部资产负债结构调整的因素，又有外部经济环境
的影响。

参考答案:
对
6.（）认为保持金融机构资金流动性的最好办法是购买那些可以及时变现的资
产
参考答案:
资产转移理论
7.结构风险的动态度量法有（）
参考答案:
流动性缺口度量法###现金流量分析法###净流动性资产度量法
8.关于预期收入理论，以下说法正确的是（）
参考答案:
增强商业银行的地位###认为贷款的清偿依赖于借款者未来收入###促进贷款形式多样化
9.结构风险包括流动性风险
参考答案:
对
10.早期的结构风险管理侧重于对负债流动性的管理
参考答案:
错
11.资产质量好，资产结构合理，则资本金结构风险小
参考答案:
对。

《风险管理与金融机构》第1~5章习题答案1.16 解：由资本市场线可得：p m fm f p r r r r δδ-+= ，()()f m m f p p r r r r -⨯-=δδ，如题中所述%15%,7,12.0===m f m r r δ，则当%10=p r ，标准差%9=p δ；当%20=p r ，标准差%39=p δ1.17（1）设在99%置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率为A ，银行在下一年的盈利占资产的比例为X ，由于盈利服从正态分布，因此银行在99%的置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率的概率为)(A X P ->，由此可得%99)%2%8.0()%2%8.0(1)(1)(=+=---=-<-=->A N A N A X P A X P 查表得33.2%2%8.0=+A ，解得A=3.86%，即在99%置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率为3.86%。

（2）设在99.9%置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率为B ，银行在下一年的盈利占资产的比例为Y ，由于盈利服从正态分布，因此银行在99.9%的置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率的概率为)(B Y P ->,由此可得%9.99)%2%8.0()%2%8.0(1)(1)(=+=---=-<-=->B N B N B Y P B Y P 查表得10.3%2%8.0=+B ，解得B=5.4%，即在99.9%置信度下股权资本为正的当前资本金持有率为5.4%。

1.18 该经理产生的阿尔法为08.0)05.03.0(2.005.01.0-=--⨯---=α，即-8%，因此该经理的观点不正确，自身表现不好。

2.15收入服从正太分布，假定符合要求的最低资本金要求为X ，则有)99.0(Φ=-σμx ，既有01.326.0=-X ，解得X=6.62，因此在5%的资本充足率水平下，还要再增加1.62万美元的股权资本，才能保证在99.9%的把握下，银行的资本金不会被完全消除。

《金融风险管理》期末复习资料整理考试题型：单项选择题（每题1分，共10分）多项选择题（每题2分，共10分）判断题（每题1分，共5分）计算题（每题15分，共30分）（考试有计算题，一定要带计算器）简答题（每题10分，共30分）论述题（每题15分，共15分）（一定要展开论述）复习资料整理：样题参考、期末复习重点、习题辅导、学习指导、蓝本、（考试可带计算器）金融风险管理样题参考（一）单项选择题（每题1分，共10分）狭义的信用风险是指银行信用风险，也就是由于__________主观违约或客观上还款出现困难，而给放款银行带来本息损失的风险。

（ B ）A. 放款人B. 借款人C. 银行D. 经纪人（二）多项选择题（每题2分，共10分）在下列“贷款风险五级分类”中，哪几种贷款属于“不良贷款”：（ACE ）A. 可疑B. 关注C. 次级D. 正常E. 损失（三）判断题（每题1分，共5分）贷款人期权的平衡点为“市场价格= 履约价格- 权利金”。

（X ）（五）简答题（每题10分，共30分）商业银行会面临哪些外部和内部风险？答：（1）商业银行面临的外部风险包括：①信用风险。

是指合同的一方不履行义务的可能性。

②市场风险。

是指因市场波动而导致商业银行某一头寸或组合遭受损失的可能性。

③法律风险，是指因交易一方不能执行合约或因超越法定权限的行为而给另一方导致损失的风险。

（2）商业银行面临的内部风险包括：①财务风险，主要表现在资本金严重不足和经营利润虚盈实亏两个方面。

②流动性风险，是指银行流动资金不足，不能满足支付需要，使银行丧失清偿能力的风险。

③内部管理风险，即银行内部的制度建设及落实情况不力而形成的风险。

（六）论述题（每题15分，共15分）你认为应该从哪些方面构筑我国金融风险防范体系？答：可以借鉴“金融部门评估计划”的系统经验，健全我国金融风险防范体系。

（1）建立金融风险评估体系金融风险管理主要有四个环节，即识别风险，衡量风险，防范风险和化解风险，这些都依赖于风险评估，而风险评估是防范金融风险的前提和基础。

第一章1.1 ()40%*0.130%*0.215%*0.35(5%)*0.25(15%)*0.1E R =+++-+-=12.5%222222()(40%)*0.1(30%)*0.2(15%)*0.35(5%)*0.25(15%)*0.1E R =+++-+-=0.04475=17.07%1.2由公式1122p p w u w u =+=µσ得出回报的期望值为12.5%，标准差为0..130=即13%1.31ω 2ω p μ(%) p σ(%)(ρ=0.3) p σ(%)(ρ=1) pσ(%)(ρ=-1) 0.01.0 15 24.00 24.00 24.000.20.8 14 20.39 22.40 16.000.40.6 13 17.42 20.80 8.000.60.4 12 15.48 19.20 0.000.80.2 11 14.96 17.60 8.001.00.0 10 16.00 16.0016.00 注：两种资产回报的期望值分别为10%和15%，回报的标准方差为16%和24%1.4（1）非系统风险与市场投资组合的回报无关，可以通过构造足够大的投资组合来分散，系统风险是市场投资组合的某个倍数，不可以被分散。

（2）对投资人来说，系统风险更重要。

因为当持有一个大型而风险分散的投资组合时，系统风险并没有消失。

投资人应该为此风险索取补偿。

（3）这两个风险都有可能触发企业破产成本。

例如：2008年美国次贷危机引发的全球金融风暴（属于系统风险），导致全球不计其数的企业倒闭破产。

象安然倒闭这样的例子是由于安然内部管理导致的非系统风险。

1.5理论依据：大多数投资者都是风险厌恶者，他们希望在增加预期收益的同时也希望减少回报的标准差。

在有效边界的基础上引入无风险投资，从无风险投资F 向原有效边界引一条相切的直线，切点就是M ，所有投资者想要选择的相同的投资组合，此时新的有效边界是一条直线，预期回报与标准差之间是一种线性替代关系，选择M 后，投资者将风险资产与借入或借出的无风险资金进行不同比例的组合来体现他们的风险胃口。

《金融风险管理》形考作业参考答案作业1参考答案一、单项选择题1.C2.A3.C4.A5.C二、多项选择题1.ABCD2.ABCD3.AC4.ABCD5.BCD三、判断题1.×2.×3.√4.×5.×四、计算题1.解：900=1000/（1+i），i=11.1%2.解：计算公式如下：Pd=C/(1+r)+C/(1+r)2+C/(1+r)3+⋯⋯+C/(1+r)n+F/(1+r)n 76=12/(1+i)+12/(1+i)2+12/(1+i)3+⋯⋯+12/(1+i)n+100/(1+i)n从而计算出i=20%3. 解：Pr=R’−Rf=β×(R’m−Rf)=1.5×(8%−2%)=9%R’=Pr+Rf=9%+2%=11%4. 解：该笔风险贷款的价格(利率)r*=(1+r)/(1−d)−1=(1+2%)/(1−20%)−1=0.2755. 解：（1）风险调整资产=表内加权风险资产+表外加权风险资产=7400+6000=13400万美元（2）一级资本充足率=一级资本额/风险调整资产×100%=600/13400×100%=4.48% （3）总资本充足率=（一级资本额+二级资本额）/风险调整资产×100%=（600+500）/13400×100%=8.21%五、简答题1.教材P14-P162.教材P203.教材P43-P44六、论述题教材P32-P33作业2参考答案一、单项选择题1.B2.A3.A4.A5.C二、多项选择题1.ABCD2.ABC3.ABCD4.AC5.CD三、判断题1.×2.×3. ×4. √5. √四、计算题1.解：（1）μ=（-100）×0.1+（-50）×0.15+0×0.2+50×0.25+100×0.2+150×0.1=30（2）σ2=0.1×(−100−30)2+0.15×（−50−30）2+0.2×（0−30）2+0.25×（50−30）2+0.3×（100−30）2+0.1×（150−30）2=53502. 解：（1）超额储备金=1000+20-4000×20%=220亿元（2）超额储备比例=220/4000×100%=5.5%（3）超额储备是商业银行在中央银行的存款和现金减去法定准备金，超额准备比例越高，银行流动性越强，但此指标局限性十分明显，它只是在一种狭窄的意义上体现金融机构的流动性状况，很容易导致低估流动性。

Chapter OneWhy Are Financial Intermediaries Special?Chapter OutlineIntroductionFinancial Intermediaries’ Specialness•Information Costs•Liquidity and Price Risk•Other Special ServicesOther Aspects of Specialness•The Transmission of Monetary Policy•Credit Allocation•Intergenerational Wealth Transfers or Time Intermediation •Payment Services•Denomination IntermediationSpecialness and Regulation•Safety and Soundness Regulation•Monetary Policy Regulation•Credit Allocation Regulation•Consumer Protection Regulation•Investor Protection Regulation•Entry RegulationThe Changing Dynamics of Specialness•Trends in the United States•Future Trends•Global IssuesSummarySolutions for End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems: Chapter One1. Identify and briefly explain the five risks common to financial institutions.Default or credit risk of assets, interest rate risk caused by maturity mismatches between assets and liabilities, liability withdrawal or liquidity risk, underwriting risk, and operating cost risks.2. Explain how economic transactions between household savers of funds and corporate users of funds would occur in a world without financial intermediaries (FIs).In a world without FIs the users of corporate funds in the economy would have to approach directly the household savers of funds in order to satisfy their borrowing needs. This process would be extremely costly because of the up-front information costs faced by potential lenders. Cost inefficiencies would arise with the identification of potential borrowers, the pooling of small savings into loans of sufficient size to finance corporate activities, and the assessment of risk and investment opportunities. Moreover, lenders would have to monitor the activities of borrowers over each loan's life span. The net result would be an imperfect allocation of resources in an economy.3. Identify and explain three economic disincentives that probably would dampen the flow offunds between household savers of funds and corporate users of funds in an economic world without financial intermediaries.Investors generally are averse to purchasing securities directly because of (a) monitoring costs, (b) liquidity costs, and (c) price risk. Monitoring the activities of borrowers requires extensive time, expense, and expertise. As a result, households would prefer to leave this activity to others, and by definition, the resulting lack of monitoring would increase the riskiness of investing in corporate debt and equity markets. The long-term nature of corporate equity and debt would likely eliminate at least a portion of those households willing to lend money, as the preference of many for near-cash liquidity would dominate the extra returns which may be available. Third, the price risk of transactions on the secondary markets would increase without the information flows and services generated by high volume.4. Identify and explain the two functions in which FIs may specialize that enable the smoothflow of funds from household savers to corporate users.FIs serve as conduits between users and savers of funds by providing a brokerage function and by engaging in the asset transformation function. The brokerage function can benefit both savers and users of funds and can vary according to the firm. FIs may provide only transaction services, such as discount brokerages, or they also may offer advisory services which help reduce information costs, such as full-line firms like Merrill Lynch. The asset transformation function is accomplished by issuing their own securities, such as deposits and insurance policies that are more attractive to household savers, and using the proceeds to purchase the primary securities ofcorporations. Thus, FIs take on the costs associated with the purchase of securities.5. In what sense are the financial claims of FIs considered secondary securities, while thefinancial claims of commercial corporations are considered primary securities? How does the transformation process, or intermediation, reduce the risk, or economic disincentives, to the savers?The funds raised by the financial claims issued by commercial corporations are used to invest in real assets. These financial claims, which are considered primary securities, are purchased by FIs whose financial claims therefore are considered secondary securities. Savers who invest in the financial claims of FIs are indirectly investing in the primary securities of commercial corporations. However, the information gathering and evaluation expenses, monitoring expenses, liquidity costs, and price risk of placing the investments directly with the commercial corporation are reduced because of the efficiencies of the FI.6. Explain how financial institutions act as delegated monitors. What secondary benefitsoften accrue to the entire financial system because of this monitoring process?By putting excess funds into financial institutions, individual investors give to the FIs the responsibility of deciding who should receive the money and of ensuring that the money is utilized properly by the borrower. In this sense the depositors have delegated the FI to act as a monitor on their behalf. The FI can collect information more efficiently than individual investors. Further, the FI can utilize this information to create new products, such as commercial loans, that continually update the information pool. This more frequent monitoring process sends important informational signals to other participants in the market, a process that reduces information imperfection and asymmetry between the ultimate sources and users of funds in the economy.7. What are five general areas of FI specialness that are caused by providing various servicesto sectors of the economy?First, FIs collect and process information more efficiently than individual savers. Second, FIs provide secondary claims to household savers which often have better liquidity characteristics than primary securities such as equities and bonds. Third, by diversifying the asset base FIs provide secondary securities with lower price-risk conditions than primary securities. Fourth, FIs provide economies of scale in transaction costs because assets are purchased in larger amounts. Finally, FIs provide maturity intermediation to the economy which allows the introduction of additional types of investment contracts, such as mortgage loans, that are financed with short-term deposits.8. How do FIs solve the information and related agency costs when household savers investdirectly in securities issued by corporations? What are agency costs?Agency costs occur when owners or managers take actions that are not in the best interests of the equity investor or lender. These costs typically result from the failure to adequately monitor theactivities of the borrower. If no other lender performs these tasks, the lender is subject to agency costs as the firm may not satisfy the covenants in the lending agreement. Because the FI invests the funds of many small savers, the FI has a greater incentive to collect information and monitor the activities of the borrower.9. What often is the benefit to the lenders, borrowers, and financial markets in general of thesolution to the information problem provided by the large financial institutions?One benefit to the solution process is the development of new secondary securities that allow even further improvements in the monitoring process. An example is the bank loan that is renewed more quickly than long-term debt. The renewal process updates the financial and operating information of the firm more frequently, thereby reducing the need for restrictive bond covenants that may be difficult and costly to implement.10. How do FIs alleviate the problem of liquidity risk faced by investors who wish to invest inthe securities of corporations?Liquidity risk occurs when savers are not able to sell their securities on demand. Commercial banks, for example, offer deposits that can be withdrawn at any time. Yet the banks make long-term loans or invest in illiquid assets because they are able to diversify their portfolios and better monitor the performance of firms that have borrowed or issued securities. Thus individual investors are able to realize the benefits of investing in primary assets without accepting the liquidity risk of direct investment.11. How do financial institutions help individual savers diversify their portfolio risks? Whichtype of financial institution is best able to achieve this goal?Money placed in any financial institution will result in a claim on a more diversified portfolio. Banks lend money to many different types of corporate, consumer, and government customers, and insurance companies have investments in many different types of assets. Investment in a mutual fund may generate the greatest diversification benefit because of the fund’s investment in a wide array of stocks and fixed income securities.12. How can financial institutions invest in high-risk assets with funding provided by low-riskliabilities from savers?Diversification of risk occurs with investments in assets that are not perfectly positively correlated. One result of extensive diversification is that the average risk of the asset base of an FI will be less than the average risk of the individual assets in which it has invested. Thus individual investors realize some of the returns of high-risk assets without accepting the corresponding risk characteristics.13. How can individual savers use financial institutions to reduce the transaction costs ofinvesting in financial assets?By pooling the assets of many small investors, FIs can gain economies of scale in transaction costs. This benefit occurs whether the FI is lending to a corporate or retail customer, or purchasing assets in the money and capital markets. In either case, operating activities that are designed to deal in large volumes typically are more efficient than those activities designed for small volumes.14. What is maturity intermediation? What are some of the ways in which the risks ofmaturity intermediation are managed by financial intermediaries?If net borrowers and net lenders have different optimal time horizons, FIs can service both sectors by matching their asset and liability maturities through on- and off-balance sheet hedging activities and flexible access to the financial markets. For example, the FI can offer the relatively short-term liabilities desired by households and also satisfy the demand for long-term loans such as home mortgages. By investing in a portfolio of long-and short-term assets that have variable- and fixed-rate components, the FI can reduce maturity risk exposure by utilizing liabilities that have similar variable- and fixed-rate characteristics, or by using futures, options, swaps, and other derivative products.15. What are five areas of institution-specific FI specialness, and which types of institutions aremost likely to be the service providers?First, commercial banks and other depository institutions are key players for the transmission of monetary policy from the central bank to the rest of the economy. Second, specific FIs often are identified as the major source of finance for certain sectors of the economy. For example, S&Ls and savings banks traditionally serve the credit needs of the residential real estate market. Third, life insurance and pension funds commonly are encouraged to provide mechanisms to transfer wealth across generations. Fourth, depository institutions efficiently provide payment services to benefit the economy. Finally, mutual funds provide denomination intermediation by allowing small investors to purchase pieces of assets with large minimum sizes such as negotiable CDs and commercial paper issues.16. How do depository institutions such as commercial banks assist in the implementation andtransmission of monetary policy?The Federal Reserve Board can involve directly the commercial banks in the implementation of monetary policy through changes in the reserve requirements and the discount rate. The open market sale and purchase of Treasury securities by the Fed involves the banks in the implementation of monetary policy in a less direct manner.17. What is meant by credit allocation regulation? What social benefit is this type ofregulation intended to provide?Credit allocation regulation refers to the requirement faced by FIs to lend to certain sectors of the economy, which are considered to be socially important. These may include housing and farming. Presumably the provision of credit to make houses more affordable or farms moreviable leads to a more stable and productive society.18. Which intermediaries best fulfill the intergenerational wealth transfer function? What isthis wealth transfer process?Life insurance and pension funds often receive special taxation relief and other subsidies to assist in the transfer of wealth from one generation to another. In effect, the wealth transfer process allows the accumulation of wealth by one generation to be transferred directly to one or more younger generations by establishing life insurance policies and trust provisions in pension plans. Often this wealth transfer process avoids the full marginal tax treatment that a direct payment would incur.19. What are two of the most important payment services provided by financial institutions?To what extent do these services efficiently provide benefits to the economy?The two most important payment services are check clearing and wire transfer services. Any breakdown in these systems would produce gridlock in the payment system with resulting harmful effects to the economy at both the domestic and potentially the international level.20. What is denomination intermediation? How do FIs assist in this process?Denomination intermediation is the process whereby small investors are able to purchase pieces of assets that normally are sold only in large denominations. Individual savers often invest small amounts in mutual funds. The mutual funds pool these small amounts and purchase negotiable CDs which can only be sold in minimum increments of $100,000, but which often are sold in million dollar packages. Similarly, commercial paper often is sold only in minimum amounts of $250,000. Therefore small investors can benefit in the returns and low risk which these assets typically offer.21. What is negative externality? In what ways do the existence of negative externalities justifythe extra regulatory attention received by financial institutions?A negative externality refers to the action by one party that has an adverse affect on some third party who is not part of the original transaction. For example, in an industrial setting, smoke from a factory that lowers surrounding property values may be viewed as a negative externality. For financial institutions, one concern is the contagion effect that can arise when the failure of one FI can cast doubt on the solvency of other institutions in that industry.22. If financial markets operated perfectly and costlessly, would there be a need forfinancial intermediaries?To a certain extent, financial intermediation exists because of financial market imperfections. If information is available costlessly to all participants, savers would not need intermediaries to act as either their brokers or their delegated monitors. However, if there are social benefits tointermediation, such as the transmission of monetary policy or credit allocation, then FIs would exist even in the absence of financial market imperfections.23. What is mortgage redlining?Mortgage redlining occurs when a lender specifically defines a geographic area in which it refuses to make any loans. The term arose because of the area often was outlined on a map with a red pencil.24. Why are FIs among the most regulated sectors in the world? When is netregulatory burden positive?FIs are required to enhance the efficient operation of the economy. Successful financial intermediaries provide sources of financing that fund economic growth opportunity that ultimately raises the overall level of economic activity. Moreover, successful financial intermediaries provide transaction services to the economy that facilitate trade and wealth accumulation.Conversely, distressed FIs create negative externalities for the entire economy. That is, the adverse impact of an FI failure is greater than just the loss to shareholders and other private claimants on the FI's assets. For example, the local market suffers if an FI fails and other FIs also may be thrown into financial distress by a contagion effect. Therefore, since some of the costs of the failure of an FI are generally borne by society at large, the government intervenes in the management of these institutions to protect society's interests. This intervention takes the form of regulation.However, the need for regulation to minimize social costs may impose private costs to the firms that would not exist without regulation. This additional private cost is defined as a net regulatory burden. Examples include the cost of holding excess capital and/or excess reserves and the extra costs of providing information. Although they may be socially beneficial, these costs add to private operating costs. To the extent that these additional costs help to avoid negative externalities and to ensure the smooth and efficient operation of the economy, the net regulatory burden is positive.25. What forms of protection and regulation do regulators of FIs impose to ensuretheir safety and soundness?Regulators have issued several guidelines to insure the safety and soundness of FIs:a. FIs are required to diversify their assets. For example, banks cannot lend morethan 10 percent of their equity to a single borrower.b. FIs are required to maintain minimum amounts of capital to cushion anyunexpected losses. In the case of banks, the Basle standards require a minimum core and supplementary capital of 8 percent of their risk-adjusted assets.c. Regulators have set up guaranty funds such as BIF for commercial banks, SIPCfor securities firms, and state guaranty funds for insurance firms to protectindividual investors.d. Regulators also engage in periodic monitoring and surveillance, such as on-siteexaminations, and request periodic information from the FIs.26. In the transmission of monetary policy, what is the difference between insidemoney and outside money? How does the Federal Reserve Board try to control the amount of inside money? How can this regulatory position create a cost for the depository financial institutions?Outside money is that part of the money supply directly produced and controlled by the Fed, for example, coins and currency. Inside money refers to bank deposits not directly controlled by the Fed. The Fed can influence this amount of money by reserve requirement and discount rate policies. In cases where the level of required reserves exceeds the level considered optimal by the FI, the inability to use the excess reserves to generate revenue may be considered a tax or cost of providing intermediation.27. What are some examples of credit allocation regulation? How can this attemptto create social benefits create costs to the private institution?The qualified thrift lender test (QTL) requires thrifts to hold 65 percent of their assets in residential mortgage-related assets to retain the thrift charter. Some states have enacted usury laws that place maximum restrictions on the interest rates that can be charged on mortgages and/or consumer loans. These types of restrictions often create additional operating costs to the FI and almost certainly reduce the amount of profit that could be realized without such regulation.28. What is the purpose of the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act? What are thesocial benefits desired from the legislation? How does the implementation of this legislation create a net regulatory burden on financial institutions?The HMDA was passed by Congress to prevent discrimination in mortgage lending. The social benefit is to ensure that everyone who qualifies financially is provided the opportunity to purchase a house should they so desire. The regulatory burden has been to require a written statement indicating the reasons why credit was or was not granted. Since 1990, the federal regulators have examined millions of mortgage transactions from more than 7,700 institutions each calendar quarter.29. What legislation has been passed specifically to protect investors who use investment banksdirectly or indirectly to purchase securities? Give some examples of the types of abuses for which protection is provided.The Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 and the Investment Company Act of 1940 were passed byCongress to protect investors against possible abuses such as insider trading, lack of disclosure, outright malfeasance, and breach of fiduciary responsibilities.30. How do regulations regarding barriers to entry and the scope of permitted activities affectthe charter value of financial institutions?The profitability of existing firms will be increased as the direct and indirect costs of establishing competition increase. Direct costs include the actual physical and financial costs of establishing a business. In the case of FIs, the financial costs include raising the necessary minimum capital to receive a charter. Indirect costs include permission from regulatory authorities to receive a charter. Again in the case of FIs this cost involves acceptable leadership to the regulators. As these barriers to entry are stronger, the charter value for existing firms will be higher.31. What reasons have been given for the growth of investment companies at the expense of“traditional” banks and insurance companies?The recent growth of investment companies can be attributed to two major factors: a. Investors have demanded increased access to direct securities markets.Investment companies and pension funds allow investors to take positions indirect securities markets while still obtaining the risk diversification, monitoring, and transactional efficiency benefits of financial intermediation. Some experts would argue that this growth is the result of increased sophistication on the part of investors; others would argue that the ability to use these markets has caused the increased investor awareness. The growth in these assets is inarguable.b. Recent episodes of financial distress in both the banking and insuranceindustries have led to an increase in regulation and governmental oversight,thereby increasing the net regulatory burden of “traditional” companies. Assuch, the costs of intermediation have increased, which increases the cost ofproviding services to customers.32. What are some of the methods which banking organizations have employed to reduce thenet regulatory burden? What has been the effect on profitability?Through regulatory changes, FIs have begun changing the mix of business products offered to individual users and providers of funds. For example, banks have acquired mutual funds, have expanded their asset and pension fund management businesses, and have increased the security underwriting activities. In addition, legislation that allows banks to establish branches anywhere in the United States has caused a wave of mergers. As the size of banks has grown, an expansion of possible product offerings has created the potential for lower service costs. Finally, the emphasis in recent years has been on products that generate increases in fee income, and the entire banking industry has benefited from increased profitability in recent years.33. What characteristics of financial products are necessary for financial markets to becomeefficient alternatives to financial intermediaries? Can you give some examples of the commoditization of products which were previously the sole property of financial institutions?Financial markets can replace FIs in the delivery of products that (1) have standardized terms, (2) serve a large number of customers, and (3) are sufficiently understood for investors to be comfortable in assessing their prices. When these three characteristics are met, the products often can be treated as commodities. One example of this process is the migration of over-the-counter options to the publicly traded option markets as trading volume grows and trading terms become standardized.34. In what way has Regulation 144A of the Securities and Exchange Commission provided anincentive to the process of financial disintermediation?Changing technology and a reduction in information costs are rapidly changing the nature of financial transactions, enabling savers to access issuers of securities directly. Section 144A of the SEC is a recent regulatory change that will facilitate the process of disintermediation. The private placement of bonds and equities directly by the issuing firm is an example of a product that historically has been the domain of investment bankers. Although historically private placement assets had restrictions against trading, regulators have given permission for these assets to trade among large investors who have assets of more than $100 million. As the market grows, this minimum asset size restriction may be reduced.Chapter TwoThe Financial Services Industry: Depository InstitutionsChapter OutlineIntroductionCommercial Banks•Size, Structure, and Composition of the Industry•Balance Sheet and Recent Trends•Other Fee-Generating Activities•Regulation•Industry PerformanceSavings Institutions•Savings Associations (SAs)•Savings Banks•Recent Performance of Savings Associations and Savings BanksCredit Unions•Size, Structure, and Composition of the Industry and Recent Trends•Balance Sheets•Regulation•Industry PerformanceGlobal Issues: Japan, China, and GermanySummaryAppendix 2A: Financial Statement Analysis Using a Return on Equity (ROE) FrameworkAppendix 2B: Depository Institutions and Their RegulatorsAppendix 3B: Technology in Commercial BankingSolutions for End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems: Chapter Two1.What are the differences between community banks, regional banks, andmoney-center banks? Contrast the business activities, location, and markets of each of these bank groups.Community banks typically have assets under $1 billion and serve consumer and small business customers in local markets. In 2003, 94.5 percent of the banks in the United States were classified as community banks. However, these banks held only 14.6 percent of the assets of the banking industry. In comparison with regional and money-center banks, community banks typically hold a larger percentage of assets in consumer and real estate loans and a smaller percentage of assets in commercial and industrial loans. These banks also rely more heavily on local deposits and less heavily on borrowed and international funds.Regional banks range in size from several billion dollars to several hundred billion dollars in assets. The banks normally are headquartered in larger regional cities and often have offices and branches in locations throughout large portions of the United States. Although these banks provide lending products to large corporate customers, many of the regional banks have developed sophisticated electronic and branching services to consumer and residential customers. Regional banks utilize retail deposit bases for funding, but also develop relationships with large corporate customers and international money centers.Money center banks rely heavily on nondeposit or borrowed sources of funds. Some of these banks have no retail branch systems, and most regional banks are major participants in foreign currency markets. These banks compete with the larger regional banks for large commercial loans and with international banks for international commercial loans. Most money center banks have headquarters in New York City.e the data in Table 2-4 for the banks in the two asset size groups (a) $100million-$1 billion and (b) over $10 billion to answer the following questions.a. Why have the ratios for ROA and ROE tended to increase for both groupsover the 1990-2003 period? Identify and discuss the primary variables thataffect ROA and ROE as they relate to these two size groups.The primary reason for the improvements in ROA and ROE in the late 1990smay be related to the continued strength of the macroeconomy that allowedbanks to operate with a reduced regard for bad debts, or loan charge-offproblems. In addition, the continued low interest rate environment hasprovided relatively low-cost sources of funds, and a shift toward growth in fee income has provided additional sources of revenue in many product lines.。

Chapter OneWhy Are Financial Intermediaries Special?Chapter OutlineIntroductionFinancial Intermediaries’ Specialness•Information Costs•Liquidity and Price Risk•Other Special ServicesOther Aspects of Specialness•The Transmission of Monetary Policy•Credit Allocation•Intergenerational Wealth Transfers or Time Intermediation •Payment Services•Denomination IntermediationSpecialness and Regulation•Safety and Soundness Regulation•Monetary Policy Regulation•Credit Allocation Regulation•Consumer Protection Regulation•Investor Protection Regulation•Entry RegulationThe Changing Dynamics of Specialness•Trends in the United States•Future Trends•Global IssuesSummarySolutions for End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems: Chapter One1. Identify and briefly explain the five risks common to financial institutions.Default or credit risk of assets, interest rate risk caused by maturity mismatches between assets and liabilities, liability withdrawal or liquidity risk, underwriting risk, and operating cost risks.2. Explain how economic transactions between household savers of funds and corporate users of funds would occur in a world without financial intermediaries (FIs).In a world without FIs the users of corporate funds in the economy would have to approach directly the household savers of funds in order to satisfy their borrowing needs. This process would be extremely costly because of the up-front information costs faced by potential lenders. Cost inefficiencies would arise with the identification of potential borrowers, the pooling of small savings into loans of sufficient size to finance corporate activities, and the assessment of risk and investment opportunities. Moreover, lenders would have to monitor the activities of borrowers over each loan's life span. The net result would be an imperfect allocation of resources in an economy.3. Identify and explain three economic disincentives that probably would dampen the flow offunds between household savers of funds and corporate users of funds in an economic world without financial intermediaries.Investors generally are averse to purchasing securities directly because of (a) monitoring costs, (b) liquidity costs, and (c) price risk. Monitoring the activities of borrowers requires extensive time, expense, and expertise. As a result, households would prefer to leave this activity to others, and by definition, the resulting lack of monitoring would increase the riskiness of investing in corporate debt and equity markets. The long-term nature of corporate equity and debt would likely eliminate at least a portion of those households willing to lend money, as the preference of many for near-cash liquidity would dominate the extra returns which may be available. Third, the price risk of transactions on the secondary markets would increase without the information flows and services generated by high volume.4. Identify and explain the two functions in which FIs may specialize that enable the smoothflow of funds from household savers to corporate users.FIs serve as conduits between users and savers of funds by providing a brokerage function and by engaging in the asset transformation function. The brokerage function can benefit both savers and users of funds and can vary according to the firm. FIs may provide only transaction services, such as discount brokerages, or they also may offer advisory services which help reduce information costs, such as full-line firms like Merrill Lynch. The asset transformation function is accomplished by issuing their own securities, such as deposits and insurance policies that are more attractive to household savers, and using the proceeds to purchase the primary securities ofcorporations. Thus, FIs take on the costs associated with the purchase of securities.5. In what sense are the financial claims of FIs considered secondary securities, while thefinancial claims of commercial corporations are considered primary securities? How does the transformation process, or intermediation, reduce the risk, or economic disincentives, to the savers?The funds raised by the financial claims issued by commercial corporations are used to invest in real assets. These financial claims, which are considered primary securities, are purchased by FIs whose financial claims therefore are considered secondary securities. Savers who invest in the financial claims of FIs are indirectly investing in the primary securities of commercial corporations. However, the information gathering and evaluation expenses, monitoring expenses, liquidity costs, and price risk of placing the investments directly with the commercial corporation are reduced because of the efficiencies of the FI.6. Explain how financial institutions act as delegated monitors. What secondary benefitsoften accrue to the entire financial system because of this monitoring process?By putting excess funds into financial institutions, individual investors give to the FIs the responsibility of deciding who should receive the money and of ensuring that the money is utilized properly by the borrower. In this sense the depositors have delegated the FI to act as a monitor on their behalf. The FI can collect information more efficiently than individual investors. Further, the FI can utilize this information to create new products, such as commercial loans, that continually update the information pool. This more frequent monitoring process sends important informational signals to other participants in the market, a process that reduces information imperfection and asymmetry between the ultimate sources and users of funds in the economy.7. What are five general areas of FI specialness that are caused by providing various servicesto sectors of the economy?First, FIs collect and process information more efficiently than individual savers. Second, FIs provide secondary claims to household savers which often have better liquidity characteristics than primary securities such as equities and bonds. Third, by diversifying the asset base FIs provide secondary securities with lower price-risk conditions than primary securities. Fourth, FIs provide economies of scale in transaction costs because assets are purchased in larger amounts. Finally, FIs provide maturity intermediation to the economy which allows the introduction of additional types of investment contracts, such as mortgage loans, that are financed with short-term deposits.8. How do FIs solve the information and related agency costs when household savers investdirectly in securities issued by corporations? What are agency costs?Agency costs occur when owners or managers take actions that are not in the best interests of the equity investor or lender. These costs typically result from the failure to adequately monitor theactivities of the borrower. If no other lender performs these tasks, the lender is subject to agency costs as the firm may not satisfy the covenants in the lending agreement. Because the FI invests the funds of many small savers, the FI has a greater incentive to collect information and monitor the activities of the borrower.9. What often is the benefit to the lenders, borrowers, and financial markets in general of thesolution to the information problem provided by the large financial institutions?One benefit to the solution process is the development of new secondary securities that allow even further improvements in the monitoring process. An example is the bank loan that is renewed more quickly than long-term debt. The renewal process updates the financial and operating information of the firm more frequently, thereby reducing the need for restrictive bond covenants that may be difficult and costly to implement.10. How do FIs alleviate the problem of liquidity risk faced by investors who wish to invest inthe securities of corporations?Liquidity risk occurs when savers are not able to sell their securities on demand. Commercial banks, for example, offer deposits that can be withdrawn at any time. Yet the banks make long-term loans or invest in illiquid assets because they are able to diversify their portfolios and better monitor the performance of firms that have borrowed or issued securities. Thus individual investors are able to realize the benefits of investing in primary assets without accepting the liquidity risk of direct investment.11. How do financial institutions help individual savers diversify their portfolio risks? Whichtype of financial institution is best able to achieve this goal?Money placed in any financial institution will result in a claim on a more diversified portfolio. Banks lend money to many different types of corporate, consumer, and government customers, and insurance companies have investments in many different types of assets. Investment in a mutual fund may generate the greatest diversification benefit because of the fund’s investment in a wide array of stocks and fixed income securities.12. How can financial institutions invest in high-risk assets with funding provided by low-riskliabilities from savers?Diversification of risk occurs with investments in assets that are not perfectly positively correlated. One result of extensive diversification is that the average risk of the asset base of an FI will be less than the average risk of the individual assets in which it has invested. Thus individual investors realize some of the returns of high-risk assets without accepting the corresponding risk characteristics.13. How can individual savers use financial institutions to reduce the transaction costs ofinvesting in financial assets?By pooling the assets of many small investors, FIs can gain economies of scale in transaction costs. This benefit occurs whether the FI is lending to a corporate or retail customer, or purchasing assets in the money and capital markets. In either case, operating activities that are designed to deal in large volumes typically are more efficient than those activities designed for small volumes.14. What is maturity intermediation? What are some of the ways in which the risks ofmaturity intermediation are managed by financial intermediaries?If net borrowers and net lenders have different optimal time horizons, FIs can service both sectors by matching their asset and liability maturities through on- and off-balance sheet hedging activities and flexible access to the financial markets. For example, the FI can offer the relatively short-term liabilities desired by households and also satisfy the demand for long-term loans such as home mortgages. By investing in a portfolio of long-and short-term assets that have variable- and fixed-rate components, the FI can reduce maturity risk exposure by utilizing liabilities that have similar variable- and fixed-rate characteristics, or by using futures, options, swaps, and other derivative products.15. What are five areas of institution-specific FI specialness, and which types of institutions aremost likely to be the service providers?First, commercial banks and other depository institutions are key players for the transmission of monetary policy from the central bank to the rest of the economy. Second, specific FIs often are identified as the major source of finance for certain sectors of the economy. For example, S&Ls and savings banks traditionally serve the credit needs of the residential real estate market. Third, life insurance and pension funds commonly are encouraged to provide mechanisms to transfer wealth across generations. Fourth, depository institutions efficiently provide payment services to benefit the economy. Finally, mutual funds provide denomination intermediation by allowing small investors to purchase pieces of assets with large minimum sizes such as negotiable CDs and commercial paper issues.16. How do depository institutions such as commercial banks assist in the implementation andtransmission of monetary policy?The Federal Reserve Board can involve directly the commercial banks in the implementation of monetary policy through changes in the reserve requirements and the discount rate. The open market sale and purchase of Treasury securities by the Fed involves the banks in the implementation of monetary policy in a less direct manner.17. What is meant by credit allocation regulation? What social benefit is this type ofregulation intended to provide?Credit allocation regulation refers to the requirement faced by FIs to lend to certain sectors of the economy, which are considered to be socially important. These may include housing and farming. Presumably the provision of credit to make houses more affordable or farms moreviable leads to a more stable and productive society.18. Which intermediaries best fulfill the intergenerational wealth transfer function? What isthis wealth transfer process?Life insurance and pension funds often receive special taxation relief and other subsidies to assist in the transfer of wealth from one generation to another. In effect, the wealth transfer process allows the accumulation of wealth by one generation to be transferred directly to one or more younger generations by establishing life insurance policies and trust provisions in pension plans. Often this wealth transfer process avoids the full marginal tax treatment that a direct payment would incur.19. What are two of the most important payment services provided by financial institutions?To what extent do these services efficiently provide benefits to the economy?The two most important payment services are check clearing and wire transfer services. Any breakdown in these systems would produce gridlock in the payment system with resulting harmful effects to the economy at both the domestic and potentially the international level.20. What is denomination intermediation? How do FIs assist in this process?Denomination intermediation is the process whereby small investors are able to purchase pieces of assets that normally are sold only in large denominations. Individual savers often invest small amounts in mutual funds. The mutual funds pool these small amounts and purchase negotiable CDs which can only be sold in minimum increments of $100,000, but which often are sold in million dollar packages. Similarly, commercial paper often is sold only in minimum amounts of $250,000. Therefore small investors can benefit in the returns and low risk which these assets typically offer.21. What is negative externality? In what ways do the existence of negative externalities justifythe extra regulatory attention received by financial institutions?A negative externality refers to the action by one party that has an adverse affect on some third party who is not part of the original transaction. For example, in an industrial setting, smoke from a factory that lowers surrounding property values may be viewed as a negative externality. For financial institutions, one concern is the contagion effect that can arise when the failure of one FI can cast doubt on the solvency of other institutions in that industry.22. If financial markets operated perfectly and costlessly, would there be a need forfinancial intermediaries?To a certain extent, financial intermediation exists because of financial market imperfections. If information is available costlessly to all participants, savers would not need intermediaries to act as either their brokers or their delegated monitors. However, if there are social benefits tointermediation, such as the transmission of monetary policy or credit allocation, then FIs would exist even in the absence of financial market imperfections.23. What is mortgage redlining?Mortgage redlining occurs when a lender specifically defines a geographic area in which it refuses to make any loans. The term arose because of the area often was outlined on a map with a red pencil.24. Why are FIs among the most regulated sectors in the world? When is netregulatory burden positive?FIs are required to enhance the efficient operation of the economy. Successful financial intermediaries provide sources of financing that fund economic growth opportunity that ultimately raises the overall level of economic activity. Moreover, successful financial intermediaries provide transaction services to the economy that facilitate trade and wealth accumulation.Conversely, distressed FIs create negative externalities for the entire economy. That is, the adverse impact of an FI failure is greater than just the loss to shareholders and other private claimants on the FI's assets. For example, the local market suffers if an FI fails and other FIs also may be thrown into financial distress by a contagion effect. Therefore, since some of the costs of the failure of an FI are generally borne by society at large, the government intervenes in the management of these institutions to protect society's interests. This intervention takes the form of regulation.However, the need for regulation to minimize social costs may impose private costs to the firms that would not exist without regulation. This additional private cost is defined as a net regulatory burden. Examples include the cost of holding excess capital and/or excess reserves and the extra costs of providing information. Although they may be socially beneficial, these costs add to private operating costs. To the extent that these additional costs help to avoid negative externalities and to ensure the smooth and efficient operation of the economy, the net regulatory burden is positive.25. What forms of protection and regulation do regulators of FIs impose to ensuretheir safety and soundness?Regulators have issued several guidelines to insure the safety and soundness of FIs:a. FIs are required to diversify their assets. For example, banks cannot lend morethan 10 percent of their equity to a single borrower.b. FIs are required to maintain minimum amounts of capital to cushion anyunexpected losses. In the case of banks, the Basle standards require a minimum core and supplementary capital of 8 percent of their risk-adjusted assets.c. Regulators have set up guaranty funds such as BIF for commercial banks, SIPCfor securities firms, and state guaranty funds for insurance firms to protectindividual investors.d. Regulators also engage in periodic monitoring and surveillance, such as on-siteexaminations, and request periodic information from the FIs.26. In the transmission of monetary policy, what is the difference between insidemoney and outside money? How does the Federal Reserve Board try to control the amount of inside money? How can this regulatory position create a cost for the depository financial institutions?Outside money is that part of the money supply directly produced and controlled by the Fed, for example, coins and currency. Inside money refers to bank deposits not directly controlled by the Fed. The Fed can influence this amount of money by reserve requirement and discount rate policies. In cases where the level of required reserves exceeds the level considered optimal by the FI, the inability to use the excess reserves to generate revenue may be considered a tax or cost of providing intermediation.27. What are some examples of credit allocation regulation? How can this attemptto create social benefits create costs to the private institution?The qualified thrift lender test (QTL) requires thrifts to hold 65 percent of their assets in residential mortgage-related assets to retain the thrift charter. Some states have enacted usury laws that place maximum restrictions on the interest rates that can be charged on mortgages and/or consumer loans. These types of restrictions often create additional operating costs to the FI and almost certainly reduce the amount of profit that could be realized without such regulation.28. What is the purpose of the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act? What are thesocial benefits desired from the legislation? How does the implementation of this legislation create a net regulatory burden on financial institutions?The HMDA was passed by Congress to prevent discrimination in mortgage lending. The social benefit is to ensure that everyone who qualifies financially is provided the opportunity to purchase a house should they so desire. The regulatory burden has been to require a written statement indicating the reasons why credit was or was not granted. Since 1990, the federal regulators have examined millions of mortgage transactions from more than 7,700 institutions each calendar quarter.29. What legislation has been passed specifically to protect investors who use investment banksdirectly or indirectly to purchase securities? Give some examples of the types of abuses for which protection is provided.The Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 and the Investment Company Act of 1940 were passed byCongress to protect investors against possible abuses such as insider trading, lack of disclosure, outright malfeasance, and breach of fiduciary responsibilities.30. How do regulations regarding barriers to entry and the scope of permitted activities affectthe charter value of financial institutions?The profitability of existing firms will be increased as the direct and indirect costs of establishing competition increase. Direct costs include the actual physical and financial costs of establishing a business. In the case of FIs, the financial costs include raising the necessary minimum capital to receive a charter. Indirect costs include permission from regulatory authorities to receive a charter. Again in the case of FIs this cost involves acceptable leadership to the regulators. As these barriers to entry are stronger, the charter value for existing firms will be higher.31. What reasons have been given for the growth of investment companies at the expense of“traditional” banks and insurance companies?The recent growth of investment companies can be attributed to two major factors: a. Investors have demanded increased access to direct securities markets.Investment companies and pension funds allow investors to take positions indirect securities markets while still obtaining the risk diversification, monitoring, and transactional efficiency benefits of financial intermediation. Some experts would argue that this growth is the result of increased sophistication on the part of investors; others would argue that the ability to use these markets has caused the increased investor awareness. The growth in these assets is inarguable.b. Recent episodes of financial distress in both the banking and insuranceindustries have led to an increase in regulation and governmental oversight,thereby increasing the net regulatory burden of “traditional” companies. Assuch, the costs of intermediation have increased, which increases the cost ofproviding services to customers.32. What are some of the methods which banking organizations have employed to reduce thenet regulatory burden? What has been the effect on profitability?Through regulatory changes, FIs have begun changing the mix of business products offered to individual users and providers of funds. For example, banks have acquired mutual funds, have expanded their asset and pension fund management businesses, and have increased the security underwriting activities. In addition, legislation that allows banks to establish branches anywhere in the United States has caused a wave of mergers. As the size of banks has grown, an expansion of possible product offerings has created the potential for lower service costs. Finally, the emphasis in recent years has been on products that generate increases in fee income, and the entire banking industry has benefited from increased profitability in recent years.33. What characteristics of financial products are necessary for financial markets to becomeefficient alternatives to financial intermediaries? Can you give some examples of the commoditization of products which were previously the sole property of financial institutions?Financial markets can replace FIs in the delivery of products that (1) have standardized terms, (2) serve a large number of customers, and (3) are sufficiently understood for investors to be comfortable in assessing their prices. When these three characteristics are met, the products often can be treated as commodities. One example of this process is the migration of over-the-counter options to the publicly traded option markets as trading volume grows and trading terms become standardized.34. In what way has Regulation 144A of the Securities and Exchange Commission provided anincentive to the process of financial disintermediation?Changing technology and a reduction in information costs are rapidly changing the nature of financial transactions, enabling savers to access issuers of securities directly. Section 144A of the SEC is a recent regulatory change that will facilitate the process of disintermediation. The private placement of bonds and equities directly by the issuing firm is an example of a product that historically has been the domain of investment bankers. Although historically private placement assets had restrictions against trading, regulators have given permission for these assets to trade among large investors who have assets of more than $100 million. As the market grows, this minimum asset size restriction may be reduced.Chapter TwoThe Financial Services Industry: Depository InstitutionsChapter OutlineIntroductionCommercial Banks•Size, Structure, and Composition of the Industry•Balance Sheet and Recent Trends•Other Fee-Generating Activities•Regulation•Industry PerformanceSavings Institutions•Savings Associations (SAs)•Savings Banks•Recent Performance of Savings Associations and Savings BanksCredit Unions•Size, Structure, and Composition of the Industry and Recent Trends•Balance Sheets•Regulation•Industry PerformanceGlobal Issues: Japan, China, and GermanySummaryAppendix 2A: Financial Statement Analysis Using a Return on Equity (ROE) FrameworkAppendix 2B: Depository Institutions and Their RegulatorsAppendix 3B: Technology in Commercial BankingSolutions for End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems: Chapter Two1.What are the differences between community banks, regional banks, andmoney-center banks? Contrast the business activities, location, and markets of each of these bank groups.Community banks typically have assets under $1 billion and serve consumer and small business customers in local markets. In 2003, 94.5 percent of the banks in the United States were classified as community banks. However, these banks held only 14.6 percent of the assets of the banking industry. In comparison with regional and money-center banks, community banks typically hold a larger percentage of assets in consumer and real estate loans and a smaller percentage of assets in commercial and industrial loans. These banks also rely more heavily on local deposits and less heavily on borrowed and international funds.Regional banks range in size from several billion dollars to several hundred billion dollars in assets. The banks normally are headquartered in larger regional cities and often have offices and branches in locations throughout large portions of the United States. Although these banks provide lending products to large corporate customers, many of the regional banks have developed sophisticated electronic and branching services to consumer and residential customers. Regional banks utilize retail deposit bases for funding, but also develop relationships with large corporate customers and international money centers.Money center banks rely heavily on nondeposit or borrowed sources of funds. Some of these banks have no retail branch systems, and most regional banks are major participants in foreign currency markets. These banks compete with the larger regional banks for large commercial loans and with international banks for international commercial loans. Most money center banks have headquarters in New York City.e the data in Table 2-4 for the banks in the two asset size groups (a) $100million-$1 billion and (b) over $10 billion to answer the following questions.a. Why have the ratios for ROA and ROE tended to increase for both groupsover the 1990-2003 period? Identify and discuss the primary variables thataffect ROA and ROE as they relate to these two size groups.The primary reason for the improvements in ROA and ROE in the late 1990smay be related to the continued strength of the macroeconomy that allowedbanks to operate with a reduced regard for bad debts, or loan charge-offproblems. In addition, the continued low interest rate environment hasprovided relatively low-cost sources of funds, and a shift toward growth in fee income has provided additional sources of revenue in many product lines.。

金融风险管理概主讲教师管理概述（二）教师朱淑珍息经济学---理论假说---信息经济理论局限局限代际遗忘（generation ignorance argument）由于今天的贷款人忘记了过去的痛苦经历，一些利的金融灾难已过了很久，人们贪欲的动机已经战胜人们预期当前的资产价格趋势会继续下去。

银行家的道德风险还会使代际遗忘时间大大缩短。

间的间隔可能是如此之长，以至于发放贷款的银行受损失。

一些利好事件促成金融业的繁荣，而此时距离上次经战胜了恐惧，价格的上涨推动更多的购买，因为缩短。

因为，从借款开始高涨到最终的结帐日，期的银行家从来不会为他们自己的行为后果而直接遭另一种解释被称为竞争压力（rivalry pressure arg竞争压力（rivalry pressure argument）作出许多不审慎的贷款决策，因为如果不这样做他e argument），认为贷款人是出于竞争的压力而样做他们将失去顾客和市场。

金融不稳定理论已被一系列金融危机的事实所支持。

历经2008年的金融危机，其深刻的洞见再次受到了寻求现代金融资本主义的出路提供了独到的启示。

一个重要的现实问题：如何恰当地运用金融理论和工支持。

受到了学术界关注，其蕴含的对策和措施也为人们示。

论和工具促进中国经济的稳定。

信息经济学将信息不对称视为金融不稳定性之源：•适用于信贷市场和金融市场•分析思路还是着重于金融机构信贷的角度信息不对称必然产生逆向选择和道德风险之源：逆向选择（adverse selection）：由于交易双方信息不对称和市场价格下降产生的劣质品驱逐优质品，进而出现市场交易产品平均质量下降的现象。

道德风险（moral hazard）：从事经济活动的人在最大限度地增进自身效用的同时做出不利于他人的行动。

或者说是：当签约一方不完全承担风险后果时所采取的自身效用最大化的自私行为。

不对称信息的案例在旧车市场上，每一辆旧车的质量好坏是不同的，但只卖者知道车的真实质量，买者对每一辆车的具体情况并了解，只知道此种车的一般质量，因而愿意根据一般质支付价格，那些低于平均质量的次品车就可以乘机脱手这种信息不对称现象在其他市场中也存在。