树形图详细讲解
网上的相对理想的树形图答案，注意正两
点：
1. 短语和中心词在一竖线上
2. 含有形容词修饰语的名词短语的画法
NP
Det N
A N
a little boy
1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.
a) The old lady suddenly left.
Det A N Qual V
b) The car stopped at the end of the road.
Det N V P Det N P Det N
c) The snow might have blocked the road.
Det N Aux Aux V Det N
d) He never appears quite mature.
N Qual V Deg A
2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.
a) full of people
AP
A P N
full of people
b) a story about a sentimental girl
NP
NP PP
Det N P NP
Det A N
a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories
VP
Qual V NP
A N
often read detective stories
d) the argument against the proposals
NP
NP PP
Det N P NP
Det N
the argument against the proposals
e) move towards the window
VP
V PP
P Det N
move towards the window
3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.
a) The jet landed.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det N Pst V
The jet landed
b) Mary became very ill.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
N Pst V AP
Deg A
Mary became very ill
c) What will you talk about?
CP
NP C S
N Infl NP Infl VP
VP NP
V P N
S
NP VP
Det N Aux V NP
Det N
The apple might hit the man OR
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det N V NP
Det N
The apple might hit the man
e) He often reads detective stories.
S
NP VP
N Qual V NP
A N
He often reads detective stories
OR
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Pres
N Qual V NP
A N
He often reads detective stories
4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.
a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det A N Pst V NP
Det A N
A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane
b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det A N Pst V PP
P NP
Det A N
A huge moon hung in the black sky
c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det A N Pst V PP
P NP
Det N
An unusual event occurred before the meeting
d) An old house appeared on the grassy hill.
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
Det A NP Pst V PP
A N P NP
Det A N
An old house appeared on the grassy hill
5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.
a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.
InflP(=S)
NP VP
N Aux V NP
Det A NP
N CON N
Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants
OR
InflP(=S)
NP VP
N Infl V NP
Det A NP
N CON N
Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants
b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.
S
NP VP
N VP CON VP
VP NP V Adv
V P Det N
Helen put on her clothes and went out
OR
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
N Pst VP CON VP
VP NP V Adv
V P Det N
Helen put on her clothes and went out
c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.
S
NP VP
N VP CON VP
VP NP VP NP
V A P N V A P N
Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics OR
InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
N Pres VP CON VP
VP NP VP NP
V A P N V A P N
Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics
d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.
S
S CON S
NP VP NP VP
Det N V Adv Det A N V Adv
The detective went out and the mysterious man came in
e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.
S
NP VP
CP
N V C S
S CON S
NP VP NP VP
N Aux V Det N Aux V
Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt
6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.
a) You know that I hate war.
S
NP VP
CP
N V C S
NP VP
N V NP
N
You know that I hate war
OR CP
C InflP(=S)
NP Infl VP
CP
N Pres V C S
NP VP
N V NP N
You know that I hate war
b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.
S
NP VP
CP
N V C S
NP VP
CP
N V C S
NP VP
Det N VL A
He said that Tom asked whether the class was over
c) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.
S
NP VP
N VP NP
CP
Aux Neg V NP C S
Det N NP VP
N V NP
Det A N
Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English exam
d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.
S
NP VP
CP
N VL A C S
NP VP
Det N V NP NP
N Det N
Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce
e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.
S
NP VP
CP
Det N VP C S
V P NP VP
N V NP
N
The children argued over whether bats had wings
7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.
a) The essay that he wrote was too long.
Deep structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V AP
C S Deg P
NP Infl VP
N V NP
N
The essay he wrote that was too long
Surface Structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V AP
C S Deg P
NP NP Infl VP
N N Pst V NP
N
The essay that he wrote e was too long
b) The dog that he keeps bites.
Deep structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V
C Infl S
Pres NP VP
N V NP
N
The dog he keeps that bites
Surface Structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V
C S
NP NP Infl VP
N N Pres V NP
N
The dog that he keeps e bites
c) Herbert found the man she loved.
Deep structure
CP
C S
NP VP
N Infl V NP
CP
Det N C S
NP Infl VP
NP
N V
N
Herbert found the man she loved who
Surface Structure
CP
C S
NP VP
N Infl V NP
CP
Det N S
C
NP Infl VP
NP NP
N V
N N
d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.
Deep structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V PP
P NP
C Infl S
N
NP VP
PP
N Qual VP NP
V P N
The girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguistics
Surface Structure
CP
C S
NP VP
Det N CP V PP
P NP
C S
N
NP NP Infl VP
PP
N N Qual VP NP
V P N
The girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics
8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.
a) Would you come tomorrow?
Deep structure
CP
C S
VP
NP AdvP
N Infl V Adv
you would come tomorrow
Surface structure
CP
C S
VP
NP AdvP
Infl
N Infl V Adv
would you e come tomorrow
b) Can you pass me the newspaper?
Deep structure
CP
C S
VP
NP NP NP
N Infl V N Det N
you can pass me the newspaper
Surface structure
CP
C S
VP
Infl NP NP NP
N Infl V N Det N Can you e pass me the newspaper
c) Should the students report the incident?
Deep structure
CP
C S
VP
NP NP
Det N Infl V Det N
the students should report the incident
Surface structure
CP
C S
VP
Infl NP NP
Det N Infl V Det N
should the students e report the incident
语言学纲要作业一答案 一、填空 1. 语流音变分为同化、异化、弱化、脱落、加音等。 2.文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学，又叫“小学”。 3.运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 4.索绪尔被称为现代语言学之父。 5.语言的功能大致分为社会功能和思维功能。 6.非音质音位又叫超音质音位，它分为调位、重位、时位。 二、单项选择 1．从自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位是（C）。 A．元音B．辅音C．音素D．音位 2．汉语拼音方案是以（C）字母为基础制订的。 A．英语B．法语C．拉丁D．希腊 3．汉语拼音中的ü、c、h，国际音标分别写作（B）。 A．[u]、[c]、[h] B．[y]、[ts']、[x] C．[u]、[ch]、[h] D．[x]、[y]、[k] 4．下列说法，（A）是正确的。 A．汉语中的音高具有区别意义的作用。 B．妇女的声带比男子要厚。 C．汉语中的音长具有区别意义的作用。 D．汉语“天”、“空”两个音节的音高不同。 5．下列说法，只有（D）正确。 A．振幅越大，声音就越弱。 B．振幅越大，声音就越长。 C．频率越高，声音就越低。 D．频率越高，声音就越高。 6．对发音器官功能的描述，（B）是正确的。 A．声带在发音中的作用是次要的。 B．舌头的活动，起了调节共鸣器形状的作用。 C．口腔中最为灵活的部位是上腭。 D．声带、舌头等是被动发音器官。 7．英语中desks与pigs中s的发音不同，这主要受（ A ）作用的影响。A．同化；B．异化；C．弱化；D．脱落 8．从音位来说，seat与sit的区别特征在于（ B ） A．音质音位B．时位C．调位D．重位 9．“水果”一词实际发音时会发生语流音变，它属于（ B ） A．同化；B．异化；C．弱化；D．脱落 三、判断题 1．语言是人类最重要的交际工具。（√） 2．文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。（×） 3．语言是人类特有的，动物没有语言。（√） 4．没有语言，人类照样可以思维。（×） 5．任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。（×） 6．从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。（√）
树形图详细讲解 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N P NP
e) move towards the window VP V PP P Det N move towards the window 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. a) The jet landed. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Det N Pst V The jet landed b) Mary became very ill. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP N Pst V AP Deg A Mary became very ill c) What will you talk about? CP NP C S N Infl NP Infl VP VP NP V P N d) The apple might hit the man. S NP VP Det N Aux V NP Det N The apple might hit the man
树形图详细讲解 网上的相对理想的树形图答案，注意正两 点： 1. 短语和中心词在一竖线上 2. 含有形容词修饰语的名词短语的画法 NP Det N A N a little boy 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N
full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
第四章语法 一、举例解释下列名词（20分，每词4分） 1、内部屈折：指的是依靠词根中元音或辅音的变化来表达不同的语法意义的手段。如，英语foot（脚，单数）-feet（脚，复数），goose（鹅，单数）-geese（鹅，复数），build（建设，现在时）-built（建设，过去时）等。 2、后缀：词缀的一种，粘附在词根语素的后面构成新词。如，汉语的“者”放在动词形容词（或语素）后面表示跟这个动作形状有关的人——长者、作者、编者、工作者、劳动者，等等；又如英语的-er/-or接在表动作的词（或语素）后面表示跟该动作有关的人——worker（工作者），teacher（教师），publisher （出版者），translasor（译者）等等。 3、词尾：是变词语素，它附着在词干后面，表示某种语法意义，例如英语动词doing，其中的ing就是词尾，表示动作行为的方式。 4、复合词：是由两个以上的词根语素构成的词，例如汉语“白菜”“电脑”“支持”，英语“themselves”，“waterfall”，都是复合词。 5、语法范畴：是指通过词形变化表现出来的语法意义的归类，例如“he”的语法意义是主格，“him”的语法意义是宾格，它们都属于格的语法范畴。 二、填空题（20分，每空1分） 1、语法是大家说话的时候必须遵守的习惯，不是语言学家规定的。 2、语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。 3、从形式上看，句子的最大特点是具有完整的语调。 4、句子里根据表达的需要临时作出组合的词组叫自由词组。 5、从意义和作用看，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。 6、语法研究通常以词为界，词以上的规则叫句法，词以下的规则叫词法。 7、我们可以根据语素在词中的不同作用把它分成三类，例如happinesses中，es是词尾，ness是词缀，happy是词根。 8、根据语素在词中的不同作用，一般把词根和词缀叫作构词语素，把词尾叫作变词语素。 9、词的组合有五种基本类型，例如“研究问题”是述宾结构，“跑得很快”是述补结构，“火速准备”是偏正结构，“我们努力”是主谓结构。 10、孤立语的主要特点是缺乏词形变化；屈折语的主要特点是有丰富的词形变化。 三、单项选择（20分，每空2分） 1、下列各组词中全都属于复合词的一组是D 。 A．大学、人民、(英)reader B．劳动、阿姨、(英)railway C．瓶子、老虎、(英)unhappy D．道路、材料、(英)classroom 2、下列句子符合英语语法规则的是D 。 A．He am a studentes．B．She is a students． C．I were a student．D．You are a student． 3、英语名词后面加上词尾s或es，这种变化属于语法范畴中的B 变化。
Chapter 2：Phonology I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. F 2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. T 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. 15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
第三章语音和音系 一、名词解释 语音四要素——音高、音重（强）、音长、音质。 音素——是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位 音位——具体语言中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。也是按语音的辨义作用归纳出来的音类，从语言的社会属性划分出来的语言单位 音位变体——处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。如果它们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成为同一音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我们把它们叫做音位变体。 非音质音位——非音质音位指具有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音重、音长等。例如汉语普通话声调中的阴平、阳平、上声、去声，是由音高的变化形成的而不是音质变化形成的，就是非音质音位。 区别特征——具体语言中有区别音位的作用的发音特征，叫做该语言的区别特征。每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。运用区别特征比较容易说清楚音位在具体语言中的特点和具体语言语音系统的组织方式。 音节——由音位组成的语音中最小的结构单位，也是从听觉上感受到的最自然的单位。 语流音变——音位和音位组合的时候，由于受说话时快慢，高低、强弱的不同和邻音的影响，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。这种变化，我们叫做语流音变。 音步——语言的一种节奏中，语流是大致每隔两个音节就有一次小的轻重、高低、长短或松紧的交替，形成语流中大致等距离出现的两音节的节奏单元。这种节奏单元叫做音步。 二、填空或简答 1、画一张元音舌位图，用国际音标标出八个基本元音。 八个基本元音[i][e][ ][a][u][o][?][ɑ] 2、按音位特征用国际音标注出相应的音素。 （1）双唇浊鼻音m （2）舌尖前浊擦音z
树形图详细讲解 1. In dicate the category of each word in the follow ing senten ces. a) The old lady sudde nly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He n ever appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. b) a story about a sen time ntal girl NP Det A N a story about a sen time ntal girl c) ofte n read detective stories Qual V NP ofte n read detective stories d) the argume nt aga inst the proposals NP NP a) full of people AP full of people NP PP VP Det N
八 Det N the argume nt aga inst the proposals
syntax 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP
A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP V PP P Det N move towards the window 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. a) The jet landed. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Det N Pst V The jet landed b) Mary became very ill. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP N Pst V AP
第一章语言得功能 一、填空 1、语言得功能包括( 社会)功能与( 思维)功能。 2、语言得社会功能包括(信息传递)功能与(人际互动)功能。 3、在各种信息传递形式中,( 语言)就是第一性得、最基本得手段。 4、人得大脑分左右两个半球,语言功能及计数、推理能力等由(左 )半球掌管,音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由(右 )半球制约。 5、儿童语言习得一般经过(独词句)阶段与(双词句 )阶段,这就是儿童学话得关键两步。 二、判断正误 ( 对 )1、文字就是建立在语言基础之上得再编码形式。 ( 错 )2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时,话语中不具有主观性。 ( 错 )3、书刊上得话语不具有人际互动功能。 ( 对 )4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。 ( 错 )5、布洛卡区在大脑得右半球前部。 ( 错 )6、聋哑人不会说话,所以不具有抽象思维得能力。 ( 对 )7、不同语言结构得差异体现出思维方式得不同。 ( 错 )8、汉语名词没有数得变化,所以汉语没有区别单数与多数得概念。 三.思考题 1、为什么说语言就是人类最重要得信息传递得手段？ 除了语言之外,人们还使用其她得信息传递工具:(1)文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性得交际工具(2)体态语等伴随性得副语言交际工具,(3)盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。但这些交际工具或者使用范围得有限,或者运用效率低下,或者使用频率不高,很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。 文字记录语言,打破了语言交际中时间与空间得限制,在社会生活中起着重大得作用,中小学语文教学主要就就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。但就是,文字在交际中得重要性远不能与语言相比。一个社会可以没有文字,但就是不能没有语言;
树形图详细讲解 1、 Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences、 a) The old lady suddenly left、 Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road、 Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road、 Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature、 N Qual V Deg A 2、 The following phrases include a head, a plement, and a specifier、 Draw the appropriate tree structure for each、 a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det N P NP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N P NP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？ 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
第一章 一、填空 语言的功能 1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。 2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。 3、在各种信息传递形式中，语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。（ 4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。 5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。（错） 6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。（对） 7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。（错） 8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。总之，在上述的种种信息传递工具当中，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言，文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；语言是人类最重要的信息传递工具。 2、语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时，也在表达着主观的情感、态度和意图，寻求听话者的反馈。而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观经验信息的同时，也了解了说话者的主观情感态度，从而做出回应。这样语言就成为说话者和听话者间交际互动的工具。例如：张三和李四同时在教室看书，张三坐在窗子边的位置，李四坐在中间位置。 A.李四说：“今天气温很低。” B.张三说：“我马上关上。” A、B 的对话表达了一种委婉的请求。李四说“今天气温很低”的目的并不是反映今天的天气，而是向坐在窗户边的张三请求将窗户关上。 3、为什么说思维离不开语言？思维需要语言（1）语言是人类思维的工具，思维活动必须用语言作手段（2）语言是保存思维成果的媒介。思维成果必须依靠语言的巩固才能得以保持。（3）语言可帮助思维逐步深化（4）语言可帮助思维条理化（5）语言可帮助传递思维成果。思维的成果靠语言才能表达出来，使听读者了解。 4、语言思维功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些表现？人类的大脑的左右半球的分工是人类所特有的。人类以外的动物，没有这样的分 2 工,没有专门管语言的“左半球” ，因此它们没有逻辑思维的能力，也掌握不了语言。大脑中人类特有的语言功能区（1）说话中枢，也称布洛卡区，在大脑左半球前部，是19 世纪60 年代，法国神经解剖学家保罗·布洛卡(Paul Broca)发现的。这一区域受到损伤就会得失语症，丧失说话能力，但基本能听懂别人的话。（2）书写中枢，也在大脑左半球前部，靠近布洛卡
8.（c）the argument against the proposals PP NP P NP Det N Det N against the (d)already above the windows PP AdvP P NP Adv Det N already above the window
NP Infl VP Det AP N pst V PP A P NP Det AP N A huge moon hung in the black sky (C) The man examined his car carefully yeseterday S NP Infl VP Det N pst V NP AdvP Det N AdvP Adv Adv A man examined his car carefully yesterday 10．（b）Helen put on her clothes and went out S
N pst V PP Con V PP P NP P Det N Helen put on her clothes and went out c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics. S NP Infl VP N Pre V AP Con AP A PP A PP P NP P NP N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics 11.(b) Gerry belives the fact that Anna fluncked the English exam. S NP Infl VP
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1. Define the following terms: design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal). synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time. diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters). displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation. phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact. metalanguage: a language used for talking about language. macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc. competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.