英汉互译课程论文原文(5)Translation Theory

英语翻译理论参考论文第一篇：英语翻译理论参考论文找参考论文，就上公务员论文网【摘要】文化渗透于社会生活的各个方面，英文翻译不可避免地受到文化因素的影响。

英文翻译不仅是一种语言翻译，更是一种文化翻译。

翻译过程中的文化因素：思维方式、习俗文化和宗教信仰等，一直是翻译工作者关注的问题。

只有深刻把握不同文化背景知识、不同民族思维模式的差异，以及英汉两种语言风格的异同，才能进行成功的翻译交际。

关键词：文化因素翻译影响近些年来，翻译中的文化问题越来越受到人们的关注。

人们重视翻译中的文化问题，源于对背景知识的作用的正确认识。

在翻译实践中，由于文化不解与误解导致误译和错译的例子屡见不鲜。

于是文化因素对英文翻译的影响，便成了众多学者的研究对象。

正如美国著名翻译理论家尤金·奈达所说：“就真正成功的翻译而言，译者的双文化（bicultural）功底甚至比双语（bilingualism）功底更重要，因为词语只有在起作用的文化语境中才有意义。

”翻译并不像许多人想象得那么容易，深层次的思想意识方面的“文化鸿沟”时常难以逾越。

由此可见，文化因素在翻译中占有重要的地位。

一翻译与文化释义1、翻译与文化的内涵翻译的诞生给说不同语言的人们带来了很大的方便，它是人们彼此之间进行信息交流的桥梁。

所谓翻译，就是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动，是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具，它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和社会文化进步。

何谓文化？英国学者泰勒（E.B Tylor，1871）给“文化”下的定义是：“所谓文化或文明，即知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及其它作为社会成员的人们能够获得的包括一切能力和习惯在内的复合性整体。

”文化并不是抽象的，它是我们所感知的一切。

人类以自己的情感、技能和智慧创造了自己的文化，更新了自己的文化。

不同民族语言不同、文化各异，但人类的能力本质是相同的。

Aspirations of Function—Oriented Approach on College S tudents’ Classroom Translation TeachingAbstract：This paper aims to investigate the aspirations on college students’ classroom translation teaching by discussing the function—oriented approach in descriptive translation studies。

Through the analysis of the function—oriented translation approach in the process of translation, it is can be found that: 1） Teachers should pay more attention on translation theories teaching to help students be aware of the main points and hard parts in translating process and choose the proper translation strategies； 2） Introducing more social cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language can make students have a clear mind in choosing right expressions and usages of vocabularies， and also some transfers in adjusting the expressions of the target-language translation versions; 3） Paying much more attention on teaching semantic differences so that students can grasp well of the usages of vocabularies。

Translation,as a discipline,has been a subject of considerable interest and debate among scholars,linguists,and practitioners alike.It involves the process of transferring meaning from a source language SL to a target language TL while maintaining the original messages integrity,style,and cultural nuances.The theoretical and practical aspects of translation are intricately linked,and understanding both is essential for effective translation work.Theoretical Frameworks1.Equivalence Theory:This theory,proposed by Eugene Nida,emphasizes the importance of functional equivalence between the source and target texts.It suggests that a translation should have the same effect on the target audience as the original text had on the source audience.2.Dynamic vs.Formal Correspondence:Nida also distinguished between dynamic or idiomatic equivalence,which focuses on the messages impact,and formal or literal equivalence,which prioritizes the form and structure of the original text.3.Skopos Theory:Developed by Katharina Reiss and Hans J.Vermeer,this theory posits that the purpose skopos of the translation should guide the translators decisions.It argues for a more functional approach,where the translator adapts the text to suit the target context.4.Cultural Translation:This approach,often associated with AndréLefevere and Susan Bassnett,considers the cultural context and the need to make the translated text culturally relevant to the target audience.Practical Considerations1.Linguistic Competence:A translator must have a high level of proficiency in both the source and target languages to accurately convey the meaning and nuances of the original text.2.Cultural Awareness:Understanding the cultural references,idioms,and expressions of both the source and target languages is crucial to avoid misinterpretation or offense.3.Technical Skills:Familiarity with translation tools and software can greatly enhance the efficiency and quality of translation work.4.Ethical Responsibility:Translators must maintain the integrity of the original text andavoid altering the authors voice or intent.5.Revision and Editing:A thorough review process is essential to ensure that the translation is accurate,coherent,and stylistically consistent with the original.6.Specialization:Translators often specialize in specific fields,such as legal,medical,or technical translation,where subjectspecific knowledge is as important as linguistic skills. The Interplay Between Theory and PracticeThe theoretical frameworks provide a roadmap for the translator,guiding their approach and decisions.However,the practical aspects of translation require the application of these theories in realworld scenarios.A translator must balance the theoretical ideals with the practical constraints of the translation task,such as deadlines,client requirements,and the specific characteristics of the source text.ConclusionTranslation is both an art and a science,requiring a deep understanding of language, culture,and the subject matter.Theoretical knowledge provides a foundation,but it is through practical application that a translator truly hones their craft.By integrating theory with practice,translators can produce work that is not only accurate and faithful to the original but also resonates with the target audiences expectations and cultural sensibilities.。

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh(ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.[2]Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.[3]Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations.[4]Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation).[5] The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization.[6Western theoryModern translator:John DrydenDiscussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language,"counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language:When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: ’tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.[7]Cautioner:CiceroDryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted tr anslation: “When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."[8]This general formulation of the central concept of translation —equivalence— is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).[8]Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents—"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary —for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.[8]Lexicographer and literary critic:Samuel JohnsonIn general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order— when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages[11] (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages[12](e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard.[8]Religious translator:Martin LutherWhen a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages.[8][13]Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current"),[14] or the Russianактуальный ("urgent", "topical").The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.[14]Axiom:Johann Gottfried HerderIf translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether.[15]Polish author and translator:Ignacy KrasickiThe translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.[16]Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński.[17]The translator’s spe cial role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki:“[T]ranslation . . . is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds;[it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.[18]Religious textsFurther information: Bible translations and Translation of the Qur'anSaint Jerome, patron saint of translators and encyclopedistsMistranslation: the horned Moses, by MichelangeloAn important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions such as filial piety.One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BCE. The translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and according to legend all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint became the source text for latertranslations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian.Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation. For centuries the Roman Catholic Church used his translation (known as the Vulgate), though even this translation at first stirred controversy.The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages — a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages. Lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English.A famous mistranslation of the Bible is the rendering of the Hebrew word ןֶרֶק (keren), which has several meanings, as "horn" in a context where it actually means "beam of light". As a result, for centuries artists have depicted Moses the Lawgiver with horns growing out of his forehead; an example is Michelangelo's famous sculpture. Some Christians withanti-Semitic feelings have used such depictions to spread hatred of the Jews, claiming that they were devils with horns.Asian theoryReligious translation:Diamond Sutra, translated by KumārajīvaFurther information: Chinese translation theoryThis section requires expansion.There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected with the rendering of religious texts — particularly Buddhist texts — and withthe governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation.In the East Asia Sinosphere(sphere of Chinese cultural influence), more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of vocabulary and writing system. Notable is Japanese Kanbun, which is a system of glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers.EquivalenceMain article: Dynamic and formal equivalenceThe question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence". The latter two expressions are associated with the translator Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible, but the two approaches are applicable to any translation."Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase"."Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence") conveys the essential thought expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe and word order, the source text's active vs. passive voice, etc.By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language.There is, however, no sharp boundary between dynamic and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text —sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of dynamic and formal equivalents.[22]Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "false friends" and false cognates.[edit] Back-translationA "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. In the context of a machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation."Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a quality check on the original translation. But while useful as an approximate check, it is far from infallible.[23]Quality control: Mark Twain, back-translatorMark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for this when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County"; he published hisback-translation in a single 1903 volume together with hisEnglish-language original, the French translation, and a “Private History of the 'Jumping Frog’ Story”, the latter including a synopsized adaptation that Twain said had appeared, unattributed to him, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, “The Athenian and the Frog”, which for a time had been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.[24]When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Ch ojecki’s Polish version.[25]Similarly, when historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language.For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.Similarly, supporters of Aramaic primacy—of the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language— seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New Testament make much better sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek.[edit] Literary translationTranslation of literary works(novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. For example, notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor General's Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations.Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami.。

Translation Theory姓名：常国强班级：翻译131学号：13332014Register语域（Register）是语言使用的场合或领域的总称。

英国语言学家韩礼德（M. A. K. Halliday）将语域定义为，语言变体可以按照使用的情况划分为语域。

按照词语或话语的正式程度，柯平把语域分为五级：刻板的（frozen）、正式的（formal）、商谈的（consultative）、随便的（causal）和亲昵的（intimate）;语域的三个社会变量：语场（field），语旨（tenor）和语式（mode）。

Four decisive factors:The addresserThe addresseeSubject and matterForm of communicationIs a global economic recession likely? If so, what might trigger it? Willem Buiter, Citi’s chief economist and the Financial Times’ erstwhile Maverecon blogger, answers these questions: “Yes” and “China”. His case is plausible. This does not mean we must expect a recession. But people should see such a scenario as plausible.Mr B uiter does not expect world output to decline. The notion here is a “growth recession”, a period of growth well below the potential rate of about 3 percent. One might imagine 2 percent or less. Mr Buiter estimates the likelihood of such an outcome at 40 per cent.His scenario would start with China. Like many others, he believes China’s growth is overstated by official statistics and may be as low as 4 percent. This is plausible, if not universally accepted.It might become even worse. First, an investment share of 46 per cent of gross domestic product would be excessive in an economy growing 7 per cent, let alone one growing at 4 per cent. Second, a huge expansion of debt, often of doubtful quality, has accompanied this excessive investment. Yet merely sustaining investment at these levels would require far more borrowing. Finally, central government, alone possessed of a strong balance sheet, might be reluctant to offset a slowdown in investment, while the shares of households in national income and consumption in GDP are too low to do so.Suppose, then, that investment shrank drastically as demand and balance-sheet constraints bit. What might be the effects on the world economy?One channel would be a decline in imports of capital goods. Since about a third of global investment (at market prices) occurs inside China, the impact could be large. Japan, South Korea and Germany would be adversely affected.A more important channel is commodity trade. Commodity prices have fallen, but are still far from low by historical standards (see chart). Even with prices where they are, commodity exporters are suffering. Among them are countries like Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Gulf States, Kazakhstan, Russia and Venezuela. Meanwhile, net commodity importers, such as India and most European countries, are gaining.Shocks to trade interact with finance. Many adversely affected companies are highly indebted. The resulting financial stresses force cutbacks in borrowing and spending upon them, directly weakening economies. Changes in financial conditions exacerbate such pressures. Among the most important are movements in interest and exchange rates and shifts in the perceived soundness of borrowers, including sovereigns. Changes in capital flows and risk premia and shifts in the policies of important central banks exacerbate the stresses. At present, the most important shift would be a decision by the US Federal Reserve to raise interest rates.As Warren Buffettsaid: “You only find out who is swimming naked when the tide goes out.” According to the Bank of International Settlements, credit to non-bank borrowers outside the US totalled $9.6tn at the end of March. A strong dollar makes any currency mismatches costly. These may start on the balance sheets of non-financial corporations. But the impact will be transmitted via their losses to banks and governments. Thus, reversal of “carry trades”, funded by cheap borrowing, might wreak havoc.A visible shift is a decline in foreign exchange reserves, driven by deteriorating terms of trade, capital flight and withdrawal of previous capital inflows. This might cause “quantitative tightening”, as central banks sell holdings of longer-dated safe bonds. This is one of the ways that these shocks might be transmitted to the high-income countries, including even the US. But this also depends on what the holders of the withdrawn funds do with it and on the policies ofaffected central banks.What we might see, then, is a series of real and financial linkages: declining investment and output in China; weaknesses in economies dependent on that country’s purchases or on prices set by its buying; and reversals of carry trades and shifts in exchange rates and risk premia that stress balance sheets.How might policymakers respond? China will surely let its currency fall rather than continue to lose reserves, not least because usable reserves are smaller than headline numbers, which include infrastructure investments in Africa and elsewhere that cannot quickly be sold. The policy space of other emerging economies is greater than in the past, but not unlimited. They will be forced to adjust to these shocks rather than resist them.Meanwhile, the policy choices of high-income countries are restricted: politics has almost universally ruled out fiscal expansion; the intervention rates of central banks are near zero; and, in many high-income economies, private leverage is still quite high. If the slowdown were modest, nothing much might be done. The best response to a big slowdown might be “helicopter money”, created by the central bank to stimulate spending. But its use seems quite unlikely. The conventional rules.In brief, a global growth-recession scenario “made in China” is perfectly plausible. If it were to happen, a decision by the Fed to tighten now would come to look downright foolish. We are not talking about the sort of disaster that accompanies a global financial crisis. But the world economy will remain vulnerable to adversity until China has completed its transition to a more balanced pattern of growth, and the high-income economies have recovered from their crises. That is still far away.全球经济是否可能会出现衰退？若果真如此，可能引发衰退的因素是什么？花旗(Citi)首席经济学家、曾经为英国《金融时报》撰写名为“非正统经济学”(Maverecon)的博客的威廉?比特(Willem Buiter)对此的回答是：“有可能”以及“中国”。

翻译理论论文翻译实践对翻译理论的启示摘要：在翻译学习中，翻译理论和翻译实践二者相辅相成，密不可分。

哲学上指出，实践是认识的基础，同时认识对实践具有能动的反作用，这个道理同样适用于翻译领域。

仅学翻译理论不注重翻译实践只能是“纸上谈兵”，不能收到“学以致用”的效果；反过来，只埋头做翻译练习而没有翻译理论作为指导就会走弯路，不能形成系统的翻译知识网络。

正确理解翻译理论和翻译实践的辩证关系，能有效地促进翻译学习。

关键词：原文理解；词义选择；词性转换；欧化腔调一、原文理解在翻译中的重要性“一般来说，英汉翻译有三个基本步骤：原文理解、译文表达和译文校对。

原文理解（Comprehension of Source Language)是翻译的第一步，也是最重要的一步。

没有正确的理解，就不可能有忠实的译文”（郭富强，2012：33～34）。

拿到一篇英文，首先要做的是通读文章，理解原文的意思，然后才能动笔翻译，而不应该断章取义，主观臆断。

一篇文章，不管是中文还是英文，它的意思都是立足于文章本身，脱离文章的判断和猜想多少会与原文大意有出入。

另外，文章的意思应当从整体把握，文章段落与段落之间存在一定的逻辑关系，不能分割开来看，即断章取义。

这样得到的认识是片面的，达不到整体把握文章主旨的效果。

所以在做翻译之前，一定要从宏观把握文章的主旨。

良好的开头是成功的一半。

能否准确地把握一篇文章的主旨大意也是衡量一篇译文是否成功的标准之一。

翻译家严复鲜明地提出了著名的“信、达、雅”三字翻译理论。

其中“信”（faithfulness）是指译文要忠实于原文，而要使译文忠实于原文，就应该如实而恰当地把原文翻译出来。

严复在其《天演论·译例言》中指出“译事三难：信、达、雅。

求其信已大难矣！顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉”（贺学耘，2010：25）。

由此可见，原文理解是翻译最重要的一步。

如：例一：It was not my fate to become a woman, so it was easier for me to see the graces. （Women and Men by Scott Russell Sanders)译文：我命中注定不是女人，因而更容易发现女人悠闲的一面。

翻译理论整理汇总翻译腔〔translationeses 〕是在译文中留有源语言特色等翻译印迹的现象，严重的翻译腔使译文读起来不够通畅。

出现翻译腔有时是很不免的。

形成翻译腔有以下几个原由：1〕英汉语言自己的不一样，包含句型构造等，在翻译时假设不可以做到自由变换就会有种不是地道目标语的感觉。

2〕英汉文化的不一样，不一样的文化背景下，单词或习语有时会出现误差甚至零对等〔zero-correspondence 〕。

有时只讲词对词的反响就会出现翻译腔。

3〕译者自己水平。

奈达的功能平等就要求译者着重译文对读者的影响，好的译文让读者感觉是母语的写作、实现功能的平等。

Venuti主张同化和异化的联合，经过同化让读者获取认识的反响，经过异化使读者领会异国语言和文化。

译者应当提升自己翻译水平，在翻译策略上实现功能平等，从而尽量防止翻译腔的出现。

中国的翻译理论家严复、茅盾、鲁迅、朱光潜、傅雷、钱钟书1〕严复信、达、雅—— faithfulness、expressiveness 、elegance/gracefulness2〕茅盾他也主张“直译〞，反对“意译〞，他以为汉语确实存在语言组织上欠严实的缺乏，有必需吸引印欧语系的句法形态。

可是矛盾与鲁迅看法同中有异，他以为“直译〞其实不是“字对字〞，一个不多，一个许多。

由于中西文法构造截然相反，纯粹的“字对字〞是不行能的。

3〕鲁迅鲁迅的“宁信而不顺〞是“但凡翻译，一定兼备两面，一自然是力争易解，一那么保存着原作风韵〞，这是鲁迅的根本思想。

针对当年那种“牛头不对马嘴〞的胡译、乱译以及所谓“与其信而不顺，不如顺而不信〞的说法〔梁秋实〕，提出了“宁信而不顺〞这一原那么，主张直译，以照料输入新表现法和保持原作的风采。

他还以为，翻译一要“移情〞、“益志〞，译文要有“异国情调〞，二要“输入新的表现法〞，以改进中文的文法，在当时主要表现为改进白话文。

一定重申的是，鲁迅实际上是主张翻译要通畅，又要忠实的。

翻译理论与实践（Translation theory and Practice）This paper consists of the 8888 contributionPpt documents may experience poor browsing on the WAP side. It is recommended that you first select TXT, or download the source file to the local view.Translation theory and PracticeI., What, is, translation, II., Is, it, to, translate, easy, III.,, Can, all, the, translated, words, be?I., What, is, translation?1, the definition of translation? 2, translation is to translate the text or? E.g.1:, My, sister, went, to, school, at, 7., e.g.2:, have you eaten? Where to? E.g.3: you're beautiful today! -- where?!II., Is, it, easy, to, translate?Henchman? Go back to man in the? The? Street? Crow s feet a hen party '? Fog lock hill mountain fog water disappears in the sky with rain window, two East West three point cut to carve up the piece, seven horizontal eight vertical knife knife toward the sea towards towards falling towards long clouds long long.III., Can, all, the, words, be, translated?According to the nephew lanterns (old uncle)? East sunrise rain, is (clear) the situation is a (clear)? --The professor shouted:Gentlemen, order --The entire class yelled:! "" Beer! "--Why is the river very? Rich? --Because it has two banks.You can cage a swallow, but you can t swallow a "cage. --The secret is going to? Be exposed, and we ll look pretty silly. --You" already look pretty and silly. bathing on bikini? Girl, eyeing, boy, finds boy eyeing bikini on bathing girl.Chapter 1The definition of translation, the purpose of translation, the type of translation, the standard of translation, the process of translation, the conditions for translationDefinition of translationTranslation is the practice of language in which the content of another language is re expressed in one language. Feng Qinghua? Translation is a kind of language (i.e., primitive) information in another language (the target language) express, so that the readers can get the original thoughts expressed by the author, are roughly the same as the original readers feel. - Fan Zhongying, translation is the translator's re understanding of the same thing and the use of another text. - Qiao HaiqingDefinition of translationTranslation is "an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language Translation is." Jakobson? "The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) byequivalent textual material in another language (TL). Catford Translation is the replacement of? A representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. HudsonThe purpose of translationA bridge of communication and communication between different languages and cultures.Types of translationIntra language translation (intralingual translation) an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language (interlingual translation) translation? An interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language? Intersemiotic translation (intersemiotic translation) an interpretation of verbal signs by means of nonverbal signs systemChinese translation theoriesYan Fu: Xindaya translation - Three: xindaya. It is hard to ask for a letter. Take care of the letter and fail to reach it,Even if you do not translate it, you will also interpret it. ? Lu Xun: faith, Shun - a course to make it easy, one is to preserve the original charm. / / faith rather than fluency? Qu Qiubai: the notion of equivalence translation should be the original intention, exactly China introduced to readers, make readers get China concept concept equal to other language from the textto the reader. Contradiction: to reproduce the artistic conception the highest task of literary translation is to reproduce the artistic conception so that the target readers can enjoy the beauty as much as the original.Chinese translation theoriesLiu Zhongde: letter, reach, cut letter: believe in content: as long as it is cut: to adapt to style, Zhang today: true, good, beautiful, truth: truth, principle, good: ideological principles: Beauty: artistic principlesForeign translation theoriesTytler: 1. The translation should the same effect on give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. style and manner of 2. The writing should be of the same character as that of the original. translation should have all 3. The the ease of the original composition.Federov: on Translation should produce a translation version which may be read with as much pleasure as the original, and yet remain faithful to its spirit, sense and style. Nida: dynamic equivalence theory readers get responses, and feelings with the original readers read the original income roughly equal. Newmark: text centered theoryProcess of translationIt is generally believed that the original text is understood expression Nida: original text testAnalytical translationTarget textRestructureFour steps: analysis, translation, reconstruction, testTranslation, from, English, to, Chinese:1., The, days, run, into, weeks., the days go by, for a few weeks.2. It, s, all, Greek, to, me., the translation condition, I do not understand at all. Mandarin Chinese is better than3. Mary has? A clever tongue. Marie (glib glib). English language ability is better than4., You, can, never, tell., wide knowledge, no one can say.5., My, memory, failed, me, at, that, moment., I can't remember that moment.6., Your, name, obstinately, escapes, me., I can't remember your name.7., To, think, that, you, should, fail., I don't think you will fail. 8., Would, it, were, otherwise, if that's not the case. There was more mischief than harm in him. he is only mischievous, and no harm. 10., I, never, go, past, my, old, school, but,, think, of, our, headmaster.. Every time I pass my alma mater, I remember our headmaster. 11., The, book, is, beyond, me., I can't read this book. 12., There, is, nothing, like, leather, for, shoes., leather shoes are great. 13., It, is, too, recent, to, be, forgotten., fresh in memory.14., The, mountain, is, not, valuable, because, it, is, high.,mountain is precious, not at its height. The "This is the last place I where expected to meet you." did not expect to meet you here. 16., He, is, nothing, if, not, stubborn., he's a stubborn man. 17., I, was, not, a, little, surprised., I was shocked.18., He, can, do, it, if, any, one, can., only he can do it.19. You cannot make something out of nothing. one can't make bricks without straw. 20., I, can, t, bear, the, sight,, of, that, man.I can't stand seeing that man.Similar sentences1. He had made a box., he has made a box. He had a box made., he told people to make a box.2. Foolishly he spoke. he was so foolish to speak. He spoke foolishly. he talks very stupid.3. Quite properly he was punished. he deserved to be punished. He was punished quite properly., he was properly punished.4., We, asked, him, to, speak, from, his, experience., we ask him to talk about it based on his experience. We asked him to speak about his experiences. we asked him to talk about his experience.Similar sentences5. He is behind time. he's late. He, is, behind, the, times., he's behind the times.6. His success is out of question. his success is beyond doubt. His, success, is, out, of, the, question, he's never going to be successful.7., They, went, to, sea., they're going to besailors. They, went, to, the, sea., they went to the beach. 8., It, has, been, raining, continually, for, two, days., rain, intermittent two days. It has, been, raining, continuously, for,, two, days rain continued for two days.Similar sentences9., He, has, no, more, than, ten, books., he has only ten books. He has not more than ten books., he has ten books at most.He is not a little afraid of it. he was very scared. He is not a bit afraid of it., he is not afraid at all. 11., I, didn, t, go, because, I, was, afraid., I am not afraid to go. I, didn, t, go, because, I, to., was, afraid, I did not go, because I dare not go. 12. She kept the house., she watches over the house. She kept house. her home.Similar sentences13., This, is, no, place, for, me, to, go., this is not whereI should go. There, is, no, place, for, me, to, go, I have nowhere to go. 14. I, had, a, good, talk, to, him, yesterday., I gave him a good dressing down yesterday. I had a good talk with him yesterday. I had a really good time talking to him yesterday. 15., Tom, escaped, prison., Tom escaped the jail. Tom, escaped, from, prison., Tom, jailbreak. 16., Is, there, any, difficulty, in, this? Do you have any difficulty with this? Is, there, some, difficulty, in, this? It's a bit difficult, isn't it?Similar sentencesWe are sure that man is mortal. we are sure that man will always die. We, are, sure, that, man, is, dead., we are sure the man is dead. 18., We, hired, the, boat, by, the, hour.. We ship by hour. We hired, the, boat, for, an, hour., we rented an hour boat.Similar sentences19., I, did, not, notice, him., I didn't notice him. I, took, no, notice, of, him., I don't care about him. 20., Happily, he, did, not, die., thankfully he did not die. He did not die happily., he died uneasy.The second chapter is semantic translationFirst, the choice of meaning in the understanding of polysemy (polysemy)The translation of runRun, a, car, run, shop, run, oil, run, message, a, fever, run, a, computer, run, run, a, meeting, run,, chickens, run, a, arms, advertisement, run, anHead translation10. He arranged his speech under five heads. his speech is divided into five parts. 11., We, have, thirty, head, of, cattle.We have thirty cows. 12., Heads, or, tails? Heads or tails? 13., Where, is, the, head? Where is the toilet?The translation of head:1. head of the English Department, director of the English Department of2. head of the government head of the bed, head of government3.4. head of the staircase a of the needle at the top of the stairs5. head6. He was badly wounded in a the head. he was badly wounded in the head.7. He has a good head for maths. he has a lot of mathematical talent.8., You, should, use, your, head., you should use your head.9. The, dinner, cost, US, five, dollars, a, head., the meal cost us 5 yuan each.The translation of I. poor:1. The, cloth, is, poor, in, quality., this cloth is of poor quality.2. The, water, is, poor, in, oxygen., this water is anoxic.3. Her first concert had a poor audience., her first concert, with very few listeners.4. This, to, her, was, a, poor, consolation., this comfort does not work for her.5. In my poor opinion, you should let her go. in my humble opinion, you should let her go. Boat. She was a poor sailor and always went to bed immediately on on getting the she has seasickness problems, so always go to bed on board.The translation of II. runThe He will not be running in the next election., he is not ready to run for the next election. 2., The, train, is, not, running, today., that train is off today. 3. The film began to run. filmat the. 4. His face was running with sweat. he Sweat streamed down the face. 5., It, was, such, a, ran., hot, day, that, the, butter, the weather was so hot that the butter melted. 6., The, road, runs, north., this road extends north. The "The rumor runs that he is going to resign." is rumoured that he is going to resign. 8., The, monsoon, had, six, weeks, more, to, run., the rainy season will last six weeks.The translation of II. run9., The, car, repair, will, run, you, at, least, two, hundred., repair, at least you spend two hundred yuan. 10. The play ran for only a week in that theatre.. The play was only staged for a week in that theater. 11., Potatoes, are, running, large, this, year., potatoes grow a lot this year. 12., A, freezer, doesn, run., t, cost, much, to, the use of the refrigerator is not very expensive.The translation of III. liveShe needs to find somewhere to live. she needs to find a place to live. 2., Where, do, these, plates, live? Where are these dishes? 3., Spiders, can, live, for, several, days, without, food., spiders can live without food for a few days. 4., We, saw, a, real, rattlesnake, live! We saw a live rattlesnake.The translation of III. live5. The club has live music most nights., the club has live music most nights.6. The show is going on live., the show is being broadcast live.7., Pollution, is, still, very, much, a, live,issue. pollution is still a very interesting issue at the moment.8., This, is, a, live, and, interesting, book., this is a lively and interesting book.The translation of IV. like1., He, likes, mathematics, more, physics., than, he prefers mathematics to physics.2., Bananas, don, t, like, me., I ate a banana and my stomach was upset. (bananas do not fit my stomach.) Three它的味道像芒果。

The consistency between the functionalism and the literal translation姓名：常首鸣学号：2008142班级：08级外应2班Abstract: Although the skopos theory has set a new ground for translation theories, it has been regarded as a perspective with no relevance to such concepts as “literal translation”and“loyalty”.The functionalism, pursuing the “loyalty”principle on a macro-level, belongs to the translation system of “loyalty”. The Functionalism and the literal translation, sharing a deeper relationship, is consistent in nature.Key words: the functionalism, the literal translation, loyalty , information1.the theory of the functionalism(1) .the functionalismIn the 1970s, Reiss, Vermeer and Christiane Nord proposed the theory of the functionalism in which the focus, with the purpose of translation as its theoretical core, changes from the relation between the original writing and the translation to the expected effect of the translation. The functionalism offered a new study perspective.Reiss, the founder of the school, regarded the text function as the object of the translation study, arguing that the assessment of translation should be conducted through the analysis of relation between the function of the original text and the translation. The relation is the functional equivalence between the original writing and the translation.As Reiss’ student, Vermeer followed the theory of functionalism, proposing the skopos theory—the core theory of functionalism. She pointed out that translators should consider the expected effect(s) of the target context rather than the closeness between the original and the translation. And later, Christiane Nord developed this theory, putting forward the concept of “Function plus Loyalty”, in which she holds that “translation should create a target text with specific functions, and the relation between the two writings should be also made clear according to the expectedfunction or the requirement asked by the target context.”It is obvious that although the translated text, according to Nord, needs processing “loyally”, it could be changed at some specific requirement; for the translator needs to handle the interpersonal relationship between him and the author, the reader of the original writing, even the publisher so as to highlight certain purpose of the translation.(2). the uniqueness of the functionalismNow we can distinguish the differences between the functionalism and the traditional translation theory: the focus is changed from the internal problems——the skills at translating word, phrase, sentence or paragraph, to the external ones——reproduction of the expected effect of the source text or realization of the specific requirement of the translation effect by the initiator. In translation, the expected purpose determines the translating process, that is to say, the specific effect determines the means of translating. According to the functionalism, the original text, as one of the sources of information that the translator uses to realize the expected function, should be subject to the expected function, not having the only decisive meaning; but the authority of the original text can not be over-impaired. The functionalism is scientific that the function of the original is consistent with the expected function on the macro-level, in other words, no matter how the expected function changes, it will not depart from the initial function of the source text, and hereby there will be a sufficient guarantee of the accuracy, and this standpoint serves as the theoretical background for Nord’s “Function plus Loyalty”.But this criterion also stands at the center of controversy: how could the “loyalty” be guaranteed? And how could the translation be considered accurate if the original text is adjusted according to the function rather than being translated loyally?2.the controversial “literal translation”Why is the source text translated loyally, and which form is adopted to realizethe “loyal translation”? The analysis of this question will facilitate the further understanding of the distinction between the functional translation strategy and the re-creation, and of the dialectical relationship between the theory of functionalism and the literal translation.(1). the early development of the literal translationLoyalty means the correct understanding and expression of the original meaning. That is a generally acknowledged concept of the literal translation. But there is much controversy about how to do it for hundreds of years.The early theory of literal translation can be traced back to the ancient Greek when, under the influence of religious belief, translation must be conducted literally, placing the original text on a pedestal, and the translator has to right to alter the original, any translation catering for the reader being regarded as unbearable. This view, although at the early stage of translation theory, has exerted great influence upon later study. Till now there are still many supporters, among whom the most influential figures are Lu Xun and Vladimir Nabokov. Lu Xun holds “to be faithful rather than smooth”, claiming that he would rather have his reader “suffer” his translation than alter the original text; Nabokov advocates the absolutely accurate copy of the original, stating that he would rather use annotation to keep the formal correspondence between the original and the translation.(2). the influence of modern linguisticsActually, the early translation theory is the so-called interlinear translation. Peter Newmark has pointed out the boundary between the literal translation and the interlinear translation: he thinks that in the translated text the grammatical form of the original should be renounced, while the meaning of the original remains; on the contrary, the interlinear translation copies both the form and the content of the original, but the grammatical structure is destroyed at the same time.The development of modern linguistics supplies new theoretical support for the literal translation—translation should focus on the content behind the forms rather than the simple correspondence of word and sentence. The modern linguistics hold that among the various linguistic forms there is a universal meaning which shares a kind of information that could be understood by all the people speaking different languages, and all these forms containing the information could be transformed into different languages; and the action in the opposite way is translation. The position has won many supporters, among whom Chomsky and Halliday are the backbone. This view is a progress in the literal translation theory, for it pays more attention to the “functional equivale nce” instead of the traditional formal equivalence, it is, however, a pity that the perspective excludes the factors outside the semantic structure.But the theory of literal translation is the most thorough one that sticks to the original text, and what’s more, its comparative accuracy stands out from other theories. Although the standard of loyalty is changed from the narrow sense to the broad sense, namely, from the pseudo-literal translation to the real one, the accurate understanding of the original meaning is never changed.3. the literal-translation nature of the functionalismFrom the discussion above, it can be said that the literal translation aims to comprehensively convey the accurate information so as to help readers obtain the most “orig inal information” with the least interference. In literal translation, “l iteral” refers to the degree that the translation sticks to the original information, while the theory is flexible when adopting the specific translation strategy—this attempt is the source of inspiration of functionalism. It is certain that there exists a common ground between the functionalism and the literal translation theory.(1). function, decoding, and authentic informationFunction refers to the effect that the author of the original text expects in thespecific background of register which is essential for the reader to understand the original text and the author to realize the value of the original writing. The background of register, compared to the original text, is of the equal importance for two aspects: ⑴the expected effect of the original text that is realized in the background of register of the target language through the translated version; ⑵the certain function that is realized in the culture of the target language through the translated text. From the perfective of information theory, what is indispensable for decoding the complete information is the manner of conveying information in the encoding process and the background knowledge facilitating understanding the information, or rather, they are part of the information. Without these parts there would be no potential context to re-decode the information even though the original meaning could be accurately translated. In this case, the translation makes no sense.(2). “function”—the flexible literal translationThe translation practice, under the guidance of the functionalism, is not the creative activity for it, based upon the original information, strictly follows the principle of accuracy. It can be regarded as “loyal”in a broader sense—loyal to the intention(s) of the original writer instead of the original text. In other words, the strategy of the functionalism can be deemed one of the variants of literal translation.4. conclusionHaving highlighted the novelty of the functionalism, functionalists over-emphasize the purposes of translation, weakening the original decisive role over the target text. The functionalism is misunderstood as a deviation from the principle of loyalty, while a carefully study of the functionalism leads to the fact that the theory is another type of understanding about the system of literal translation. The functionalist has been faithfully handled the original text in terms of both the information and the expected function. Now it can be concluded that in nature there isno essential distinction between the functionalism and the literal translation.Reference:[1]Schaffner,(1998) Translation and Norms[M] Clevedon:Multilingual Matters LTD[2] Tan Zaixi, The Brief History of Western Translation Theory［M］Beijing：The commercial Press，2004[3] Nord,(1991)Text Analysis in Translation:theory,methodology,and didactic application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis［M］Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing[4] Guo Jianzhong, The modern American Translation Theory[M]Wuhan:Hubei Education Press，1999[5] Nord, & Katharina Reiss (1997)Translation as a Purposeful Activity:functional approaches explaine [M] Manchster: StJerome Publishing[6] Li Heqing，Huang Hao，Bo Zhenjie, The Methodology of Western Translation Study：［M］Beijing：Peking University Press，2005。

山东财经大学本科毕业论文(设计)题目：论转换法在英汉翻译中的应用学院外国语学院专业英语班级英语0802学号**********姓名刘潇指导教师李文涛山东财经大学教务处制二Ｏ一二年五月山东财经大学学士学位论文山东财经大学学士学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下进行研究工作所取得的成果。

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指导教师签名：论文作者签名：年月日年月日On Application of Conversionin English-Chinese TranslationbyLiu XiaoUnder the Supervision ofLi WentaoSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of ArtsSchool of Foreign StudiesShandong University of Finance and EconomicsMay 2012AcknowledgementsUpon the completion of the thesis, first of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Li Wentao, for his enlightening guidance, incessant encouragement and careful modification throughout the process of writing this thesis. Without his patience and prudence, I could not have brought my thesis to its present form.Besides, I am also greatly indebted to other beloved teachers in the School of Foreign Studies of Shandong University of Finance and Economics, for their valuable and informative courses which have benefited me a lot during my college years.Last but not the least, I am also much obliged to all my friends who have helped me with my thesis.L. X.ABSTRACTOn Application of Conversionin English-Chinese TranslationLiu XiaoDue to the great differences between English and Chinese in grammar and expression style, translators may adopt the approaches of changing the word classes and sentence components in English-Chinese (E-C) translation. As a frequently-used translation technique, conversion enables translators to achieve a natural, fluent and accurate translation that not only conveys the original text’s information but also fits the idiomatic usage of Chinese.The thesis consists of three chapters. The first chapter examines the conversion of word classes in E-C translation such as conversion from English nouns or prepositions into Chinese verbs. The conversion of word classes usually results in the conversion of sentence components, so the second chapter discusses the conversion of sentence components. The third chapter explores the approaches of how to convert the English perspectives into the corresponding ones conforming to Chinese culture and thought pattern.Key words:conversion; word classes; sentence components; perspectives; E-C translation错误!未指定书签。