Chapter 8_language in use__ pragmatics

Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning ___D______ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. co nte xt2. A sentence is a ______B___ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied inisolation. A. pragmatic B. grammatical C. mental D. co nce p tual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes a (n) ___C______.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. e xp re ssive4. Which of the following is true?√ A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.√ D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until ____A______.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. ___C_______ is the act performed by or resulting fro m saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ___B___.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the sam e category share the same p urp ose, b ut they differ ___A__C_____.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. _____A_____ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D_____ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12.T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13.T What e sse ntially d isting uishe s se m antics and p rag m atics is whe the r in the stud y o fmeaning the context of use is considered.14. F The m ajor d ifference b etween a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence isnot uttered while an utterance is.15.F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16.F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17T. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19.T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20.T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of ___context_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think o f a sentence as what people actually utter in the course o f communication, it becomes an ___utterance_______.23. The meaning of a sentence is __abstrac t________, and decontexualized.24. _Constative_________ were statem ents that either state or d escrib e, and were thus verifiable.25. __Perfo rm ative_______ were sentences that d id no t state a fact o r d escrib e a state,and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __locuionary________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) ___illocutionary_______ act is the act o f e xp re ssing the sp e ake r’s inte ntio n; it isthe act performed in saying something.28. A(n) __commisive_______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course o f action.29. A(n) __expressive______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim o f ____quantity______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)Ke y: Chapter8I. 1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII. 11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII. 21.context 22.utterance 23.abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantityChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The p e rso n wh o is o fte n d e scrib e d as “fath e r o f m o d e rn lin g u istics” is __B________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Cho m sky2. The m o st im p o rtant co ntrib utio n o f the Prag ue Scho o l to ling uistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of ___A_______.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. syste m3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is _______C__.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally sp eaking, the _____A_____ sp ecifies whether a certain tag m em e is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Co he sio n5. _____A_____ Gram m ar is the m o st wid esp read and the b est und ersto o d m etho d o f discussing Indo-European languages.A. Trad itio nalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Ge ne rative6. ____A______ Gram m ar starte d fro m the Am e rican ling uist Syd ne y M. Lam b in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Mo n tag u e7. In Hallid ay’s view, the _____B_____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. info rm ative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is _____D_____.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jan e9. Chomsky follows _____C_____ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. m e ntalism10. TG grammar has seen _____C_____ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. F The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. T London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14.T According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.15.F American Structuralism is a branch o f diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16.F The Stan d ard Theo ry focuses discussion on language universals and universalg ram m ar.17.T American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities o f languages.18.T Cho m sky’s co nce p t o f ling uistic p e rfo rm ance is sim ilar to Saussure’s co nce p t o fp aro le, while his u se o f lin g u istic co m p e te n ce is so m e what d iffe re n t fro m Sau ssu re’s lan g u e.19.T Glo sse m atics e m p hasize s the nature and status o f ling uistic the o ry and its re latio nto description.20. F If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of ___synchronic _______ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and re m e m b e re d for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _____Mathesius__﹙×﹚_J.R Firth_.24. Hallid ay’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is ______systemic ___.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) ___socially_sociogically______ orientedfunctional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is b ased on the assum p tion that g ram m atical categ ories should b edefined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___stucture___ distribution ____.27. In the history of Am erican ling uistics, the p eriod b etween 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian________ Age.28. Descriptivism__________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point o f Cho m sky’s TG grammar is his ____innateness______ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD p ro b ab ly consists o f three elements, that is a __hypothesis maker________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarKe y: Chapter12I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Pe rsp e ctive. It is a theory o f linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis o f utterances (o r texts) in term s o f the info rm atio n theycontain.＊32. Co hesio n: The Co hesio n sho ws whether a certain tag m em e is d o m inating o ther tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a d evice effectively p resent in the m ind s o f child ren b y which a g ram m ar o f their nativelanguage is constructed.＊34. Case Gram m ar: It is an ap p roach that stresses the relationship of elem ents in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。

Ⅱ．Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1．P ________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication．2．What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered．3．The notion of c_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language．4．If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u_______ ．5．The meaning of a sentence is a_______ ,and decontexualized．6．C_______ were statements that either state or describe,and were thus verifiable．7．P_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable．8．A l_______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology．9．An i______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something．10．A c _______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action．11．An e_______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state．12．There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______ , the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner．13．P _______ is the study of language in relation to the mind．14．Psycholinguistics adopts an e_______ approach．15．The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h_______ , one on he right and one on the left．16．The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular side of the brain is called l_______ ．17．Brain lateralization is g_______ programmed, but takes time to develop．18．According to Chomsky, c_______ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language．19．The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the c_______ period for first language acquisition．20．The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d_______ and linguistic relativism．21．Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background．This notion is called linguistic r_______ ．22．Langue comprehending is a complicated process that includes hearing and distinguishing the sound, comprehending the meaning and making r_______ ．23．Language production contains language f _______ and carrying our it24．According to the Cognitive Theory ,the development of the linguistic ability can’t precede that of the c _______ abilityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the1. The study of _____ does NOT form the core of linguistics.A. syntaxB. PragmaticsC. MorphologyD. sociolinguistics2. If the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use, a branch of linguistic study called _____ come into being.A. syntaxB. SemanticsC. MorphologyD. pragmatics3. Which of the following statements is not the concern of psycholinguistics?A. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use languageB. It relates the social norms that determine the type of language to be used in a certain occasion.C. It pays more attention to the study of language acquisition in childrenD. It focuses on the way of processing the information we receive in the course of communication.4. Which of the following words is the entire arbitrary one?A. bookB. beautifulC. crashD. newspaper5. Which of the following items is not a design feature of human language？A. arbitrarinessB. competenceC. displacementD. productivity6. The difference between modern linguistics and traditional grammar are all of the following EXCEPT --_______A. descriptive vs. prescriptiveB. non Latin-based vs. Latin-based frameworkC. spoken vs. writtenD. competence vs. performance7. The term _____ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stage.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative8. Which word is the absolute arbitrary one?A. carefulB. handbagC. crackD. table9. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics10. ______ is regarded as the “Father of modern linguistics”.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Whorf11. Competence refers to ________.A. the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageB. the actual realization of the language user’s knowledge of the rules in utterancesC. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesD. what speakers can actually do with language12. The subject area on the borders of linguistics and literature has become known as _____ .A. anthropological linguisticsB. linguistic stylisticsC. neurolinguisticsD. mathematical linguistics13. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between________.A. prescriptive & descriptiveB. synchronic and diachronicC. speech and writingD. langue & parole14. _____ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. applied linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. anthropological linguistics15. Children can speak before they can read or write shows that ______.A. language is arbitraryB. language is productiveC. language is used for communicationD. language is basically vocal16. _____ means the lack of logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. AmbiguityB. FuzzinessC. AbstractnessD. Arbitrariness17. Which of the following statements about language is NOT TRUE?A. Language means the system of pronunciation, grammar and vocabularyB. Language includes animal and artificial features of languageC. Language means a particular type or style of language used for a particular purposeD. Language refers to the common features of all human languages18. All human languages are organized on two levels: the sound level – meaningless, the grammatical level – meaningful. This means language has the design feature of _______.A. dualityB. changeableC. CreativeD. arbitrary19. ____ are two sub-branches of linguistics that study the units at the grammatical level.A. morphology and semanticsB. morphology and syntaxC. semantics and syntaxD. morphology and phonology20. ____ dictionary established a uniform standard for English spelling and word use.A. LongmanB. OxfordC. Webster’sD. Johnson’s21. Langue & Parole are a pair of important distinctions put forward by _______ .A. ChomskyB. LyonsC. SaussureD. Halliday22. Language has the feature of ____ in the sense that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.A. dualityB. interchangeabilityC. displacementD. productivity23. Linguistics gives priority to the spoken language instead of the written language because______.A. vocal sounds are derived from writing systemsB. spoken language precedes written language only in Indo-European languagesC. we have recording devices to study speech in modern timesD. speech precedes writing everywhere in the world24. The distinction between competence and performance is made by _____ in _______.A. F. de. Saussure; SwissB. Noam Chomsky; USAC. M. A. K. Halliday; UKD. L. Bloomfield; USA25. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic26. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness27. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable28. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above29. A historical study of language is a_______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative30. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a________ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic31. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language32. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas33. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission34. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[注：第六章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can no t be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping inf luence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a __________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person’s speec h or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or __________ language ofa country.28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Lingua franca32. Regional dialect33. Register34. SociolinguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Is American English superior to African English Why or why not （中国人民大学，2003）36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese （东北师范大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）答案~5 BCAAC 6~10 ~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF. community 22. variety23. dialectal . sociolects 26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectional. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English..(Omit.)Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between t hem can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X” （东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming？B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:~5 DBCBA 6~10 ~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTT. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant infor mation, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when th e bus comes.”occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the fun ction that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point ina linguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the the ory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG gra mmar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP 32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics？36. What is behaviorism What is behaviorism in linguistics What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield Does behaviorism have any limitations If yes, what are they？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics？Key:~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCC ~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTF. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-maker. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed. 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.Chapter 7 Exercises for Language, Culture and SocietyI . Fill in the blanks.1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.3. Wherever the standard he’s). Black English can language can use a contraction (he + is _________ the form of “be”._________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. Asa characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)II. . Choose the best answer.13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a commonset of behaviour rules.A. domainB. . situationC. societyD. community15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __________ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.A. Language tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. Register variety21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Ideolectal22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Regional variationB. American EnglishC. Stylistic variationD. Ideolectal variationII. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains._________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language._________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy._________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region._________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other._________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language._________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life._________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon._________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers._________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English._________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system._________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Explain the following terms.37. Register 38. Pigin39. Slang 40. Communicative competence41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.V. Answer the following questions.49. What is the difference official language？50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national languageKeysI . Fill in the blanks.1. vernacular2. community3. delete4. standard5. creole6. taboo7. euphemism8. language9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualismII . Choose the best . C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. DIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.28. [T]29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.30. [Tl,31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir¬Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.35. [T] 36. [T]。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题Chapter 1I. Choose the best answer. (20%)5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. InterpersonalII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an exa mple of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentencesbased on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________theory.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)1. Design feature2. DisplacementV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda ratherthan the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24.One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth.A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems7.The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending9.The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)13.Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.15.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.18.In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Blending32.Allomorph33.Closed-class wordV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）Chapter 4 SyntaxI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical9.The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinateII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%).16.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verbphrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)24.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called __________.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Syntax32.IC analysisV.Answer the following questions. (20%)36.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.Chapter 5 MeaningI.Choose the best answer. (20%)5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above9.Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonymsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while thereference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.15.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 17.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.__________ can be defined as the study of meaning.24.Words that are close in meaning are called __________.26.__________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.30.According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Entailment32. Propositionponential analysis34.ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots36.What are the three kinds of antonymy?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter Six PsycholinguisticsChapter 7 Language, Culture and SocietyI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1._______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2.The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)34. SociolinguisticsSapir-Whorf HypothesisV. Answer the following questions. (20%)Summarize the features of the female languageChapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.。

Chapter 1Invitation to Linguisticsnguage (语言) (p.2): A systematic system of meaningful symbols used for human communication, e.g. Chinese, English, Russian, etc..2.Design features of language (语言的区别性特征) (p.3): Features that distinguish human language from animal communication.○1Arbitrariness of language(任意性):The arbitrariness of language refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry (p.4).○2Duality of language(二重性):: The duality of language refers to the fact that human language has two levels of structures.○3Creativity of language (创造性): Because of its duality and recursiveness, language is resourceful and is capable of producing various and numerous expressions. (p.7) ○4Displacement of language (移位性): Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. (p.7)3.Functions of language: ○1informative信息功能○2interpersonal function人际功能○3 performative施为功能○4emotive function感情功能○5phatic communion寒暄功能○6 recreational function娱乐功能○7metalingual function元语言功能4.Branches of linguistics (语言学分支) (p.15): Different fields/areas of linguistic study Phonetics语音学, phonology音系学，morphology形态学, syntax句法学，semantics 语义学，pragmatic语用学5.Interdisciplinary fields of linguistics (跨学科语言学) (p.18): Fields of linguistic studies that are related to other sciences, incl. psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc.6.Major distinctions in linguistics (语言学中的相对概念) (p.20): Contrastive pairs of linguistic concepts, e.g. prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar, language competence vs. language performance, etcChapter 2Speech Sounds1.The IPA (国际音标) (p.28): A system of symbols designed to represent sounds of various languages, esp. vowels and consonants.2.Consonants and vowels(辅音和元音) (p.29): Sounds that are obstructed when pronounced are consonants, e.g. /p/, /f/; those that are not are vowels, e.g. /i:/, /e/, etc.3.Phoneme and allophone (音位与音位变体) (p.38): A phoneme is a group of sounds that sound similar and are in complementary distribution, e.g. /t/. /s/, etc.; the different members of a phoneme are called allophones, e.g. the different pronunciations of /t/ at different positions of syllables in words: too /tu:/, put /put/ and stick /stik/.4.Distinctive features (of phonemes) (音位的区别性特征) (p.45): Features that can distinguish a phoneme from other phonemes, e.g. the consonants /s/ and /z/ are distinguished by the feature of + or – voice.5.Phonological process (音变过程/类型) (p.41): A process in which the pronunciation of phonemes/sounds changes because of the impact of otheradjacent/immediate phonemes/sounds, incl. assimilation (同化), epenthesis (增音), etc.6.Suprasegmental (超切分音位) (p.47): A Phonological unit that usually spreads over more than one phoneme, incl. syllable, stress, intonation, tone, rhythm, etc Chapter 3From Morpheme to Phrase1.Morpheme and allomorph (词位/词素/语素与词位变体) (p.52): The morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language which often has variants called allomorphs (changed forms, not the meaning), e.g. the negative morpheme {in-} consists of such allomorphs as im-, il-, ir-, etc.2.Free morpheme and bound morpheme (自由词位与粘着性词位) (p.53): A morpheme that can be used freely as a word is a free morpheme while one that can not and has to be combined with at least one other morpheme is a bound morpheme, e.g. “hat” and “the” are free morphemes while “pre-” and “-ed” are bound morphemes.3.Word root, word base and affix (词根, 词基与词缀) (p.53):4.Word (词) (p.57): A morpheme or a combination of morphemes that can be used freely in a language, e.g. “school”5.Inflection (屈折变化) (p.61): The process in which an inflectional affix (indicating number, tense, etc.) is added to a word stem, e.g. when “-ing” is added to the verb “beat” to create continuous tense: beating.6.The word-formation process of derivation (派生) is not included as inflection, and the affixes used in this process are called “derivational affixes”.7.Major processes of word-formation (主要构词法) (p.61):Derivation (派生法), Compounding (合成法), Conversion (class shift) (词性转换法).Chapter 4: From Word to Text1.Syntactic relations (句法关系): ○1positional relation位置关系○2Substitutability可替代性关系refers to the relation between a word/phrase in a phrase/sentence and another word/phrase that can replace it without affecting the grammatical structure, e.g. the noun “building” can be used to replace the noun “forest” in the phrase “get out of the forest” without affecting the grammatical structure of the phrase.○3Co-occurrence同现关系refers to the relation between the words/phrases in a phrase/sentence, e.g. the relation between the words in the phrase “leave Guangzhou for Zhuhai”.2.Immediate constituents (直接成分) (p.76): Linguistic units that join and make up a higher unit (as related to the higher unit), e.g. the two parts “Mary” and “arrived on time” are immediate constituents of the sentence “Mary arrived on time”.3.Endocentric and exocentric constructions (向心结构与离心结构) (p.78)4. Grammatical category (语法范畴)(p.85): A feature or features that can distinguish one class of linguistic units from another, incl. number, gender, case, tense, voice, mood, comparative degree, etc.5. Recursiveness of language (递归性) (p.90): A creative feature of language that enables human to make an expression as long as needed by means of conjoining,embedding, subordination, etc. (Refer to creativity—a design feature)Chapter 5 MeaningMajor difference between sense and reference (p.97):(1)Sense (意义): abstract properties of an entity实体.Eg.猫(2)Reference (所指): a (non-linguistic) entity it refers to (in the real world). Eg.我家的白猫注：Functional words (虚词) usually have sense but not reference because they don’t refer to any entity in the real world.Sense relations (语义关系) and lexical meanings of words1.Sense relations (语义关系) (p.97):Sense relations refer to the relations between the senses of words in a language, including synonymy同义关系, antonymy反义关系, hyponymy上下义关系, etc.ponential analysis (语义成分分析法) (p.102): A method/theory applied to the analysis of the meanings/sensesof words in a language.3.Logical semantics (逻辑语义学) (p.108): A method/theory which applies the theory of logic to the analysis of the meanings of linguistic expressions at various levels in a language.Chapter 6Language and Cognition语言与认知1.Psycholinguistics (心理语言学) (p.117): The study of the psychological aspect of language, including the acquisition *ˌækwɪˈzɪʃn]习得, comprehension理解and production of language语言的生成.2.Cognitive [ˈkɒgnətɪv] linguistics (认知语言学) (p.129): The school of linguistics that aims at understanding language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general.3.Construal[kən'stru:əl] and construal operations (识解与识解过程) (p.130): Construal refers to the ways people structure their experiences through language; we can interpret these ways through construal operations, including Attention / Salience (突显), Judgment / Comparison (比较), Perspective / Situatedness (位置), and Constitution / Gestalt (完形).4.Categorization*ˌkætəɡəraɪ'zeɪʃn] (范畴化) (p.132): The process of classifying our experiences into different kinds based on their commonalities共性and differences, including 3 basic levels: Basic (基本范畴), Superordinate (上位范畴) and Subordinate (下属范畴).5.Image schemas (意象图式) (p.134): A recurring, dynamic pre-conceptual pattern of the activities in the mind (our perceptual interactions and motor programs (运动程式) that gives coherence and structure to our experience, including Center-periphery schema (中心-边缘), containment schema (容器), cycle schema (循环), etc.通过感知相互作用以及动觉程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的反复出现的动态模式。

Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part11Chapter 8 Language in Use 8.1 Speech Act TheoryPerformatives and constativesA Theory of Illocutionary Act8.2 The Theory of conversational Implicature The Cooperative PrincipleViolation of the maximsCharacteristics of Implicature8.3 Post-Gricean DevelopmentRelevance TheoryThe Q-and R-PrinciplesThe Q-,I-and M-Principles8.1 Speech Act TheoryThis is the major theory in the study of language in use, which originated with J.L.Austin.8.1.1 Performatives and ConstativesAustin in his How to Do Things with Words claims that there are two types of sentences: Performatives and constatives.1)Performatives are utterances by which a speaker does something.2) Constatives are sentences by which a speaker makes a statement that may be trueor false.Felicity Conditions have to be met for performatives to be appropriate or felicitous.8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary ActIn Austin’s opinion, there are three senses in which saying something maybe understood as doing something.1) Locutionary Act: the act of producing some units of language with certain meanings.2) Illocutionary Act: the act of producing some units of language with the intention of thespeaker.3) Perlocutionary Act:the act which is performed through, by means of , a locutionaryact.8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature The second major theory of pragmatics is the theory of conversational Implicature, proposed by Paul Grice.8.2.1 The cooperative principle (CP)To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:1) Quantityi) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose ofthe exchange).ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.i) do not say that you believe to be false.ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) RelationBe relevant4) MannerBe perspicuousi) avoid obscurity of expression.ii) avoid ambiguity.iii) be brief.iv) be orderly.The cooperative principle and its component maxims are descriptive, rather than prescriptive.8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature1) Calculability2) cancellability3) Non-detachability4) Non-conventionalityConversational Implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventionalmeaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.8.3 Post-Grice Developments8.3.1 Relevance TheoryThis theory is formally proposed by Dan Sperser and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986.The principle of relevance is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q-and R-PrincipleThese two principles are developed by Laurence Horn.1) The Q-principle ( Hearer-based)2) The R-principle ( Speaker-based)8.3.3 The Q-, I-and M-principle1) Q-principle2) I-principle3) M-principleQuestions1 Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Tryto explain the illocutionary force In each of the utterance.[ the daughter walks into the kitchen and takes some popcorn]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the [violin] stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?2 If you ask somebody “can you open the door?”he answers “Yes”butdoes not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.3”The Club”is a device for blocking an automobile’s steering wheel,thus protecting the car from being stolen.And one of its ads reads:The Club! FDAnti-theft device for carsPolice Say“Use it”or Lose itin terms of the Grice’s theory, what maxim is exploited here? Find two Chinese ads of the same type.。