下载文档原格式
教育英语词汇大全教育是一个非常重要的领域，而在教育领域中，英语词汇是非常关键的一部分。
掌握丰富准确的教育英语词汇，可以帮助我们更好地理解和讨论教育相关的话题。
下面是一份教育英语词汇大全，希望能对大家的学习和教育工作有所帮助。
一、教育体制和机构（Educational systems and institutions）1. 学前教育（Pre-school education）2. 基础教育（Primary education）3. 中等教育（Secondary education）4. 高等教育（Higher education）5. 职业教育（Vocational education）6. 终身学习（Lifelong learning）7. 公立学校（Public schools）8. 私立学校（Private schools）9. 高校（Higher education institutions）10. 教育管理机构（Educational administrative agencies）二、教学方法和策略（Teaching methods and strategies）1. 课堂教学（Classroom teaching）2. 项目学习（Project-based learning）3. 合作学习（Cooperative learning）4. 个性化教育（Personalized education）5. 激励教育（Motivational education）6. 反思性教育（Reflective education）7. 游戏化教学（Gamified learning）8. 集体合作学习（Collaborative learning）9. 探究学习（Inquiry-based learning）10. 实践教学（Experiential learning）三、学科和课程（Subjects and curriculum）1. 数学（Mathematics）2. 英语（English）3. 科学（Science）4. 历史（History）5. 地理（Geography）6. 美术（Fine arts）7. 音乐（Music）8. 体育（Physical education）9. 计算机科学（Computer science）10. 社会学（Social studies）四、评估和考试（Assessment and examinations）1. 课堂测验（Classroom quizzes）2. 作业（Homework）3. 期中考试（Midterm examinations）4. 期末考试（Final examinations）5. 标准化考试（Standardized tests）6. 评估方法（Assessment methods）7. 成绩单（Report cards）8. 绩效评估（Performance evaluation）9. 学术成就（Academic achievements）10. 学习进步（Learning progress）五、教育政策和改革（Educational policies and reforms）1. 教育公平（Educational equity）2. 教育质量（Education quality）3. 教师培训（Teacher training）4. 教学改革（Curriculum reform）5. 教育投入（Education funding）6. 教育创新（Educational innovation）7. 教育发展（Education development）8. 教育法规（Educational laws and regulations）9. 国际交流与合作（International exchanges and cooperation）10. 双语教育（Bilingual education）总结：以上是教育英语词汇大全的内容，涵盖了教育领域中的各个方面，希望对您的学习和工作有所帮助。
用英语阅读教学金钥匙开启成功学习之门The Key to Successful Learning: Teaching StrategiesSuccessful learning requires effective teaching strategies that engage and motivate learners. The following are some key strategies that can help unlock the door to successful learning:1. Active learning: Learners are encouraged to participate actively in the learning process, which means they are not just passively receiving information. This can be achieved through various techniques, such as group discussions, problem-solving exercises or role-playing.2. Feedback: Feedback is an essential component of effective learning. Feedback can help learners understand their strengths and weaknesses, and provide insight into how they can improve. Teachers can provide feedback through various methods, such as regular assessments, discussions, or personal feedback.3. Collaborative learning: Learning in a group setting can be an effective way to promote collaboration andcritical thinking. Teachers can encourage collaboration by assigning group projects, providing opportunities for teamwork, and encouraging discussion.4. Use of technology: Technology has revolutionized the way we learn, and teachers can use this to their advantage.Integrating technology into the classroom can enhance learning and make it more engaging. For example, teachers can use videos, interactive software, and online resources to supplement classroom learning.5. Multidisciplinary learning: Learning that encompasses multiple disciplines can be an excellent way to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a subject. Teachers can integrate different subjects into their lessons to create a more holistic learning experience.By incorporating these strategies into their teaching, educators can help students unlock the key to successful learning.。
中学英语课程标准研究与教材分析模块一: 课程标准研究基础教材本课程的教学内容主要涉及下列课程标准和外语能力指标1.《义务教育英语课程标准》教育部, 20112.美国TESOL 2007 English Language Proficiency Standards, TESOL, 2007. (WIDA Version)3.《高中英语课程标准（实验稿）》教育部（2003）外语能力指标The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, The Council of Europe, 2001.第一章: 课程标准的基本概念1.本课程的主要内容2.课程标准和课程大纲的关系3.课程标准的作用4.课程标准的读者对象5.作为教师的课程标准的解读方法本章参考读物《义务教育英语课程标准》（2011）教育部。
邹为诚，“外语教学的基本原理”，邹为诚、程晓主编《外语教师职业技能发展》，北京高等教育出版社，2013出版，第1-22页。
邹为诚，“《普通高中英语课程标准（实验）》评估研究的理论与方法”，载于《课程教材教法》2013年第六期，第44-50页。
第二章：课程标准中的语言能力和能力指标1.能力的概念2.总目标和分级目标3.能力指标和指标内部的要素本章参考读物第1、2、3部分，《义务教育英语课程标准》（2011版）。
The Council of Europe. (2001). Illustrative descriptors, in The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. (pp. 25-31).WIDA. (2007). The sample performance indicators. In Pre-K – 12 English Language Proficiency Standards. (pp. 30).第三章：课程标准的能力指标对教学设计的作用1.课堂教学设计的基本知识2.教学设计的例子3.使用课程标准的能力指标（PD）CAAS结构来设计教学目标4.学会使用ABCD模板写出“教学目标”(Objectives)本章的参考读物Short. D. J. (2000). Using the ESL standards for curriculum development. In Snow M. A. (ed.). Implementing the ESL Standards for Pre-K – 12 Students Through Teacher Education. Alexander, VA: TESOL. (pp. 103-136)Nunan. D. (1988). Objectives. Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (pp. 61-71)第四章：材料特点和能力指标1.以”能做…”作为课程标准的基础的意义和教学价值2.教学材料特点分析（找出Teachable thing）（以Preparing for a trip to the USA为例）本章的参考读物邹为诚，（2013），帮助困难学习者，邹为诚、程晓主编《外语教师职业技能发展》（第二版），北京：高等教育出版社，171-193页。
Reference booksI. 中文书目1. 林立等编著任务型学习在英语教学中的应用首都师范大学出版社 2005.12. 王之江等编著探究学习在英语教学中的应用首都师范大学出版社 2005.13. 沈昌洪等编著自主学习在英语教学中的应用首都师范大学出版社 2005.14. 蔡慧萍等编著合作学习在英语教学中的应用首都师范大学出版社 2005.15. 郭娟等编著人本主义活动在英语教学中的应用首都师范大学出版社 2005.16. 王笃勤编著英语教学策略论外研社基础外语教学与研究丛书 2002.117. 王蔷编著英语教师行动研究外研社基础外语教学与研究丛书 2002.11*8．束定芳著外语教学改革：问题与对策上海：外教社 2004.69. 文秋芳著英语学习策略论上海：外教社 1996.510. 朱纯编著外语教学心理学上海：外教社 1994.911. 张国扬朱亚夫著外语教育语言学广西教育出版社 1996.512. 胡春洞，戴忠信著英语阅读论广西教育出版社 1998.913. Harvey F. Silver et al. 张玲译多元智能与学习风格教育科学出版社 2003.8 *14. 刘润清编著外语教学中的科研方法外研社 2000.1*15. 韩宝成编著外语教学科研中的统计方法外研社 2000.1II. 牛津应用语言学丛书（共19册）上海：外教社*1. Stern, H. H. 语言教学的基本概念（Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching）2. Stern, H. H. (Allen, P. et al. eds.) 语言教学的问题与可选策略(Issues andOptions in Language Teaching)*3. Widdowson, H.G. 语言教学面面观(Aspects of Language Teaching)4. Seliger, H. W., et al. 第二语言研究方法(Second Language Research Methods)III. 剑桥应用语言学丛书(共10册)上海：外教社1. Nunan, David 学习者为中心的课程设置：第二语言教学研究(The Learner-CentredCurriculum: A study in Second Language)2. Odlin, Terence 语言迁移：语言学习的语际影响(Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning)*3. O’Malley, J. Michael & Chamot, Anna Uhl 第二语言习得的学习策略(Learning Strategies in Second Language)IV。
教学设计包括哪些内容：英语翻译教学设计是指为了实现教学目标，规划并组织教学活动的过程。
它是一种系统性的思考和计划，有助于教师将教育理论应用于实际教学中。
教学设计需要考虑到学生的特点、学科的内容、教学方法以及评估和反馈等方面。
本文将介绍教学设计中涵盖的主要内容，并对其进行英文翻译。
1.教学目标 (Teaching Objectives): 教学目标是教师在教学过程中希望学生达到的预期学习结果。
它可以分为知识目标、能力目标和情感目标。
知识目标是学生在学习过程中应该掌握的知识内容，能力目标是学生应该具备的能力和技能，情感目标是培养学生正确的态度和价值观。
2.教学内容 (Teaching Content): 教学内容是教师在教学中要传授给学生的具体知识和技能。
它可以包括学科基础知识、概念、原理、技能等内容。
教学内容应该根据学生的年龄、智力水平和学科要求进行选择和组织。
3.教学方法 (Teaching Methods): 教学方法是教师在教学过程中采用的策略和手段。
它包括了教学模式、教学活动、教学资源的选择和运用等。
教学方法的选择应该根据不同的教学目标和学生的特点来确定，以提高教学效果和学生的学习兴趣。
4.教学组织 (Teaching Organization): 教学组织是指将教学内容和教学方法整合在一起，形成一个有机的教学过程。
它包括了教学步骤、教学时间分配、教材选择、课堂管理等方面。
教学组织的目标是使教学过程有条理、连贯，并且符合学生的认知规律。
5.评估和反馈 (Assessment and Feedback): 评估和反馈是对学生学习情况进行监测和评价的过程。
教师可以通过考试、作业、口头提问等方式进行评估，以了解学生的学习进度和成绩。
同时，教师还应提供及时的反馈和指导，根据学生的表现调整教学策略，以促进学生的进一步发展。
教学设计是教师进行教学活动的重要依据，它需要考虑到多个方面的因素。
通过合理和有效的教学设计，教师可以帮助学生实现目标，并提高他们的学习成效。
可编辑修改精选全文完整版绪论单元测试1【判断题】 (2分)英语学科教学论，是介绍英语知识的一门课。
A.对B.错2【判断题】 (2分)英语学科教学论，是一门介绍如何教英语的课。
A.对B.错3【判断题】 (2分)关于教英语，需要了解相关的语言和语言学习的理论。
A.错B.对4【判断题】 (2分)关于教英语，还需要了解相关的教学方法、了解课堂管理的内容、学习教学设计的理念等。
A.错B.对5【判断题】 (2分)听说读写看的教学，是关于语言技能的教学。
A.错B.对第一章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the view of language? ( )A.Interactional ViewB.Structural ViewC.Functional ViewD.Constructive View2【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the view of language Learning? ( )A.Behaviorist TheoryB.Cognitive TheoryC.Schema TheoryD.Socio-constructive Theory3【单选题】 (2分)Which is from social-constructivist theory?A.stimulusB.ZPDC.reinforcementD.automatic response4【多选题】 (2分)For new language learning, the aspects that students need to do with are ( )A.Understand the formB.Understand the meaningC.Go abroad for studyingD.Practice the language5【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to process-oriented theory? ( )A.Socio-constructivist TheoryB.Schema TheoryC.Behaviorist TheoryD.Cognitive Theory6【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to condition-oriented theory? ( )A.Constructivist TheoryB.Behaviorist TheoryC.Socio-constructivist TheoryD.Cognitive Theory7【判断题】 (2分)The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally related ele ments for the transmission of meaning. （）A.错B.对8【判断题】 (2分)The functional view only sees language as a means for doing things. ( )A.对B.错9【判断题】 (2分)For behaviorist theory, mistakes should be immediately corrected, and the correction s hould be immediately praised. ( )A.对B.错10【判断题】 (2分)Learning should be achieved via the dynamic interaction between the teacher and th e learner and between learners. ( )A.错B.对第三章测试1【判断题】 (2分)Teacher Talk Time means teacher should talk more in class and do not leave silence g ap in class. ( )A.对B.错2【判断题】 (2分)Remembering and understanding belong to the higher order thinking ability. ( )A.对B.错3【单选题】 (2分)Which one does not belong to the Bloom’s Taxonomy (2001)? ( )A.ApplyingB.AnalyzingC.RememberingD.Summarizing4【单选题】 (2分)For cognitive level of evaluating, the teacher may ask students the question like ( ).A.What is the relationship between A and B?B.How would you use this?C.Which is more interesting?D.What is the main idea of this paragraph?5【单选题】 (2分)For cognitive level of analyzing, the teacher may ask students the question like ( ).A.Which is more interesting, A or B?B.Can you compare A and B?C.Is there a better solution to this?D.What is an alternative method for this?6【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to teacher’s role? ( )A.controllerB.assessorC.prompterD.organizer7【多选题】 (2分)Teachers as facilitators means ( ).A.to guide them in planning and assessing their own learningB.to use various strategies to motivate learnersC.to develop their learning strategiesD.to create a positive learning environment8【多选题】 (2分)What are the two things that the teacher does as an assessor? ( )A.organizing feedbackB.controlling the paceC.correcting mistakesD.making research on student’s performance9【判断题】 (2分)Even the clearest instructions can be hard to grasp so, after you've given them, it's wo rth checking that they have been understood. ( )A.对B.错10【判断题】 (2分)Allow learners in class the time and the quiet they need, because they need time to thi nk, to prepare what they are going to say and how they are going to say it. ( )A.对B.错第四章测试1【单选题】 (2分)For WHERETO teaching design principle, W refers to ( ).A.allow students to evaluate their work and its implication’sB.be tailored (personalized) to the different needs, interests, and abilities of learnersC.equip students, help them experience the key ideas and explore the issuesD.help the students know where the unit is going and what is expected2【单选题】 (2分)For WHERETO teaching design principle, R refers to ( ).A.help the students know where the unit is going and what is expectedB.allow students to evaluate their work and its implication’sC.equip students, help them experience the key ideas and explore the issuesD.provide opportunities to rethink and revise their understandings and work3【单选题】 (2分)Which belongs to teaching design principle? ( )A.WHERETOB.ESAC.SMARTD.ABCD4【多选题】 (2分)What does WHERETO teaching design principle refer? ( )A.equip students, help them experience the key ideas and explore the issuesB.help the students know where the unit is going and what is expectedC.allow students to evaluate their work and its implication’sD.hook all students and hold their interest5【多选题】 (2分)What are the frequently applied teaching models? ( )A.WHERETO ModelB.Backward Design ModelC.ASSURE ModelD.ADDIE Model6【多选题】 (2分)What are the four elements of articulating learning objectives? ( )A.ConditionB.AudienceC.DegreeD.Behavior7【判断题】 (2分)Develop student’s reading skills. This learning objective is appropriately presented. ( )A.错B.8【判断题】 (2分)SMART is the method for articulating learning objectives. ( )A.对B.错9【判断题】 (2分)Activation of prior knowledge means activating cognitive structures that relate to the to pics and tasks to be studied and completed. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)The purpose of teaching design is to implement teaching effectively. ( )A.B.对第五章测试1【单选题】 (2分)What is used to express meanings in many subtle ways such as surprise, complaint, s arcasm, delighted, threats, etc.? ( )A.PronunciationB.morphologyC.PhonologyD.Intonation2【单选题】 (2分)What is the best age to start learning to read through phonics? ( )A.4-6B.C.1-2D.2-33【单选题】 (2分)After learning the individual letters’ sounds, it is natural to learn the sounds o f ? ( )A.consonant lettersB.blending lettersC.all of the aboveD.vowel letters4【多选题】 (2分)Which generally should be pronounced as weak form while reading aloud? ( )A.Auxiliary wordB.C.VerbD.Preposition5【多选题】 (2分)Phonics is a method for teaching and of the English language by develo ping learners' phonemic awareness—the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phon emes—in order to teach the correspondence between these sounds and the spelling p atterns that represent them. ( )A.speakingB.writingC.listeningD.reading6【多选题】 (2分)Sound /k/ can be spelled as ? ( )A.kB.chC.ckD.c7【判断题】 (2分)Research has shown that children who have not developed reading skills by second gr ade, will experience an overall delay in learning throughout their school life. ( )A.对B.错8【判断题】 (2分)Understanding phonics will also help children know which letters to use when they ar e writing words. ( )A.对B.错9【判断题】 (2分)A lot of people start the journey of teaching kids phonics through the traditional ways, l ike teaching them to read, and this is the best way to follow. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)Written language can be compared to a code, so knowing the sounds of individual lett ers and how those letters sound when they’re combined will help children code word s as they read. ( )A.对B.错第六章测试1【单选题】 (2分)What does the first aspect of vocabulary learning involve according to Hedge (200 0)? ( )A.The sense relations among words.B.Connotative meaning.C.Denotative meaning.D.Denotative and connotative meaning.2【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the appropriate way of consolidating vocabulary? ( )A.Play a game.B.Categories.C.Spot the difference.D.Guessing.3【单选题】 (2分)Which is not a collocation? ( )A.See a movie.B.Watch a play.C.Movie.D.Look at a picture.4【多选题】 (2分)According to Hedge (2000), what does the second aspect of vocabulary learning invol ve? ( )A.Spelling and PronunciationB.Collocations.C.Synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms.D.Receptive and productive vocabulary.5【多选题】 (2分)What does knowing a word involve? ( )A.How and when to use it to express the intended meaning.B.Its meaning.C.Its spelling and grammatical properties.D.Its pronunciation and stress.6【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to vocabulary learning strategies? ( )A.Use a dictionary.B.Review regularly.C.Guessing from context.D.Presenting vocabulary.7【判断题】 (2分)Denotative meaning refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real o bjects, such as a name or a sign, etc. in the physical world. ( )A.错B.对8【判断题】 (2分)Antonyms refer to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that wor ds are close in meaning. ( )A.对B.错9【判断题】 (2分)Receptive/passive vocabulary refers to words that one is able to recognize and compr ehend in reading or listening but unable to use automatically in speaking or writing. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)Collocations refer to words that co-occur with high frequency and have been accepte d as ways for the use of words. ( )A.对B.错第七章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Deductive reasoning is essentially a approach which moves from the more gen eral to the more specific. ( )A.gameB.down-topC.traditionalD.top-down2【单选题】 (2分)is an approach that removes you, the teacher, from the main role of “explainer” and ex tends to the students the opportunity to question and discover the target grammar. ( )A.The guided discovery methodB.Mechanical practiceC.Deductive methodD.Inductive method3【单选题】 (2分)usually comes after mechanical practice. ( )A.The guided discovery methodB.Meaningful practiceC.Deductive methodD.Inductive method4【多选题】 (2分)Although a little less effective than inductive teaching, benefits to the deductive approa ch are: ( )A.It encourages faster learning of material and understand the meaningB.Time in the classroom is spent only on the language principle.C.Most material can be easily taught this way.D.Students can have lots of interaction with others in a meaningful context.5【多选题】 (2分)Although inductive teaching takes longer than deductive, many educators agree it i s a very efficient method in the long run. Benefits include: ( )A.Students rely on their critical thinking to figure out the language.B.Students can gain deeper understanding of the language.C.Students can get more interaction and participation among each other.D.No material can be easily taught this way.6【多选题】 (2分)Using prompts has proved to be an effective way of grammar practice. The prompts ca n be: ( )A.picturesB.tablesC.key wordsD.mines7【判断题】 (2分)The deductive and inductive teaching methods can be illustrated in this picture. ( )A.对B.错8【判断题】 (2分)That the students are asked to produce language based on pictures and key phrase s provided by the teacher is using chained phrases for storytelling. ( )A.对B.错9【判断题】 (2分)In mechanical practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange o f meaning through the students “keep an eye on” the way newly learned structures ar e used in the process. ( )A.对B.错10【判断题】 (2分)Grammar practice is usually divided into two categories, mechanical practice and mea ningful practice. ( )A.错B.对第八章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Which is not involved in bottom-up processing while listening? ( )A.Recognizing phrases.B.Referring meaning from background knowledge.C.Recognizing structures.D.Recognizing sounds of words.2【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the stage of listening teaching? ( )A.While-listening.B.Predicting.C.Pre-listening.D.Post-listening.3【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the main listening difficulty of learners? ( )A.Quickly forget what is heard.B.Neglect the next part when thinking about meaning.C.Able to form a mental representation from words heard.D.Do not recognize words they know.4【多选题】 (2分)What are two models that are frequently used to describe different processes of listeni ng? ( )A.Top-up model.B.Top-down model.C.Bottom-up model.D.Bottom-down model.5【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to principles for teaching listening? ( )A.Focus on process.B.Combine listening with other skills.C.Focus on the comprehension of meaning.D.Grade difficulty level appropriately.6【多选题】 (2分)What are three main categories that affect the difficulty level of listening tasks accordin g to Anderson and lynch (1988)? ( )A.Context in which the listening occurs.B.Bottom-up and top-down approaches.C.Type of language used.D.Task or purpose in listening.7【判断题】 (2分)Bottom-up and top-down these two processes are mutually dependent. ( ）A.对B.错8【判断题】 (2分)It is important to develop listening skills together with other skills because ordinarily list ening is not an isolated skill. ( )A.错B.对9【判断题】 (2分)Multiple-choice tests play a decisive role in helping students develop good listening ha bits and strategies. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)In the top-down model, listening for gist and making use of the contextual clues and ba ckground knowledge to construct meaning are emphasized. ( )A.对B.错第九章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the principle for teaching speaking? ( )A.Maximizing meaning interactions.B.Problem-solving activities.C.Personalizing practice.D.Contextualizing practice.2【单选题】 (2分)Which practice is not structure-based with a focus on forms? ( )A.Grammar learning.B.Syntax learning.C.Providing sufficient opportunities for students to develop fluency.D.Vocabulary learning.3【单选题】 (2分)Which of the following activities is often used to develop students’ speaking accurac y? ( )A.Acting out the dialogue in the text.B.Having discussions in groups.C.Describing people in pair.D.Identifying and correcting oral mistakes.4【多选题】 (2分)Like all the other skills, what strategies does speaking involve?( )A.Turn taking.B.Asking for clarification.C.Initiating a conversation.D.Ending a conversation.5【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to common features of spoken language according to Bygate (1987)? ( )A.Using devices such as fillers, hesitation device to give time to think before speaking.B.Taking short cuts, e.g. incomplete sentences.C.Using less complex syntax.D.Using fixed conventional phrases or chunks.6【多选题】 (2分)Which belong to typical speaking tasks? ( )A.Problem-solving activities.B.Dialogues and role-plays.C.Doing translation exercises.D.Information-gap activities.7【判断题】 (2分)Maintaining a balance between accuracy-based and fluency-based practices is essenti al in teaching speaking.( )A.对B.错8【判断题】 (2分)Speaking is the skill that the students will be judged upon most in simulated situation s. ( )A.错B.对9【判断题】 (2分)Problem-solving activities tend to be productive because there is a clear objective to b e reached or problem to be solved and require a higher level of language proficienc y. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)Designing speaking activities that maximize students’ opportunity to speak is one of th e central tasks for language teachers. ( )A.错B.对第十章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the teaching step of viewing teaching? ( )A.What message does the image transmit?B.What do you feel?C.What can you touch?D.What can you see?2【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the three-dimension paradigm by Serafini (2014)? ( )A.StructuralB.IntellectualC.IdeologicalD.Perceptual3【单选题】 (2分)What is the definition of Visual literacy? ( )A.With technology, images and visual presentations are flourishing more than ever.B.It means student's ability to “use, interpret, analyze, and think critically about visual images and the signi ficance of what they are seeing”.C.This involves exploring how ideas and emotions are expressed and the use of lighting to create an emoti onal or physiological point.D.Visual literacy is based on the idea that can be "read" and that meaning can be through a process of re ading.4【多选题】 (2分)Which are the teaching steps of viewing teaching? ( )A.What can you touch?B.What is the image trying to tell us?C.What can you see?D.What do you feel?5【多选题】 (2分)What are the pedagogical questions that the teacher can use in class to develop learn ers’ visual literacy? ( )A.How could you change/improve this image?B.What more can we find out?C.What does this image say to us?D.Where has this image come from?6【多选题】 (2分)What can be used as visual literacy clues to facilitate identifying the visual products? ( )A.ColorB.ShapeC.GestureD.Lighting7【判断题】 (2分)We need to consider the active viewer as well and engage the students' creative or cur ative responses to the image. ( )A.错B.对8【判断题】 (2分)One of the most effective ways to encourage information to make that important jump f rom the limited short-term memory to the more powerful long-term memory is to pair te xt with images. ( )A.错B.对9【判断题】 (2分)As these students travel on their road to fluency in English, images can provide an eff ective bridge in that learning process. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)Information presented visually is processed extremely quickly by the brain. ( )A.对B.错第十一章测试1【单选题】 (2分)When expectations are set up, what kind of process of reading is ready to begin? ( )A.ForcedB.PassiveC.NegativeD.Active2【单选题】 (2分)What does bottom-up model mean? ( )A.The teacher should teach the background knowledge first, so that students equipped with such knowled ge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page.B.The teacher teaches reading by introducing vocabulary and new words first and then going over the tex t sentence by sentence.C.None of the above.D.Not only linguistic knowledge but also background knowledge is involved in reading.3【单选题】 (2分)Which is not the reading skill that the learners should be developed in reading clas s? ( )A.Making prediction based on vocabulary or titleB.Guessing the word’s meaningC.Cooperating with othersD.Making inference4【多选题】 (2分)What are the principles for reading teaching? ( )A.Prediction is a major factor in reading.B.Students should be encouraged to respond to the content of a reading text, not just to the language.C.Students need to be engaged with what they are reading.D.Good teachers exploit reading texts to the full.5【多选题】 (2分)What are the models for reading teaching? ( )A.Top-down ModelB.Discovery ModelC.Interactive ModelD.Bottom-up Model6【多选题】 (2分)Find out the reading skills that the learners should be cultivated in reading class. ( )A.Making inferenceB.SkimmingC.ScanningD.Guessing the word’s meaning7【判断题】 (2分)As with everything else in lessons, students who are not engaged with the reading tex t will not actively interested in what they are doing. ( )A.错B.对8【判断题】 (2分)In the Top-down Model, the teacher teaches reading by introducing vocabulary and ne w words first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. ( )A.错B.对9【判断题】 (2分)According to the Interactive Model of reading, when one is reading, the brain receive s visual information, and at the same time, interprets or reconstructs the meaning tha t the writer had in mind when he wrote the text. ( )A.错B.对10【判断题】 (2分)Reading comprehension involves extracting the relevant information from the text as e fficiently as possible, connecting the information from the written message with one’s o wn knowledge to arrive at an understanding. ( )A.错B.对第十二章测试1【单选题】 (2分)Which will not help teachers motivate students to write? ( )A.Encourage collaborative group writing as well as individual writing.B.Leave students less room for creativity and imagination.C.Make the topic of writing as close as possible to students' life.D.Provide constructive and positive feedback.2【单选题】 (2分)What product-oriented method of teaching writing mean? ( )A.Writing activities should serve to encourage a process of brainstorming, drafting, writing, feedback, revis ing and editing, which proceeds in a cyclical fashion resembling the writing process of a real writer.B.It pays great attention to the accuracy of the final product but ignores the process, which the students g o through to reach the final goal.C.The process approach to writing does not only pay attention to what students do while they are writing, i t also attaches great importance to what they and the teacher do before they start writing and after they f inish writing.D.What really matter is the help that the teacher provides to guide students through the process that they undergo when they are writing.3【单选题】 (2分)What does process approach to writing mean? ( )A.What really matter is the help that the teacher provides to guide students through the process that they undergo when they are writing.B.Encourage feedback both from themselves.C.Do not give students time to discover what they want to say as they write.D.Teaching writing pays great attention to the accuracy of the final product but ignores the process.4【多选题】 (2分)Which principles can help teachers motivate students to write? ( )A.Leave students enough room for creativity and imagination.B.Provide opportunities for students to share their writings.C.Make the topic of writing as close as possible to students' life.D.Encourage collaborative group writing as well as individual writing.5【多选题】 (2分)Which principles will motivate students to write? ( )A.Give students a sense of achievement from time to time.B.Leave students less room for creativity and imagination.C.。
The following strategies are designed to enable ESL Learners to develop their English language skills in both social and academic contexts.Broad Classroom Strategies:Create an environment where learners feel secure and are prepared to take risksSupport and value learners’ languages and culturesBuild on the knowledge, skills and understandings that students bring to the learning contextBuild on the linguistic understandings students have of their own languageEncourage the use of the learners’ first language if the learner is literate in that languageUse themes and topics which are relevant to learners’ particular needsExpose learners to socio-cultural information which enables them to understand and participate in Australian culture and societyFocus on purposeful communicative activities which are comprehensible and appropriate to the learner’s age and needsGenerally teach the macro skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing in an integrated way, although at times there may be a need to focus on aparticular aspect of one eg pronunciation, listening to specific instructionsFocus on developing learners’ oral language skills for oral language development and to support writingSupport the learners’ language skills development through scaffolding the learners’ languageExplicitly teach new language (vocabulary, text types, grammar, sound knowledge, pronunciation, intonation) in the context of a theme or topicUse pair and group work and peer/cross age tutoring to maximise language interaction in a low stress environment and to encourage risk takingJointly deconstruct and construct texts to model how texts work to achieve their purposesUse an experiential approach to provide meaningful contextsUse visual cues wherever necessary to clarify and reinforce conceptsUse graphic organisers (diagrams, timelines, concept maps etc.) to represent and organise ideas and to develop thinking skillsRecycle language to ensure its learningEncourage older learners to keep a glossary or a personal dictionary of words and meaningsEnsure that assessment tasks, activities and criteria are relevant to the student’s stage of English language developmentUse SSO support to work with a student on individual needsTeacher talkKeep talk to a minimumUse clear, common and consistent instructions and repeat or rephrase if necessarySpeak at a normal pace and volumeDon’t use too much jargonSupport instructions with visual cues as much as possible=Specific Strategies/Activities:Teaching oral languageTo develop oral communication skills, focus on activities that encourage learners to talk in a supportive environment such as in pairs or groups. Such activities include:information gap activities where learners have to exchange information in order to complete a taskopinion gap activities where learners share and discuss their own personal feelings, attitudes or preferences about ideas or topicsmime and role-playgeneral communicative activities eg games, group work, songseveryday classroom interactionsTo develop the more formal oral language skills:formal talks, including the oral genres, and reportsdebatesperformanceWith different students, there may be a need to focus on particular aspects of oral language such as pronunciation – this can be done on an individual basis with SSO support.ESL learners may experience difficulty in hearing and producing some English sounds because they do not appear in the learner’s language.Similarly, stress, rhythm and intonation will also differ from the first language. Provide many opportunities to hear and practise language through rhymes, songs, chants, games, drama etc.Teaching readingReading for the second language learner involves transferring skills from the first language (if he or she can read in the first language) to the second as well as becoming familiar with:new set of sounds and sound groupings which differ from the first language new intonation patterns and their meaningsnew patterns of stress and pausenew sets of culturally-specific knowledge, values and behavioursnew grammar conventions eg different word order in sentencesnew print conventions eg reading from left to rightChoose reading materials that:have good visual cues to enable the student to access the story easilyreflect the experiences, knowledge and interests of the learnersUse bi-lingual books, big books, stories with lots of repetition, class made books based on class experiences and reading schemes with thematic interests.Involve the ESL learner in a number of reading experiences every day which focus on language in context egexposure to meaningful print in the immediate environment eg signs, charts, labelsmodelled deconstruction of a range of whole texts to develop understandings of the organisation and language features of different genres and theconventions of Englishtaped readingshared book experiences and big bookswordless books/ picture sequences/ photographs to build a story/recountcloze activities to focus on comprehension or on different aspects of language pre-reading activities which prepare the reader for the text through activating prior knowledge about the topic, developing a shared overall knowledge ofwhat the text might be about and teaching strategies for predicting the textcontentreading activities which develop language and reading skills in contextpost reading activities which focus on responding to the text in order to gaina greater understanding of the text, extract information for other purposes,critically interpret and analyse the text and give personal responses to the text.Teaching writingESL Learners are learning to write in a new language where he or she may have:no literacy skills in another language due to limited or no previous schooling limited oracy skills in Englishlimited knowledge of the 3 cueing systemsa lack of shared cultural knowledgea lack of understanding of the specific genres taught in schools and theirparticular social functionsTherefore teachers can scaffold learner’s writing bymodelling all aspects of the writing processteaching the text organization and language features of different genres through a range of different activitiesjointly constructing texts with studentssupporting the development of editing and proof reading skillsusing shared experiences(eg excursions) to write class or individual books/textsusing photos and other visual stimuli (such as sequenced pictures) in the early stages of writing development particularlyusing groups and pairs to develop group textsOther writing strategiesencourage students not to focus too much on their mistakesencourage writing for real purposes by publishing in innovative ways eg newsletters on the school’s intranetencourage the use of different strategies for accessing vocabulary needed and for recording new vocabulary for use in future writingteach all aspects of word knowledge and spelling through specific activities including games, quizzes etc.ReferencesNo English Don’t Panic: Ministry of Education and Training, Victoria (1991) Teaching and Learning Strategies for ESL Learners R-12. Education Department of SA (1993)Useful resourcesTargeting Text Series: Blake Education: .auEnglish Plus Series: Blaxell and SpenceBlaxell and Winch (1999) Primary Grammar Handbook: Horwitz MartinP Walker Pascal’s Basic Primary Grammar: Smart Guides seriesTeaching and Learning Strategies for ESL Learners R-12. Education Department of SA (1993)No English Don’t Panic: Ministry of Education and Traini ng, Victoria (1991) No English : Questions & Answers: Ministry of Education and Training, Victoria (1993)Derewianka B (1990) Exploring How Texts Work. Sydney: PETADerewianka B (1998) A Grammar Companion for Primary Teacher. Sydney: PETACollerson J (1994) English Grammar: A Functional Approach. Sydney PETA Collerson J (1997) Grammar in Teaching. Sydney PETACurriculum Corporation (1996) Teaching Language Primary. Melbourne: Curriculum CorporationCurriculum Corporation (1996) Teaching Language Secondary. Melbourne: Curriculum CorporationBeginning ESL: Support material for primary new arrivals. Education Victoria (1997)Board of Studies, NSW (2000) Teaching about TextsBoard of Studies, NSW (1998) English K-6 Syllabushttp:// .au/k6/k6Bortolotto C et al (1994) Easy ESL Strategies for Effective Teaching. Yarra Publications, MelbourneDroga L and Humphrey S (2002) Getting Started with Functional Grammar.Target TextsHammond J (1991) Learning to Learn in a second Language. Sydney PETA Jones P Talking to Learn Sydney PETAWing Jan Lesley (1991) Write Ways: Modelling Writing Forms. Melbourne: Oxford University PressRowe G (1989) Let’s Talk: Activities for Oral Language. Melbourne: Dellasta Callaghan M and J Rothery (1988) Teaching Factual Writing: Genre-based Approach. Sydney. DSP MarketingChristie F et al. (1992) Language: A Resource for Meaning. Exploring Explanations, Levels 1-4. Sydney: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich.Christie F et al. (1990) Language: A Resource for Meaning. Exploring Procedures, Levels 1-4. Sydney: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich.Christie F et al (1992) Language: A Resource for Meaning. Exploring Reports, Levels 1-4. Sydney: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich.(available from Blake Education in Sydney – Tel: 2 95184222)Resource SuppliersSeelect Educational Supplies601 Anzac HighwayGlenelg, SA 5045Ph : 08 8294 9111St Georges Bookshop40 Hallett RdStonyfell 5066Ph: 08 8364 1313Lighthouse Books17 Commercial RdPort Adelaide 5015Ph: 08 8240 3300.auKelly Farm Educational30 Petrova StWindsor Gardens 5087Ph: 08 8367 5683Mobile: 0417082963State Equity Centre11-13 Swanson StreetErskinville, NSW 2043Ph: 02 9582 5860Fax: 02 9550 2874Internet: http://www.equity.sydney@.au Curriculum CorporationPO Box 177Carlton, VIC 3053Ph: 03 92079600Fax: 03 96391616Internet : .auBookery348 Drummond StreetCarlton, VIC 3053Ph: 03 9347 7857Fax: 03 9347 7497Email: rthughes@.auTesl Books397 Little Lonsdale StreetMelbourne VIC 3000Ph : 03 9670 3532。
新时代研究生学术英语综合教程2教师手册全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: The Teacher's Manual of Research on Graduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 in the New EraIntroductionThe Research on Graduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 in the New Era is a crucial textbook for graduate students who need to enhance their English skills in academic environments. The accompanying Teacher's Manual plays an essential role in guiding educators in effectively teaching the material to students. This document will provide an overview of the Teacher's Manual, including its structure, key features, and tips for using it in the classroom.Structure of the Teacher's ManualThe Teacher's Manual is organized into several sections that correspond to the units in the student textbook. Each section begins with an introduction that outlines the goals and objectives of the unit. This is followed by detailed lesson plans that break down the content into manageable segments. TheTeacher's Manual also includes suggested activities, discussion questions, and assessment tools to help instructors gauge student progress.Key Features of the Teacher's Manual1. Guidance on teaching strategies: The Teacher's Manual offers valuable insights into effective teaching strategies for each unit. This includes recommendations on how to introduce new concepts, facilitate class discussions, and assess student understanding.2. Answer keys: The Teacher's Manual contains answer keys for all exercises and activities in the student textbook. This allows instructors to easily check student work and provide feedback.3. Supplementary materials: The Teacher's Manual includes additional resources, such as audio clips, video transcripts, and supplementary readings, to support student learning.4. Tips for student engagement: The Teacher's Manual provides tips on how to engage students in the learning process, including interactive activities, group work, and real-world examples.Using the Teacher's Manual in the ClassroomTo effectively use the Teacher's Manual in the classroom, instructors should:1. Familiarize themselves with the content: It's essential for teachers to thoroughly review the material in the Teacher's Manual before each class to ensure they are prepared to deliver the lesson effectively.2. Customize lesson plans: While the Teacher's Manual provides detailed lesson plans, instructors should adapt them to suit the needs and abilities of their students.3. Encourage student participation: The Teacher's Manual offers a variety of activities and discussion questions to promote student engagement. Instructors should actively encourage students to participate in class discussions and activities.4. Provide constructive feedback: The answer keys in the Teacher's Manual can help instructors provide timely and constructive feedback to students, allowing them to track their progress and improve their English skills.ConclusionIn conclusion, the Teacher's Manual of Research on Graduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 in the New Era is a valuable resource for educators teaching graduate studentsEnglish in academic settings. By following the guidance provided in the Teacher's Manual, instructors can effectively deliver lessons, engage students, and facilitate their development of academic English skills. It is an indispensable tool for educators looking to prepare students for success in the modern academic world.篇2Title: Introduction to the Teacher's Handbook of New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2The New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's Handbook is a comprehensive guide for instructors teaching advanced academic English to postgraduate students. This handbook provides detailed lesson plans, activities, assessments and resources to ensure a high-quality learning experience for students. In this article, we will introduce the key features and benefits of using this handbook in the classroom.First and foremost, the Teacher's Handbook offers a structured approach to teaching academic English, covering all four language skills - reading, writing, listening, and speaking.Each unit is carefully designed to build upon previously acquired knowledge and skills, leading students towards a deeper understanding of complex academic concepts and language structures. The handbook also includes authentic academic texts, such as research articles, case studies, and reports, providing students with exposure to real-world academic English.One of the key strengths of the Teacher's Handbook is its focus on developing students' critical thinking and analytical skills. The accompanying activities and tasks are designed to encourage students to think critically about the information presented, make connections between different ideas, and draw their own conclusions. This not only enhances their academic English proficiency but also prepares them for success in their research and academic endeavors.In addition, the Teacher's Handbook incorporates a variety of assessment tools and strategies to monitor students' progress and provide feedback on their performance. From quizzes and tests to essays and projects, instructors have a range of assessment options to gauge students' understanding of the material and tailor their teaching accordingly. This helps to ensure that every student receives personalized support and guidance throughout the course.Furthermore, the Teacher's Handbook includes a range of supplementary resources, such as audio recordings, video clips, and online exercises, to enhance students' learning experience. These resources provide students with additional practice opportunities and exposure to different accents and academic styles, helping to improve their language skills and confidence in using English in an academic setting.Overall, the New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's Handbook is a valuable resource for instructors looking to deliver high-quality academic English instruction to postgraduate students. By following the structured lesson plans, activities, and assessments, instructors can effectively prepare students for success in their research and academic pursuits. With its focus on developing critical thinking skills and providing ample opportunities for practice and assessment, this handbook is sure to benefit both instructors and students alike.篇3Title: A Review of New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's ManualIntroductionThe New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's Manual is a valuable resource for teachers who are instructing research postgraduate students in academic English. This manual provides a comprehensive overview of the course content, objectives, and teaching strategies to help teachers effectively deliver the course material to students. In this review, we will examine the key features of the manual and discuss how it can benefit both teachers and students.Content OverviewThe Teacher's Manual is divided into several sections, each focusing on a specific aspect of the course. The manual starts with an introduction to the course objectives and content, followed by detailed lesson plans for each unit. The lesson plans include a variety of activities and exercises to help students improve their academic English skills, such as reading comprehension, writing, and listening.One of the strengths of the manual is the emphasis on authentic academic texts and tasks. The course materials are carefully selected to reflect the types of texts and tasks that research postgraduate students will encounter in their academic studies. This not only helps students improve their languageskills but also prepares them for the academic challenges they will face in their research.Teaching StrategiesThe manual also provides valuable guidance on effective teaching strategies for the course. It includes tips for creating a supportive classroom environment, managing classroom activities, and assessing student performance. The manual encourages teachers to use a communicative approach to teaching, which emphasizes interaction and collaboration between students.In addition, the manual offers suggestions for adapting the course materials to meet the needs of different types of learners. It provides tips for catering to students with different learning styles, language proficiency levels, and academic backgrounds. This flexibility allows teachers to tailor their instruction to the individual needs of their students, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed in the course.Benefits for Teachers and StudentsThe New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's Manual offers numerous benefits for both teachers and students. For teachers, the manualprovides a clear roadmap for delivering the course material and offers practical tips for effective teaching. The detailed lesson plans and teaching strategies make it easy for teachers to prepare for their classes and engage students in meaningful learning activities.For students, the manual provides a structured and engaging learning experience that helps them improve their academic English skills and prepare for their research studies. The authentic academic texts and tasks challenge students to think critically, analyze information, and communicate effectively in English. By completing the course, students will be better equipped to succeed in their academic studies and future research endeavors.ConclusionOverall, the New Era Research Postgraduate Academic English Comprehensive Course 2 Teacher's Manual is a valuable resource for teachers who are instructing research postgraduate students in academic English. The manual provides a comprehensive overview of the course content, objectives, and teaching strategies, and offers practical tips for delivering engaging and effective instruction. By using this manual,teachers can help students improve their academic English skills and prepare for the challenges of research postgraduate studies.。
Learning and Teaching Strategies From personal experience and research comes advice on what works and why Roald Hoffmann, Saundra Y. McGuireLearning and teaching science challenges many students as well as instructors.We have been teaching and helpingothers to teach chemistry at every level—from highschool teachers to undergraduate and graduatestudents to university faculty—for over fourdecades. From that experience have come a number ofteaching and learning tactics that we find effective in facilitating student learning. Initially improvised, these strategies are more than gimmicks, for they have proven themselves in practice.We’ve also sought out recent advances in cognitive psychology that give insight into why these approaches work. We’ve thought through why they are of use in any subject, not just chemistry. And we’ve also identified potential problems.A potential injustice in our account is that credit may not be given to the real innovators. Frankly, we do not know where some of these strategies originated—in examples by others, or out of our own improvisations as we struggled to become better teachers. Many people have independently come to similar practices.Some of what we write is addressed to teachers, some to students. This is deliberate. Cognizance of learning strategies benefits teachers, and awareness of teaching strategies can help learners understand the motives of teachers. Teaching and learning are a double flameSix Learning StrategiesThe first learning strategy is to take notes by hand, even if the class notes are provided. Preferably no later than the evening of the class day, rewrite your notes, by hand, amplifying their content. During the rewriting stage, it is important that you not just recopy your notes, but rather both condense and extend them where appropriate, paraphrasing them so that you make the meaning your own. The question of whether taking noteson a laptop or by hand is more effective is a contentious one. We think taking notes by hand works best, largely because it is difficult to type in chemical structures, graphs and equations on a computer.It is now well established that active engagement in the process is imperative for learning to occur. When students take their own notes, they are engaged, in real time, and their minds focus on the task. For kinesthetic learners (those who learn best when moving, activating large or small muscles), the movement involved in taking notes facilitates learning.The process of paraphrasing and rewriting the notes shortly after a lecture helps to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory. If the rewriting is delayed longer than 24 hours, much of the information needed to flesh out the notes taken in class will have disappeared from accessible memory. And it is so much better that gaps in understanding surface in the engaged rewriting of notes, rather than in the frantic cramming the night before an exam. Students need to be convinced that it is important to take the time to rewrite their notes, even if they felt they have understood the material the first time.Missed classes provide the second learning strategy. If you must miss a class, rather than simply download the notes from a Web page, get the notes from a fellow student. This strategy is another way into group discussion and learning. It is important to develop relationships with other class members and to form study groups early in the course. During discussion of the class notes, much learning takes place. A typical scenario: Student A (the one who missed lecture and is borrowing the notes) says “I don’t understand this part of what you wrote,” to student B, the note taker. Because B is a fellow student, A is comfortable asking her the question, whereas A might be reluctant to ask it of the course instructor. B explains, and is thus engaged in the most salutary of learning actions, teaching. The only potential problems are that the note taker may not understand, or may propagate a misconception. Additionally, some people are just too shy to ask another human being.A th ird strategy makes the best use of a course’s textbook. Most students do their homework in solitude (or as much of that as a residence hall room allows) by trying to follow text examples of similar problems. But often the text examples are not exploited for the learning opportunities they provide. First do the obvious; study the text and lecture information relevant to the problems. But then treat the examples in the text and in lecture notes as if they were homework problems—work out the example before looking at the answer, and compare your approach to the text’s, not just your answer. There are often several ways to do a problem, buttry to understand the text’s method. If the homework answers provided do not include a way of working out each problem, the instructors should be encouraged (that’s putting it mildly) to provide complete solutions. The ability to work a problem without using a model is the essential skill tested by all exams (which is obvious to instructors, but not to most students). This approach to homework focuses on methods rather than final answers. Furthermore, exploring alternative methods will help you to learn to be an agile, flexible thinker.Study groups are important in learning, but it seems to work best to alternate group work with individual effort. First, you should try to do a homework problem or prepare for an exam on your own. Then, the collective wisdom of a study group can be enlisted. Three to six fellow students who have each done their best to digest and absorb difficult material are powerful resources for each other. Social constructivist learning theorists have shown that meaningful learning results from small study groups with two crucial features: discussion and problem-solving activities. Several websites provide excellent tips on forming and running successful study groups. But finally, you must return to solving the problem set or facing the exam preparation on your own.Not all instructors are comfortable with homework done in groups, but our experience is that groups are very effective. Do-it-yourself is the primary principle of active learning, though groups can help resolve the occasional blind spot. Some social dynamics may limit group value—for instance, passive personalities are likely to merely listen.Groups can also be useful study aids if students make up practice quizzes and tests for each other, thereby thinking from the teacher’s perspective. One of us (Hoffmann) tells his students: “The only way you will get into my mind about the exam is… to try to get into my mind. That means to do what I do, and make up an exam.” Creating a practice exam involves not only selecting and organizing all the material (including choosing what is representative and what is important) but also discussing the exam in a group setting.Another way to enter the tester’s mind is by teaching the material, one student to another. When one of us (McGuire) asks instructors attending faculty-development workshops when they began to develop a deep understanding of the conceptual structure of their discipline, most say that it did not happen until they began teaching. Helping a fellow student not only accelerates one’s learning but moves one past disappointment about not getting things right oneself. Usually, if you can help someone else get going, the gratification is motivating for both parties.Finally, we encourage students to set attainable goals. If you are spinning your wheels and studying does not lead to learning, the process can share some symptoms with depression—feeling unable to act, for instance. For this reason, it is important to tackle small, achievable tasks.In working problems and taking tests, move slowly, from simple problems to more complicated, integrative ones. Success, self-achieved, builds confidence, and so is a very powerful motivator. When you attempt to reach a goal that is within your grasp, a wonderful cycle of initial success, more effort, and additional success is put into motion.It is important for students to realize that everyone learns differently; an attainable goal for one student may be trivial for another. It is most relevant to develop the learning skills necessary to perform more cognitively demanding tasks.Six Teaching TacticsMoving to the teacher’s side of theclassroom, we recommend instructors grade on acontract with the students, whereby grades are basedon a combination of a major, absolute performance component (examinations and quizzes) and a minor “curved” part of the course (such as labs and other multisection pieces). The only reason for curving should be fairness—if several graders are involved, for instance. The grading criteria—the percentage mastery equivalent to an A, B, etc.—must be explained to the students at the beginning of the course, along with a promise that the borderlines between grades will not be raised. Students are empowered when they see that the outcome of their course grade is dependent on their work, rather than on a comparison with the work of others. Young people react very positively to fairness; a contract boosts confidence.However, the professor will need to construct exams such that the level of mastery of the material is accurately reflected by the grade that students achieve on the test. In psychometrics, this is referred to as content validity. In particular, one has to watch for misjudgments of mastery in multiple-choice exams of the type where the simplest arithmetic mistake will yield an incorrect answer.The kind of contract we recommend is very scary to some department administrators, who may insist that each course has a predetermined mediangrade. Such worries, amusingly, reflect a lack of confidence in faculty members’ ability to assess mastery levels.A second teaching strategy is to bring “real life” into the classroom. News, crises and everyday life open the mind. Devote five minutes of each class to a discussion of science in current affairs. Every minute spent this way is worth it.Newspapers (print or online editions) sadly carry little science; what they do carry is often health-related. The stories rarely give chemical structures but sometimes name the molecules or drugs. But the structure of a molecule can be shown in class, along with a copy of the story.From a stream of such short stories from the real world comes appreciation of the relevance of what is taught. In chemistry, students begin to see that small differences in the structures of molecules may determine whether a substance will hurt or heal, or both. For example, they may begin to understand that not all cholesterol is bad, or that the drug methamphetamine (crystal meth) and the decongestant it’s illegally made from in home laboratories differ by just one atom.But the discussion of newsworthy topics may not be the most important part of this strategy. Ultimately, bringing real life into the classroom day in, day out builds a bond between teacher and student. Students begin to feel that the instructor has gone to the trouble of searching the media that very day and cares that students learn.Here’s a strategy on which the two of us disagree: Allow each student to bring into a test or final examination an 8½-by-11-inch page on which anything in the world can be written.One of us (Hoffmann) feels strongly that as we move from print to digital textbooks, and as it becomes increasingly more difficult to forbid a student to use a computer or fancy calculator in an exam situation, we are moving toward open-book exams anyway, like it or not.The other co-author (McGuire) feels that this is not a good strategy because she has observed its negative consequences. In her experience, most students think that if they can bring in a “cheat sheet” to the test, they need not know anything because everything relevant can be written on the sheet, information of which they have no conceptual understanding. She feels that professors should provide information (such as constants) that students need, but are not expected to memorize. She stresses to students that they can only think critically using information safely stored in their minds—information that they own.On the up side, the sheet serves as a security blanket for scared students. But its true purpose is to make the student review the material, to make judgments about what is essential and what isn’t, and to organize the material. The sheets can become a prime learning tool. With progress in the course, one of us has observed that students realize this, saying after an exam “I didn’t even look at the sheet.”Getting students to think on their own is the primary objective of teaching, and care must be used to make students see multiple paths to an answer. Suppose a teacher in an introductory chemistry course has just gotten through discussing, say, the mass relationships in a combustion reaction: Octane (C8H18) is burned with unlimited oxygen to give water and carbon dioxide. He or she then continues: “Here we’ve seen how to figure out that if you burn 114 grams of octane with an unlimited amount of oxygen you will get 352 grams of carbon dioxide. But wait, the same ideas can be put to work in many more problems. For instance, I don’t have an unlimited amount of oxygen (the air intake on my car is clogged), I have 200 grams of O2. How much carbon dioxide would I get then from my 114 grams of octane? This is a so-called limiting reactant problem; seemingly different and tougher. Yet the same ideas are at work.Here’s another problem: My Volvo travels 8,000 miles a year, at an average fuel consumption of 22 miles per gallon. How much CO2 am I putting into the atmosphere each year?”Turning around the problem reinforces mastery of the underlying concept. There is nothing more convincing of a concept’s value than the feeling that it can be used for not just the problem that occasioned it, but for many other problems. And turning things around has an element of surprise to it. Repeating the same type of question in different permutations may seem repetitive to the teacher; we think it is rarely so to the student.Surprise and humor can help bridge the gap between teachers and students. When one of us (McGuire) asked a group of Louisiana State University students to explain the difference between studying and learning, most replied that studying involves forcing yourself to memorize uninteresting stuff (as they put it), whereas learning means gaining insight into things you actually care about. How can we build into the travails of most study some of the psychological fun of learning—that tremendous empowering sensation of understanding after not understanding?Judicious doses of humor help a lot. Few chemical stoichiometry problems or lists of the names of the foot bones could be imagined to evoke raucous laughter. But lapsing into a fragment of “Dry Bones” (the thighbone is connected to the hipbone…), or playing Tom Lehrer’s “Element Song,”or Blackalicious’ “Chemical Calisthenics,”or Diego Carrasco’s “Qu ímica” breaks tedium, giving the feeling of fun.Humor is also a smile, or a surprise, or turning things around and looking from a different perspective. All of these things are part of what made the Marx brothers so good. Work in that direction, work to achieve surprise. Look in the course material for mistakes that lead to weird contradictions or unphysical results. These are the intellectual equivalent of pratfalls. Humorous situations, in moderation, are attention grabbing, emotionally satisfying and can create an environment that promotes long-term retention and learning. Humor also reduces stress, allowing students to enjoy the learning experience. Humor humanizes the instructor and builds a bond.A final teaching strategy is to do still more demonstrations, even if you already do some. Although not every subject lends itself to doing demonstrations, chemistry certainly does. Mind you, demonstrations did not come easily to one of us, a theoretical chemist (Hoffmann). But he took to it and, in fact, learned how to turn white wine into red (and back again) from his coauthor. Demonstrations are somewhere between magic and science, somewhere between gripping theater and chemistry.We know of no deeper silence in a classroom than during the first seconds of a demonstration. Theater directors and nervous concert-hall managers envy us those natural moments of rapt attention. The auditorium is hushed, awaiting change. The demonstrator does not fail to provide it, with color, flame, smoke or explosion. There ensues catharsis for the lecturer, a catering to all the senses of the audience, and, sometimes the only thing the students remember from a course.Yet a demonstration is also a shifting of gears, from lecture to action. It is an intellectual alarm clock—“time to wake up, something is going to happen!” The act may be staged, but it is tangible. And it may invoke in the minds of a few students the essential question: “What is happening?”A potential problem with this approach is that at times the link between demonstrations and what is being taught is weak. Moreover, a course overloaded with demonstrations could sacrifice learning for entertainment. But, perhaps in the lecture room it is as Daryle Singletary sings: “I ain’t never had too much fun.”Three Transforming MotivatorsSo far, we have presented quite specific strategies. We now turn to some general observations about the education process, awareness of which can greatly enhance learning. These are directed toward both the learner and the teacher.A student’s learning style impacts the way she or he prefers to take in and process information, and to interact with others. Some students prefer to memorize discrete facts and specific formulas and then apply them, whereas other students prefer to use broader concepts and organizing principles to derive the discrete facts and formulas themselves. Learning style can also refer to a person’s preferred modality—visual, auditory, read/write or kinesthetic. It is important for students to become aware of their learning styles and for teachers to know that there are different ways to learn, that more roads than one lead to this Rome. Why impose your way (and get frustrated when people don’t use it) when you can encourage students to learn in their own, optimum ways? When students become aware of their learning preferences, they learn more efficiently by, for example, converting lecture notes or a course manual or a text into their preferred format.A potential difficulty is that when students determine their preferred learning style, they may be tempted to think they can learn only in that way. It is important to stress that the various learning styles can be learned; just being aware that something may be learned in a variety of ways helps. When students investigate a spectrum of strategies, consistent with the gamut oflearning styles, they broadentheir learning preferences andbecome better thinkers.Most studentsthink that learning selectedterms, definitions and solutionsto specific problems is the wayto perform well in courses. Fewof them realize that learning isa process, and that there arevarious stages of learning.Learning how to learn, throughexamples, is the key. In 1956Benjamin Bloom and colleaguesidentified levels of learning proceeding from rote memorization through comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis, finally to evaluation. Recently, this taxonomy has been revised and verbs used to describe the levels. Additionally, the top two levels have been reversed. In the new taxonomy the levels proceed from remembering through understanding, applying, analyzing and evaluating to creating. (See the figure at right.)We have found that teaching students how to learn has transformed many of them from rote memorizers and regurgitators into independent,self-directed learners. Showing students how Bloom’s Taxonomy is applied to “Goldilocks and the Three Bears” helps them understand the distinctions between the levels.In addition to teaching students about Bloom’s taxonomy, we have found that when students learn about metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking), they transform their attitudes about learning, their methods of study and their grades. Metacognition is a way of standing outside, of willed thinking about the acquisition of knowledge and understanding.Is there a potential danger of talking too much about the metaworld, at the expense of applying what one has learned to the academic subject at hand? An introductory chemistry course is not a philosophy of education course. We may have another disagreement between the authors here. One of us (McGuire) can’t get enough of metacognition because she has seen countless students improve their test scores from below 50 to over 90 in a matter of weeks, just by using metacognitive learning strategies, whereas the other one of us (Hoffmann) tires and wants to grapple with real teaching. We do agree that when students become fluent in the language of chemistry (or any subject) their metacognitive sophistication will increase to the level that they no longer have to consciously think about it.Our third observation reflects on the relationship between teacher and learner. The feeling that the teacher knows much more than you—knows more ways to transform raw facts into understanding or how to actually make an object or molecule—can intimidate a learner. You might think, “How could I possibly learn to do that?”But when respect for a teacher’s mastery accompanies a second feeling, that the teacher cares deeply about transferring understanding to you, a mysterious psychological force is turned on—the mentor/apprentice relationship.There is nothing about this linkage specific to learning science—it is a constant of human society. The reason the relationship works so well as a learning/teaching strategy is, we believe, twofold: First there isa simple motivating force: The student admires the mentor (admiration does not exclude resentment of a perceived taskmaster) and wants to gain the mentor’s ken.Second, learning is not a process that insists on perfect understanding at every step. That’s a caric ature of mathematical proof. At its best, learning in science is a nonlinear sequence of observing facts then trying to explain them, and in the process gathering or being confronted with further facts and continuing to augment one’s understanding.In this sequence, confidence that the mentor has wisdom and tools to impart can make the learner accept facts on faith, secure in the psychological confidence that the mentor will explain, in time. To put it another way, the mentor/apprentice relationship can guide the learner through unavoidable boring or tough stages, toward mastery.Enabling Learning and TeachingWe have called the teaching process magical and mystical; so is learning. People have taught and learned for tens of thousands of years; the biological roots of learning are older still. There is no one way to teach or learn, yet we think there are some identifiable underlying psychological principles that enable good learning:1. Empathy: The teacher must care, and everyone knows it is difficult to do so when there are obstacles such as four classes to teach, inadequate pay, social problems and other distractions. But students have finely tuned emotional antennae that detect care, and a good number respond.2. Active learning: Any teaching strategy that stimulates participatory activity on the part of the student will make learning so much easier.3. Judicious interplay of groups and individuals: Learning is a solitary action, yet it can be enhanced by episodes of group activity. Such interplay is often observed in society, for example, in the way kids master any sport (dribbling practice in soccer, a team scrimmage) or learn music through taking part in a marching band. And the group interplay at a meeting of professionals from any discipline demonstrates learning at its best!4. Empowerment: Students love to feel capable. We have seen countless students get hooked on studying and learning once they saw their abilities growing dramatically, through their own efforts.We in academia expect students to acquire information, strategies and critical-thinking skills that allow them to learn from our teaching. There should be no less expectation that instructors think critically and seekout specific strategies to improve performance in the classroom or lecture hall.The suggestions we present here are not prescriptive; we just want to share with you some of the strategies we have improvised and developed over the years to facilitate learning for, rather than to deliver instruction to, the students we have taught. We hope that you will find them to be useful tools in your own teaching and/or learning.Further ReadingFor more information on metacognitive strategies, Saundra McGuire recommends the following online resources:∙William Peirce, "Metacognition: Study Strategies, Monitoring, and Motivation"∙The Oncourse Workshop∙The Center for Academic SuccessAcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to many people for their thoughtful comments, including Stephanie McGuire, Deena S. Weisberg, Brian Coppola, RobertRoot-Bernstein and James Wandersee. A much abbreviated and modified version of this article was published in Science 325:1203–1204. Additional references on the strategies suggested are available from the authors.©Roald Hoffman and Saundra Y. McGuireBibliography∙Bloom, B. S., ed. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The Classification of Educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.New York: Longman.∙Bransford, J. D., A. L. Brown and R. R. Cocking, eds. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.∙Fleming, N., and Baume, D. 2006. Learning Styles Again: VARKing up the right tree! Educational Developments 7.4:4–7.Jones, M. G., and L. Brader-Araje. 2002. The impact of constructivism on education: Language, discourse and meaning.American Communication Journal 5:1–10About American ScientistScience is a great adventure. As the staff of American Scientist, the award-winning magazine of science and technology published by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, we have been proud to work with distinguished contributors as chroniclers of that adventure.This Web site is designed to provide a sample of our content for those unfamiliar with the magazine, and to enrich our readers' experience by facilitating exploration and discussion of themes treated in the magazine.American Scientist(ISSN 0003-0996) is an illustrated bimonthly magazine about science and technology. Each issue is filled with feature articles written by prominent scientists and engineers, reviewing important work in fields that range from molecular biology to computer engineering. The articles are carefully edited and accompanied by illustrations that are developed to enhance the reader's understanding and enjoyment. (Authors, please review our submission guidelines.)Readers also enjoy the Scientists' Bookshelf and a number of regular columns that cover topics in computing, engineering, public and professional issues and reflections on the history and practice of science. In the Science Observer section, the editors give the readers glimpses behind the scenes in science. And each issue includes the work of noted cartoonists such as Sidney Harris, Benita Epstein and Mark Heath.American Scientist has been published since 1913 by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. In recent years it has been honored with many awards for editorial, design and illustration quality. Read faithfully by Sigma Xi's membership of distinguished scientists and engineers, the magazine is now available on newsstands around the world, as well as by individual or institutional subscription. (For more information about American Scientist and Sigma Xi, see the free online video Making a Difference.)American Scientist Online (ISSN 1545-2786), an online service incorporating the full content of the print magazine and additional online-only features, was launched in May 2003 to extend the mission that had been served by the magazine's Web site since 1995. Full access to the。
