生物医学工程专业英语及其翻译讲课稿

生物医学工程技术外文文献翻译、中英文
翻译、外文翻译
本文旨在提供关于生物医学工程技术的外文文献翻译、中英文翻译和外文翻译的指导和技巧。

以下是一些简要说明：
外文文献翻译
- 外文文献翻译需要准确地传达原文的内容，同时确保译文自然流畅。

- 翻译时应注意专业术语的准确使用，避免将其误译或过度解释。

- 翻译人员应具备扎实的外语水平和对生物医学工程技术领域的了解。

中英文翻译
- 中英文翻译需要准确传达中文原文的内容，并使其在英文环境下具有流畅性和可读性。

- 翻译时应注意中英文表达方式的差异，确保翻译后的文本符合英文语法和惯表达惯。

- 翻译人员应具备中英文双语能力和对生物医学工程技术领域的了解。

外文翻译
- 外文翻译是将外文文本翻译为母语的译文。

- 翻译要保证译文准确、流畅，并符合目标语言的语法和惯表达方式。

- 翻译人员应具备对目标语言的熟悉和对生物医学工程技术领域的了解。

请注意，以上是针对文献翻译的一些基本指导，实际翻译过程中还需根据具体文献的特点和要求进行适当调整。

谢谢！。

生物医学工程的英语Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the field of medicine and biology. It encompasses a broad range of areas such as drug delivery, medical imaging, tissue engineering and electronics. In this article, we will discuss the key steps involved in biomedical engineering and the relevant terminology used inthis field.1. Research: The first step in biomedical engineering is research. This involves investigating the problem that needsto be solved and identifying the best possible solutions. It includes conducting experiments, developing models and prototypes, and testing them.2. Design: Once the research is complete, the next stepis design. This involves creating a blueprint of the solution that was identified during the research phase. It includes creating detailed plans and drawings, identifying materials and components required, and creating a mock-up or prototypeof the device.3. Development: The third step is the development phase, where the actual product or device is created. This involves assembling the components, testing the device, and making any necessary modifications. It also includes obtainingregulatory approvals and patents required for commercialization.4. Implementation: The final step is the implementation phase, where the product is launched and made available for use. This involves training the users, monitoring theperformance of the device, and providing ongoing support and maintenance.Now let's look at some key terminology used inbiomedical engineering:1. Biomaterials: These are materials that are used to create medical devices or implants, which interact with biological systems. Examples include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites.2. Biomechanics: This is the study of the mechanics of biological systems, such as bones, muscles, and tissues. It includes analyzing the structure and function of these systems, and developing models to predict their behaviorunder different conditions.3. Biomedical imaging: This involves the use ofdifferent imaging techniques to visualize the internal structures of the body. Examples include X-rays, CT scans, MRI, and ultrasound.4. Bioprocessing: This is the use of biological systemsor their components to produce drugs or other products. Examples include fermentation, chromatography, and cell culture.In conclusion, biomedical engineering is a rapidly growing field that combines the principles of engineering and medicine to improve healthcare outcomes. It involves research, design, development, and implementation of devices and technologies that can enhance diagnostics and treatment of diseases. Understanding the key steps and terminology used in this field is vital for anyone interested in this excitingarea of healthcare.。

ContentsHistory 2Radiation Physics 5X-radiography 6CT 7Nuclear Medicine 9PET 11Radiotherapy 13Radiation Protection 16Ultrasound 1919imagingUltrasoundDoppler Ultrasound 21Optical Methods 23Endoscopy 23Pulse Oximetry 25Laser Surgery 26MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 2831 ECG(electrocardiogram)Bioengineering 3232PacemakersMedical Engineering 33Cochlear Implants 34The Future 37Glossary 38Acknowledgements 40History Most people think that Medical Physics started in 1895 when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays but, in practice, physics has been used to investigate the body for much longer than this.Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the “Father of Medicine”, may have been the first medical physicist . Over two thousand years ago, he wanted to know where an infection was on a patient’s back. He smeared mud over the patient’s back as he knew that infected tissue is warmer and would therefore dry the mud faster.Technology has improved since then, and modernthermography , which looks at heat coming from the bodyusing an infrared camera, is very different fromHippocrates' methods.When doctors wanted to be able to see inside thestomach and intestines , they first simply used a thin t with light provided by a candle. In 1868 a metal tube w passed down the throat into the stomach. This was anearly prototype of an endoscope . Large early modelswere tested on sword swallowers , and were very intimidating, with one man quoted as saying 'I'll swallow a sword, but I'll be damned if I’ll swallow a trumpet'. Modern endare smaller and more flexible, making endosopy a less unpleasant examination.ubeasoscopesIn the future, we will use camera pills that can be swallowed and travel all the way through the digestive system without any discomfort.The most common medical imaging examination today is an x-ray , or radiograph. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen , who was passing an electric current through a glass tube with a vacuum inside, when he noticed a screen nearby start to glow. He realised that some invisible rays from the tube were causing the glow, and called them x-rays as he didn't know what they were. He set to work, trying to find out more about these strange rays.His wife became worried that he was spending so much time in hislab, and wasn't eating properly or talking to anyone. She finallypersuaded him to tell her what he was working on, and he took herinto the lab. She tried out his equipment by putting her hand in the x-ray beam for fifteen minutes, and saw an image of her hand appearon film behind it. This was the first medical x-ray image. Roentgenwas awarded the first ever Nobel prize in Physics in 1901.Soon after Roentgen’s discovery, Henri Becquerel , a Frenchman, wasexperimenting with salts that fluoresced when exposed to sunlight tosee if they would emit x-rays. One cloudy day he left a photographicplate and a uranium compund in a drawer, and when he developed the film he found that it had been exposed to something, even though it hadn’t seen any light. He realised that uranium gave off invisible rays that could ionise atoms and blacken film. He called this radioactivity.Marie Curie , along with her husband Pierre , continued the research into radioactive materials, discovering new radioactive elements Polonium (named after her homeland,Poland) and Radium. Bequerel and the Curies shared a Nobel prize for their work.For a while radiation was hugely fashionable, with people putting radium in water and thorium in toothpaste. This health craze was dangerous though, and ill effects were soon noticed. The girls who painted radium onto the dials of watches developed thoat and mouth cancers from licking their brushes, while people using radioactive products suffered symptoms such as burns, hair loss, bone diseases and various types of cancer. Marie Curie herself died from a blood disease linked to radiation exposure (Pierre, though suffering from radiation sickness, died when run over by a horse and cart) .By this time, it had been realised that, although harmful inlarge doses, small amounts of radiation could be used to treatdiseases such as cancer. The radioisotope cobalt-60 becameused in radiotherapy machines (see left) and todayradiotherapy uses high energy x-ray beams to treat tumours.Radiation PhysicsIonising radiation can be either alpha or beta particles, or high energy electromagnetic waves with enough energy to completely remove an electron from an atom.X-RadiographyX-ray radiography is one of the most commonly used methods of diagnosis. It can be used to examine broken or fractured bones, teeth, the digestive system, the lungs and to detect breast cancer.X-rays are produced when electrons hit a metal, which in hospital x-ray tubes, is usually tungsten. The x-rays then pass through the body and onto either a film cassette or digital detector (like in a digital camera).Structures in the body like bones are very dense and contain elements such as calcium thathave a high atomic number. This makes bone absorb a highproportion of the x-rays. Soft tissues like fat and muscle allow Array more x-rays to pass though. The body casts an x-ray shadow ontothe film. Where the x-rays have passed though bone, the film isless exposed so it looks white; where they have not passedthough anything the film is exposed and turns black; and wherethe x-rays have passed through soft tissues the film has differentlevels of grey.In order to make some parts of the body show up better,contrast media with a high atomic number can be used. This canbe a 'barium meal', where the patient drinks a liquid containingbarium (atomic number 56) which makes the digestive tract showup clearly on x-rays, or the patient can have an injection ofiodine (atomic number 53) which makes the blood vessels standout (this is called angiography).CT (computed tomography)A CT scan (sometimes called computed axial tomography, or a CAT scan) also uses x-rays.In a CT scan the patient lies on a table and is movedthough a doughnut-shaped machine. It creates imagesthat are slices through the patient.It does this by moving the x-ray tube and detector in acircle taking x-ray images of the slice from all anglesaround the body.A computer then processes these images to produce across sectional image (a picture of a slice through thebody).CT scans are useful as they can show a range of very different tissue types clearly: lung tissue, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels.By adding together CTslices, 3-D images can begenerated.They are often used toplan radiotherapytreatments.CT is useful for diagnosing internal inuries in trauma victims. Because a scan takes only a couple of minutes it can find problems quickly and save their lives.One problem with x-ray CT is the radiation dose to the patient. A scan of the abdomen gives a dose of 10mSv, which is equivalent to the natural background radiation exposure over 4 years. This is about 100 times more than a standard chest x-ray.Nuclear MedicineNuclear medicine uses radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes ) to image the body. X-ray images show only the structure of the body, so they can be used to see things like broken bones and some tumours. Unlike x-ray images, nuclear medicine can show the function of the body. It follows what happens to certain chemicals so it can be used to see if an organ is doing its job properly. The chemicals, called tracers , are 'labelled' with a radioactive isotope and their path followed through the body.The radioisotopes are produced in generators whereisotopes with long half-lives (e.g. molybdenum-99, half-life 67 hours) decay to isotopes with shorter lives (e.g.technetium-99m, half-life 6 hours). The shorter half-livesare necessary so that the radioactivity of the patientdoes not remain much above its normal background levelfor longer than necessary.The isotope with the shorter half life is drawn out of thegenerator in a solution and can be made into a range ofdifferent drugs (radiopharmaceuticals) that are absorbedby different parts of the body. The radiopharmaceutical isdrawn up into a syringe shielded with lead and its dosechecked before it is injected into the patient.akenThe gamma rays given offby the radioisotope are detected by a gamma-camera (adetector that takes images with gamma rays) which isconnected to a computer and gives an image of where theisotope is in the patient. The image shows where the drugis absorbed.If several pictures are t over a period of time it can also show how quickly theisotope is absorbed.These three images show the build up of a tracer in thekidneys over time. We can tell that the left kidney isblocked, as the tracer hasn’t been able to reach it.PET (Positron Emission Tomography)Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanning uses beta+ emitting isotopes.The isotope decays emitting a positron (which is a positive electron, also called a beta+ particle, and is a particle of antimatter). The positron can only travel about 1mm before losing its energy and slowing down. When it slows down enough, it will meet a negativeelectron from a nearby atom, and they will 'annihilate', leaving noparticles. Their energy is converted into two gamma rays whichtravel in opposite directions so that momentum is conserved.A PET scanner has a ring of detectors so that both gamma rays areseen, and is connected to a computer which can work out where thegamma rays came from and produces an image.Not all hospitals have PETscanners as they needlarge, expensive machinescalled cyclotrons nearbyto produce the positron-emitting isotopes. The isotopes have a shorterhalf-life than the gamma emitters used intraditional nuclear medicine (e.g. Carbon-11,which has a half-life of 20.5mins).PET imaging is often used to detect tumours. As cancers are growing quickly they need a large supply of energy, which they get from glucose. A chemicalcalled fluoxyglucose can be labelled with positron emittingfluorine-15, which then collects in the tumour and shows up as abright spot in the PET scan (like in the rib in the picture on theright).Some PET scanners now have a CT scannernext to them so both types of scan can bedone at the same time. This can easily bedone as both types of scanner are shaped.This image is a combined PET/CT image. Theexcellent contrast from the PET scan, inwhich the brain and bladder show up asetail from the CT (shown in bright red, is combined with the anatomical dgrey).RadiotherapyRadiation is not just used for diagnosis, but for treating cancer as well. This is called radiotherapy .Radiotherapy uses the fact that ionising radiation damages cells, and high enough doses can kill them. The cells in cancerous tissue divide very rapidly. This makes them more susceptible to damage by radiation than healthy cells, so there is a higher chance that they will be killed. Even so, care has to be taken to ensure that only the malignant cancer cells, and not the surrounding healthy tissue, receive a high dose.This is done by mounting the system on a ring so itcan rotate around the patient, with the tumour atthe centre of the rotation. In this way the tumourgets a higher dose of radiation than thesurrounding healthy tissue.Originally, radiotherapy machines consisted of acobalt-60 source which emitted gamma rays whichirradiated the tumour. Modern hospitals use linearaccelerators (linacs for short) instead to producevery high energy x-ray beams, with a higher e than the Cobalt-60 gamma rays. In the UK, medical physicists are required by law tocalibrate the linacs to ensure that the best possible treatment is given.nergyEach treatment requires careful planning . This involves deciding which directions toirradiate the tumour from, what dose to give and, in new machines, what shape region toexpose.The size, shape and location of the tumour are worked outusing CT or MRI scans. Isodose curves, which join points thatwill receive the same dose, are drawn onto this CT scan.BrachytherapyIn Brachytherapy (meaning short-distance therapy), radioactive material is inserted into the body, inside or near to the tumour. This means the tumour receives a high dose while the surrounding tissues have a smaller exposure.Here, tiny pellets of radioactive iodine-125 have been implanted intothe prostate gland.These pellets will not be removed, but have a fairly short radioactivehalf-life so that after a while they will become inactive.The Gamma KnifeThe gamma knife is not really a knife, but a way ofperforming brain surgery without cutting through the skin,muscle or skull. It uses 201 radioactive cobalt-60 sourcesto irradiate the brain. Cobalt-60 emits gamma rays and hasa half-life of 5.26 years.The first stage in treatment is to fit a metal frame to theskull, which is done using four screws under localanaesthetic. The rigid frame allows the radiotherapy to beperformed very precisely.Then, the treatment is planned using CT or MRI images, so that the sources are correctly targeted, to irradiate the tumour and avoid healthy tissue, especially sensitive regions around the eye and cochlea.The Cobalt-60 sources are positioned in a hemisphere. The patient’s head, held in the frame, is held inside a helmet with 201 holes to precisely target the radiation. When treatment starts, the patient’s head is moved inside the unit.The gamma knife is used to treat benign and malignant tumours, blood vessel malformations, some pain conditions and some movement and psychiatric disorders. In 2006, there were three in the UK (two in London and one in Sheffield).Radiation ProtectionWhy do we use radiation?The doses of radioactivity used in medicine are small, and the benefit of being able to find out what is wrong with a patient and then treat them often outweighs the increased risk of possibly developing cancer later in life.We all receive a dose of radiation from background sources such as radioactive rocks, radon gas and cosmic rays. This can be between 1.5 and 7.5 mSv per year on average, depending on where you live. Compare this to the dose from a dental x-ray, which is about 0.01 mSv, the equivalant of about 1½ days background radiation.A chest CT scan gives a radiation dose of about 8 mSv, which isabout the same as 3½ years background exposure, but you wouldreceive the same dose from a four hour flight, about the time ittakes to fly to Greece from London, as you are higher up and haveless atmospheric protection from cosmic rays. This dose increasesyour risk of developing cancer by one in 2500, though your riskwithout ever having had an x-ray is already 1 in 3.How can we protect ourselves?There are many ways to reduce the dangers from radiation. The first is only to use it when necessary. Before people realised it was dangerous, shoe shops used to x-ray people’s feet to check that new shoes fitted properly. This no longer happens as the benefit did not justify the risk. However, the benefits of seeing where a bone is broken so it can be safely and properly mended are considered worth the small extra risk.Every x-ray examination has a strict controls about the maximum radiation dose a patient can be given, and the patient can be covered with lead-rubber shield to protect the parts of them not being examined from the radiation. This is especially used to protect reproductive organs so there is less risk of a mutation being passed on.People such as radiographers and nurses who work with radiation every day will leave the room or stand behind a lead shield when a procedure takes place, as the risk of developing problems due to radiation exposure increases with total dose. They also wear film badges which are developed regularly to check the dose they have recieved.Ultrasound Ultrasound imagingUltrasound uses sound waves with frequencies between 1 and 10MHz to look inside the body. These frequencies are too high to be heard by humans. The ultrasound waves, like all waves, can be reflected, refracted or transmitted at boundaries. It is the reflections , or echoes, which are used to produce ultrasound images.A gel is used so the probe makes good contact with the skin. Itsends out pulses of ultrasound, and measures the time taken todetect the echo and the strength of the signal. The time takenindicates how deep in the tissue the ultrasound wave is beingreflected.Ultrasound imaging isparticularly good at detectingcysts, which are pockets of fluid, in the liver, glandsand ovaries and breasts, and can be used to identifygallstones and kidney stones, which are deposits ofminerals. Large blood vessels also show up clearly.Ultrasound is commonly used during pregnancy to checkthe development of the foetus . It can show the size of the foetus which indicates how faralong the pregnancy is, check that the heart is beating and identify problems.It is thought to be safe as it doesn’t use ionising radiation.Computers can now generate 3-D ultrasound images, and 4-D (3-D over time) ultrasound scans can be made into videos for parents.This image is processed to show the skin. This is calledsurface rendering .Doppler UltrasoundThe Doppler effect is the change in the frequency of a sound due to the person listening moving relative to the source of the sound. If you move towards a source (or stand still and it moves towards you) the pitch, or frequency of the sound, increases. Likewise, if you move away from the source, the pitch of the sound decreases and it sounds lower. This can be easily noticed in the pitch of an ambulance siren as it gets closer, passes you and then moves away.The Doppler effect is used in medicine to study blood flow . It can tell you if blood is moving towards or away from the probe.This is a Doppler ultasound probe. It is being used to examine bloodflow in the radial artery , the same one that you would use tomeasure your pulse.There is some gel on the skin to make sure the probe makes a goodcontact so the sound can pass easily into the body.probe gelThis is the Doppler ultrasound signal measured from a healthyartery. When the heart beats it pushes blood at a velocity ofover 100cm/s away from the probe.The information can be colour coded and combined withconventional ultrasound images, which is particularly usefulin diagnosing blockages in blood vessels.This combined image shows the blood is all flowing in thesame direction. This indicates that the blood vessel ishealthy .In this image some blood is moving away from the probe andsome blood towards it. This is turbulent flow , like rapids in a river, and is caused by a blockage in the blood vessel.Optical methodsEndoscopyEndoscopy is a way of looking inside the human bodythrough a narrow, flexible scope. It is mostly used todiagnose problems in the oesophagus, stomach andintestines, including ulcers, bleeding and tumours. Ifsomething suspicious is seen, a biopsy(a small sample oftissue) can be taken and examined later by a pathologistto see what it is. Typically optical fibres are used totransfer light to the end of the endoscope and aminiature video camera records the image.They alsohave a biopsy channel (along which tissue can be takenor other surgical instruments can be passed) and waterpipe for washing the field of view clear.Laparoscopy is an extension of this technique where thescope is used to look inside the abdomen and pelvisthrough a small cut, or incision.In endscopic surgery, commonly known as keyhole surgery, the endoscope is passed through an incision into the patient and the surgeon, who uses knives or lasers also passed though the scope, watches what he is doing on a video screen. Keyhole surgery can be used to treat hernias and remove tumours and is often used on sportstars' injuries as the recovery time is faster than in normal open surgery.Endoscopes for remote robotic surgery are currently being tested. In 2001, doctors in New York removed the gall bladder of a woman in France using an endoscope remotely. Endoscopic pills which include a camera and transmitter are currently being developed. This would allow the whole digestive tract to be examined painlessly.Pulse OximetryOxygenated and deoxygenated blood are slightly different colours and so absorb different frequencies of light differently. By looking at the absorption of two different frequencies of light, we can distinguish between blood carrying oxygen and blood not carrying oxygen.This principle is the basis of one of the most commonlyused instruments for monitoring the body - the pulseoximeter. A pulse oximeter clips onto a finger (or ababy's foot) and has inside it one red light source, onenear-infrared light source and a detector. As theblood pulses, more blood enters the finger and theamount of light detected decreases. However, thedecrease in the amount of red light differs from thedecrease in the amount of near-infrared light. The sizeof this difference depends on the amount of oxygen inthe blood. At the same time, the blood moves through the finger in pulses, allowing the heart rate to be measured.The pulse oximeter is often used to monitor the well being of patients in intensive care and anaesthetised patient.Laser SurgeryLasers produce light that has only one wavelength, rather than a range of wavelengths like most other light sources. They are very useful in surgery as they can be focussed to a small point, enabling them to vaporise, seal or cut tissue.Eye surgeryLaser eye surgery can be used to correct long or short sight, and astigmatism (distorted vision). A surgeon cuts a thin layer of the cornea off to create a flap. A laser is then used to cut and reshape the cornea behind the flap. The flap is then closed and grows back naturally.Hair removalWhen laser light is shone onto the surface of the skin it is absorbed by melanin, the pigment that gives hair and skin their colour, and is converted into heat. If enough energy is absorbed, the part of the hair follicle that causes hair growth is destroyed, and the hair cannot grow back.As the skin contains melanin as well, it also heats up and can be damaged.Two things allow laser hair removal to be done safely:1)the hair follicle contains more melanin than the skin2)the surface area of skin is larger so it cools down faster than the hair follicleLaser hair removal therefore works best on people with pale skin and dark hair. A tan is caused by extra melanin being produced, so you should wait for a tan to fade before having laser treatment.Mole RemovalMole removal works in a similar way to hair removal.laser light and is broken up. It is then carried away bythe body and when the skin heals its colour is the sameas the surrounding skin.Port Wine StainsBlood vessels can widen (dilate) to allow more bloodthrough, so when you exercise and your body needs toget rid of heat, the blood vessels in your skin dilate andyou look red.A port wine stain is an area of red or purple skin. Theyare caused by blood vessels always being dilated, so theskin always looks red as it permanently contains a lot of blood. About 3 in 1000 babies are born with a port wine stain.Lasers can be used to destroy the tiny, dilated blood vessels, without harming the surrounding skin. Treatment works better on children than on adults.Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) MRI is a way of looking inside the body and is especially good at producing images of soft tissues such as muscle, fat, cartilage and the brain. It does this by producing a map which depends on the density of hydrogen in the body.MRI uses a very strong superconducting magnet with a magnetic field strength of around 40 000 times that of the Earth. The nucleus of a hydrogen atom is a single proton, and is like a little bar magnet.When a person is lying in the magnetic field of the MRI scanner the nuclei of the hydrogenatoms in their body line up, like compassneedles in the Earth's magnetic field, eitherpointing in the direction of the field or opposite to it.Magnetic FieldThe hydrogen nuclei (protons)don’t stay still though, butmove like a spinning top aroundthe direction of the magneticfield.A radiofrequency field , an alternatingmagnetic field that has the same frequency asradio waves, is then applied. This flips some ofthe protons round and makes them all moveround together. This produces a changingmagnetic field at right angles to the largemagnetic field, which can induce a voltage in acoil of wire. This signal can be used to produce an image which, which depends on thenumber of protons and how tightly they are held by surrounding molecules.A third magnetic field has a gradient so it is stronger at one end than the other. This allows the scanner to select a slice of the body to look at, by selecting the required field strength. The gradient fields change rapidly and make the scanner very noisy.MRI is used for diagnosing many problems. It can be used toidentify tumours, diagnose multiple sclerosis (MS) and is oftenused on sportspeople to see problems with ligaments insidejoints like the knee and ankle. It can also be used to show theanatomy of the brain and how it works.MRI scan of a knee, courtesyof GE healthcare Ltd.MRI doesn't use radiation, and magnetic fields are thought to besafe. However, MRI scanners are very big and expensive. Also,because of the strong magnetic fields, all metal objects have to bekept out of the room or they would get pulled into the scanner.People with pacemakers or other implanted devices can't have MRIscans as the magnetic field would stop them working. An MRI scancan take up to 20 minutes to complete and you have to be still thewhole time as any movement would blur the image. The changingmagnetic fields also produce a lot of noise, which can be scary,and as you are inside the scanner during the scan, people withclaustrophobia can find the processupsetting.MRI produces images that are 2-D slices through the body andthey have excellent spatial resolution (i.e. you can see verysmall details in the images), making it an important tool fordoctors.ECG (Electrocardiogram)If a patient complains of chest pains or shortness of breath it is important to check that their heart is working properly. The heart is a muscle made up of four chambers which contract to push blood and around the body. The messages that tell the muscle to contract are electrical signals, and by measuring these signals we can see if there is anything wrong with the heart. This is done using an ECG.To take an ECG, three electrodes are placed on the surface of the skin: one on the right arm, one on the left arm, and one on the left leg. These contacts are connected to a machine called an electrocardiograph. This draws lines on graph paper showing the electric potential between each electrode over time.Each voltage spike is due to an electrical signal in the heart and is represented by a letter. A healthy heart should give a trace that looks something like this.Changes to this pattern could indicate a problem such as missed beats, no P-wave (the atria not contracting) or very high spikes (the ventricles working too hard due to high blood pressure).。

第一章导论1．1 生物工程的特征生物工程是属于应用生物科学和技术的一个领域，它包含生物或其亚细胞组分在制造业、服务业和环境管理等方面的应用。

生物技术利用病毒、酵母、真菌、藻类、植物细胞或者哺乳动物培养细胞作为工业化处理的组成部分。

只有将微生物学、生物化学、遗传学、分子生物学、化学和化学工程等多种学科和技术结合起来，生物工程的应用才能获得成功。

生物工程过程一般包括细胞或菌体的生产和实现所期望的化学改造。

后者进一步分为：（a）终产物的构建（例如,酶，抗生素、有机酸、甾类)；（b）初始原料的降解（例如,污水处理、工业垃圾的降解或者石油泄漏)。

生物工程过程中的反应可能是分解代谢反应,其中复合物被分解为简单物质(葡萄糖分解代谢为乙醇)，又或者可能是合成代谢反应或生物合成过程,经过这样的方式,简单分子被组建为较复杂的物质(抗生素的合成)。

分解代谢反应常常是放能反应过程，相反的，合成代谢反应为吸能过程。

生物工程包括发酵工程(范围从啤酒、葡萄酒到面包、奶酪、抗生素和疫苗的生产），水与废品的处理、某些食品生产以及从生物治疗到从低级矿石种进行金属回收这些新增领域。

正是由于生物工程技术的应用多样性，它对工业生产有着重要的影响，而且,从理论上而言，几乎所有的生物材料都可以通过生物技术的方法进行生产。

据预测,到200０年,生物技术产品未来市场潜力近６50亿美元。

但也应理解,还会有很多重要的新的生物产品仍将以化学方法,按现有的生物分子模型进行合成，例如，以干扰为基础的新药。

因此,生命科学与化学之间的联系以及其与生物工程之间的关系更应阐释。

生物工程所采用的大部分技术相对于传统工业生产更经济，耗能低且更加安全,而且，对于大部分处理过程，其生产废料是经过生物降解的,无毒害。

从长远角度来看，生物工程为解决世界性难题提供了一种方法,尤其是那些有关于医学、食品生产、污染控制和新能源开发方面的问题。

１.2 生物工程的发展历史与一般所理解的生物工程是一门新学科不同的是，而是认为在现实中可以探寻其发展历史。

生物医学工程专业英语词汇（精选5篇）第一篇：生物医学工程专业英语词汇navigate ['næviɡeit] vt.驾驶，操纵；使通过；航行于high-pitched ['hai'pitʃt]adj.声调高的；声音尖锐的；紧张的；陡的echoesn.回声；共鸣；反响（echo的复数）Submarine n.潜水艇；海底生物sonar ['səunɑ:] n.声纳；声波定位仪（等于asdic）chirp 唧唧声；喳喳声；[通信] 啁啾声divided by 除以element n.元素；要素；原理；成分；自然环境detect 探测probe 探针scan 扫描foetus 胎儿rendering.翻译；表现；表演；描写；打底；（建筑物等）透视图atrium 中庭，心房（atria）heart values 心脏瓣膜ventricle 室，心室wave 波wavelength 波长Doppler shift 多普勒频移stationary固定的静止的artery 动脉blood flow 血流，血流量trace 踪迹carotid 颈动脉turbulent 混乱的，骚乱的rapid 急流deposit 在···处储存cavitation 空化physiological 生理的direct correlation 直接相关dyslexia 阅读障碍Reliable data 可靠数据ongoing 前进，不间断的misdiagnosis 误诊echo sounding 回声探测characterize vt.描绘…的特性；具有…的特征submerged 水下的，在水中的diagnostic 诊断法，诊断的gallstones 胆结石breast masses 乳房包块tumors 肿瘤innovations 创新，改革gray scale 灰度，灰阶static 静态的internal organs 内脏spectral 光谱的hand-held 手提式，便携式scanner 扫描仪clinical 临床的，诊断的Sonography 超声波扫描术platform平台superior 优秀的resolution 分辨率clarity 清晰度initially 最初地therapy 治疗法chemotherapy 化学疗法Ultrasonic waves 超声波disruptive破坏的malignant 恶性的，有害的transducer传感器pulse 脉冲Disk Storage 磁盘储存器Piezoelectric Effect 压电效应electric currents 电流crystals 晶体propagate 传播，传送Receipt 接收electrical signals 电信号Insertions 插入obstetrics 产科学gynecology 妇科学，妇科医学extensively 广阔地non-invasive 非侵入性的，非侵入的pregnancy 怀孕exclude 排除，排异ectopic 异位的molar 磨碎的cardiac pulsation 心脏搏动congenital 先天性的malformations 畸形multiple pregnancies 多胎妊娠placental position 胎位abdomen 下腹gel 胶体uterus ['ju:tərəs] n.[解剖] 子宫beams 光线thin slices 薄片recompose [,ri:kəm'pəuz] vt.改组；重写；重新安排；使恢复镇静intrauterine 子宫内的implantation 移植missed abortion 过期流产gestation age 怀孕年龄gestation [dʒes'teiʃən] n.酝酿；怀孕；妊娠期due date 到期日multiple embryos多重胚胎embryos [‘embriəuz] n.胚胎；晶胚abnormalities 畸形，异样情况Down syndrome 唐氏症Hydrops 积水first trimester早期妊娠chromosomal [‘krəuməsəuməl] adj.染色体的hydrocephalus [,haidrəu‘sefələs] n.[内科] 脑积水anencephaly [æn,ensə'feiliə, ,ænen'sefəli] n.先天无脑畸形sac 囊，液囊visualized 直观的，直视的yolk sac卵黄囊diameter 直径femur ['fi:mə] n.[解剖] 股骨；大腿骨embryo 胚胎polydactyl 多指畸形dysmorphia 畸形clubbing of feet 脚部联合cleft lipn.[口腔] 唇裂；[胚][口腔] 兔唇palate ['pælit] n.味觉；上颚；趣味spina bifida [,spainə'baifid ə,-'bi-] 脊柱裂Transvaginal 经阴道的calculations 计算amplitude 振幅duration 持续Amplification 放大Scan Converter 扫描变换器Vibrate 振动anatomical 解剖的，结构上的conventional 常见的vibrations 振动共鸣amplifier 放大器compensation 补偿sequence 序列，顺序format 格式，版式matrix 矩阵matrix 格式修改storage 存储trackball 轨迹球floppy disk 软磁碟thermal printers 热感性印刷机therapeutic 治疗的blood clots 血栓kidney stones 肾结石Portability 可移植的Veterinary 兽医的Joint 关节mysterious [mi'stiəriəs] adj.神秘的；不可思议的；难解的laureate ['lɔ:riət] adj.戴桂冠的；荣誉的rotating anode 旋转阳极fluoroscopic 荧光静的image intensifier 图像增强器fluoroscopy 荧光镜检查radiography 放射线照相术mammography 乳房x线照相术electromagnetic [i,lektrəumæɡ‘netik] adj.电磁的radiation [reidi'eiʃən] n.辐射；发光；放射物Emitted v.排放（emit的过去分词）；发散charged particles带电粒子photons ['fəu,təns] n.光子；光量.penetrate ['penitreit] vt.洞察;穿透charge [tʃɑ:dʒ] n.费用；电荷；掌管decelerate 减速collision 冲突target 目标，靶子braking radiation 制动辐射bombarding 急袭的，爆炸的vacancy 空缺，空位electron [i'lektrɔn] n.电子material [mə'tiəriəl] adj.重要的；物质的accelerated 加速的Bremsstrahlung 轫致辐射electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射region 地区electromagnetic spectrum 电磁谱elastically [i'læstikli] adv.有弹性地；伸缩自如地Rebounding 弹回Photoelectric 光电的Compton Scattering 康普顿散射Pair Production 电子偶的产生Rayleigh scattering 瑞利散射coherent [kəu'hiərənt] adj.连贯的，一致的 dominant ['dɔminənt] adj.显性的；占优势的；支配的，统治的interaction processes 互动过程relevant 有关的cross-sections 横截面Photoelectric absorption光电吸收linear attenuation coefficient线性衰减系数probability of ···的概率Avogadro [avɔ'gadrɔ] n.阿佛加德罗radiation intensity 辐射强度traversing 穿过，通过thickness 厚度molecule 分子Ionisation 电离作用release 释放free radicals 自由基，游离基hydrogen ['haidrədʒən] n.[化学] 氢peroxide [pə'rɔksaid] n.过氧化氢；过氧化物excited molecules 受激分子Barium meal钡餐Flat Panel 扁平面板Formation 形成，构造incident 附带的Subject contrast 受照者对比度Sharpness 清晰度shortened form简称absorption 吸收anatomical structure 解剖结构density 密度contrast medium 放射照影剂kilovoltage 千伏电压filtration 过滤predominate 支配，主宰，在···中占优势Hence 因此，今后Primary beam 初级束流signal to noise ratio 信噪比collimate 校准，瞄准proportion 比例tray 托盘receptor 受体，接收器air gap 气隙oblique 倾斜的geometry 几何学image formation 成像，图像形成Point source 点声源Infinite 无限的finite 有限的Penumbra 半影Focal spot 电子焦点，焦斑Penetration 参透，突破target angle 目标夹角loading capacity 负荷容量gradient 梯度，坡度，倾斜度inherent 固有的，内在的Quantum noise 量子噪声Grainy 粒状的exposure factors曝光系数at this stage 眼下scope 视野Cine电影；电影院Spot 地点，现场spot film 【放射学】缩影片；点片Curtain 幕；窗帘Slotn.位置；狭槽。

生物医学工程中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译文献Biological effects of the Magnetic Stimulation on the T oad Heart Abstract-W e stimulated the exposed toad heart by a low frequency and high energy magnetic. By analyze the data of this experiment, it shows that the pulsating of the weak toad heart would make change after stimulated by magnetic. W eak heartbeat strengthened, the single peak curve would become the two peaks curve with atria wave and ventricle wave after the magnetic stimulation. But the cycling of rhythmic pulsatile curve of toad doesn't change.I. INTRODUTIONAll life forms have magnetism. All kinds of magnetic field would have some effects on the configuration and activities of life forms that whichever environmental magnetic, additional magnetic or inside magnetic of organism. The biologic effects are related to the characteristics and附录Ⅳ英文文献及翻译the intension of the magnetic field, as well as the species and the tissues of the life forms.The experimentation showed that magnetism stimulation in some range would control the growth of rat tumour, whatever they are in or out the body. Much more they can induce the cancer cells dead.30mT magnetic stimulation would increase the content of NO in the liver and the kidney.Magnetic also can improve the activity of some enzyme and promote the regeneration of nerve tissue.Cell would increase, the bones would be concrescence, the scar would be rehabilitate.The bloodrheology and blood cell number both of human and rat would change obviously, DI the blood mucosity would be low.Heart is the most important apparatus of life. It pulsates day and night. Heart once stop pulsating, the life for danger.Numerous scholar pays attention to the role of magnetic field.But they just studied the effects of magnetic stimulation of the heart pacemaker. The experiments about direct effects of stimulate heart by magnetic is very few.The toads are our experiment animals.W e stimulated and noted by the magnetic stimulation equipment and the noted equipment of pulsatile curve made by ourselves. Analyze the results.II. STUFFA.Experiment equipments:①magnetic stimulation equipment; (magnetic intension 8-10T, impulse width 150ms,maximal stimulation frequency 5Hz);②software of noted pulsatile curve (made by ourselves);③cardiomuscular transducer;④Ringer.Sol ;⑤Batrachia instruments; ⑥clip of frog heart; ⑦cotton thread; ?burette.B.Experiment animals: toads.III. METHODA. Destroy the brain and the spinal cord of the toad by stylet:Penetrate into the occipital aperture upright with stylet,destroyed the brain upwards, take back the stylet and destroy the spinal downwards. If the limb of toad were relaxed, it showed that the brain and spinal were destroyed completely.B. Expose the toad heart: Make the toad lying on its back on the winding center. The magnetic aspect is upright through the toad heart.Cut the ventral skin of toad, snip the breastbone,expose the rat heart. Nip the heart tip by clip carefully.Make the cotton thread tied with the clip of frog hear the linked with the cardiomuscular transducer. Do not make the toad heart leave thorax, or it would disturb the experiment results.C.Noted the result:Connect the cardiomuscular transducer with the computer. Take notes the curve of toad heart without giving the stimulate of magnetic fieldD. After three minutes, noted the weak pulsatile curve.E . Make the magnetic intension 10T, electricize 10s.Stimulate the toad heart and record the pulsatile curve.IV. RESUL TSThe abscissa of cardiac rhythmic pulsatile curve is time, the ordinate is constriction power. Take notes for the pulsatile curve of toad heart that exposed just.W e can know the rhythmic pulsatile cycle of the toad heart is 1.5s from fig 1 which show the cardiac rhythmic pulsatile curve of the toad which was exposed the heart just now. There are two waves in each cycle, one is atria wave, the other is ventricle wave. The atria wave is 0.5s and the ventricle wave is 1.0s. The constriction power of atria is less than that of ventricle. The amplitude of constriction power of ventricle is the 2 times of the atria.Fig. 4.1. It is rhythmic pulsatile curve of the toad without magnetic stimulation.The constriction power of toad heart would become weakerafter the toad heart was exposed for a while. At the same time,atrium wave and ventricle wave can not be already distinguished. Heart contracting amplitude were reduced obviously, do not go to the half of original atrium wave. The rhythmic pulsatile cycle of the toad heart is still 1.5s.Fig. 4.2. It is the weak pulsatile curve of toad without magnetic stimulation.But we can distinguish the atria wave and the ventricle wave again after giving the toad heart a magnetic stimulation on following picture. And the amplitude of ventricle waves is more than that of the single wave. The rhythmic pulsatile cycle of the toad heart is still 1.5s.There were six toads as experiment animal in our experiment.After exposing heart a time, the rhythmic pulsatile curve all became single peak curve. Stimulate them when the single amplitudewas 0.95. Noted the data and analyze them.Following is the pulsatile curve of the six toads recorded which were stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.3. It is the pulsatile curve of the fist toad which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.4. It is the pulsatile curve of the second toad which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.5. It is the pulsatile curve of the third toad which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.6. It is the pulsatile curve of the fourth toad which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.7. It is the pulsatile curve of the fifth toad which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 4.8. It is the pulsatile curve of the six toads which heart was stimulated by magnetic field.V. COMPARISIIONRecord ventricle wave amplitude and atrium wave amplitude of the six toads after magnetic stimulation.T able. 5.1. From "T oad1"to "T oad6" expressed the six toadswhich was stimulated by magnetic field. The "T oad0" expressed the toad which was not stimulated by magnetic field. "T oad7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.amplitudes of atria wave amplitudes of ventricle wave T oad0 2.275 2.34T oad1 1.140 1.170T oad2 1.120 1.129T oad3 1.165 1.18T oad4 1.120 1.128T oad5 1.214 1.230T oad6 1.151 1.169T oad7 0.95 Express the toad which was not stimulated by magnetic with"T oad 0", and express the toad which pulsate weakly with"T oad 7". Make histogram to contrast by these data. The first histogram was made by the data of the pulsatile amplitudes of when toad was not gets stimulate and pulsate weakly, as well as the pulsatile amplitude of the fist stimulated toad. After magnetic stimulation, amplitudes of atria wave and ventricle wave were higher than single wave of weak heart. But it is more low than the amplitudes of heart when just exposes obviously.Fig. 5.1. The histogram was make by the amplitudes of the toad exposed heart justly and the toad which stimulated by magnetic field, the toad which pulsate weakly. The "T oad 0" expressed the toad which was not stimulated by magnetic field. The "T oad 1" expressed the fist toad which was stimulated by magnetic field. The "T oad 7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Make histogram respectively with the data of amplitude of each toad stimulated by magnetic field and the amplitude of single wave. Make histogram with the data of amplitudes of six toads stimulated by magnetic field, and compare them.Fig. 5.2. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the first toad which was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly. The"T oad 1" expressed the fist toad which was stimulated by magnetic field. The"T oad 7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.3. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the second toad which was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly The "T oad2" expressed the second toad which was stimulated by magnetic field. The "T oad7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.4. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the third toad which was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly. The"T oad 3" expressed the third toad which was stimulated by magnetic field. The"T oad 7" expressedthe toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.5. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the fourth toad which was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly. The "T oad 4" expressed the fourth toad which was stimulated by magnetic field.The "T oad 7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.6. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the fifth toad which was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly. The "T oad5" expressed the fifth toadwhich was stimulated by magnetic field. The "T oad7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.7. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which puls,"T oad 6" expressed the sixth toad which was stimulated by ma "T oad 7" expressed the toad which pulsated weakly.Fig. 5.8. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the was stimulated by magnetic field.Fig. 5.9. The histogram was made by the amplitudes of the was stimulated by magnetic field and the toad which pulsate weakly.There is discrepancy between the pulsatile a each toad which stimulated by magnetic field. This is dividual discrepancy, it is related with the strong of the experiment animals. But if compared these pulsatile amplitudes of toads which stimulated by magnetic field with amplitude of the toad which pulsated weakly at the same time of discrepancy is very not obvious.VI. CONCLUSIONSThere are a P wave and a QRS wan pare the pulsatile curve with the electrocardiogram to we can discover that the P wave that express atrium constriction is earlier than atria wave.the ORS wave that express ventricle constriction is earlier than ventricle constriction is earlier than ventricle wave. Heart constriction connected closely with the change of biological electricity of cardiac muscle. Before heart contracts,must occur on muscle cell membrane a movement potential that can be conducted, passthrough then excited-contract unite can just arouse muscle cell contract to respond. The P wave and QRS wave of electrocardiogram reflect atrium and ventricle respectively with the electrical change in polarization course. Atrium wave and ventricle wave reflect atrium and ventricle respectively the mechanical campaign. Mechanical campaign is only initiated from electrical campaign. So P wave is earlier than atrium wave, QRS wave are earlier than ventricle sixth toad which wave.When the pulsatile rhythmically of heart stopped or in disorder.the electric attack would be helpful on clinic data. The magnetism stimulation may have the same effects as the electric stimulation based on electromagnetism.The pulsatile curve of toad which just exposed heart can divide into atrium wave and ventricle wave. After a time, heart is weak gradually, right now, heart contracts intensity weakens obviously. Atrium wave can not already distinguish with ventricle wave on the curves of toad weak pulsatilecurve Original two summit curves change to single summit curve,and contract range reduces obviously. Do not go to the half of original atrium wave. But heart pulsatile period still ask 1 second. Stimulate toad heart, the direction of magnetic field vertical cross toad heart center from the back to belly. T ake T oad 6 notes at once, the pulsatile curve of toad recovery became original two summit curves. And the amplitude of ventricle six toads which wave worth than single wave is in height of.T ested result proves that the magnetic stimulation of high energy can promote toad heart strength obviously, but for the pulsatile curve period does not be acted on obviously. Can make the curve of pulsatile curve already can not be districted the atrium wave and ventricle of the weak heart recovery that atrium constrictionwith ventricle constriction alternately.The cell of cardiac muscle has special electrical physiology.Electrical stimulate can affect the electrical physiology moving of heart obviously. Magnetic field and electric field have the characteristic that changes mutually. The role of extra magnetic field can also arouse the ion current in the organism toad 7 cell of cardiac muscle to occur change. Therefore, it changes the electrical physiological campaign of the cell of cardiac muscle, change heart contract condition.Compared with direct electrical stimulation, the magnetic stimulation has a lot of advantages. It shows by clinical information, eliminate the heart shake of human body with current (go through chest wall) to need the energy of 150-350 J probably, directly eliminate heart shake to need the energy of 16-24 J probably. Specific size and the current distribution of electrode have relevant uniformity. The magnetism of biological organization is even basically, magnetic field reaches the deeply layer organization of organism very easily on toad through skin and skeleton. The magnetic stimulation does not have wound. The resistance rate of skin and skeleton is great.Induction current and organization resistance become inverse ratio. There is a small current passes through organism when was stimulated by magnetic field, so person does not have uncomfortable feeling. The body and coil are not contacted in the magnetic stimulation therefore we can stimulate directly without doing any handling for skin in advanced, will not arouse pain.And the body does not have electricity connect with environment, so have very good safety.Just start for the study of biological effects of the magnetic stimulation on life-form.Quantification of the effects of the magnetic stimulation of pulsatile curve still needs to be studyfurtherACKNOWLEDGMENTThis paper is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of Chinese (No. 59977024)REFERENCES[1] A.B. Smith, C.D. Jones, and E.F. Roberts, "Article Title", Journal,Publisher, Location, Date,pp. 1-10.。