Toward a Method of Selecting Among Computational Models of Cognition

心理学专业英语复习资料I. Translate the Following English Phrases into Chinese1. Research Methods 研究方法2. Psychophysics 心理物理学3. Theories of Learning 学习理论4. Social Cognition 社会认知5．Personality Test 人格测试6. Extraneous Variable 无关变量7. Longitudinal Study 纵向研究8. Crystallized Intelligence 晶体智力9. Motor control 运动控制10. Corpus Callosum 胼胝体11. Group Thinking 群体思维12. Social Loafing 社会懈怠13. Social Exchange 社会交换14. Social Approval 社会赞许15. Diffusion of Responsibility 责任分散16. Recency Effec 近因效应17．Trace Decay 痕迹消退18. Retrograde Amnesia 倒摄遗忘19. Social Support 社会支持20. Self-efficacy 自我效能21. Case Study 个案研究II. Translate the Following Chinese Word Groups into English1. 机能主义functionalism2. 自我实现self—actualization3．一般规律研究法nomothetic method4. 分层抽样stratified sampling5. 外在信度external reliability6. 选择性注意selective attention7. 知觉恒常性perceptual constancy8. 自我概念self concept9. 液体智力fluid intelligence10. 安全型依恋secure attachment11. 性别图示gender schema12. 亲社会行为pro social behavior13. 从众实验conformity experiment14. 头脑风暴brain storming15. 社会助长social facilitation16. 旁观者效应bystander effect17. 标准差standard deviation18. 柱状图bar chart19. 正态分布normal distribution20. 临界值critical value21. 知觉适应perceptual adaptationIII. Multiple Choices1. Like Carl Rogers, I believe people choose to live more creative and meaningful lives. My name isa. Wertheimer.b. Washburn.c. Skinner.d. Maslow.2. The goals of psychology are toa. develop effective methods of psychotherapy.b. describe, predict, understand, and control behavior.c. explain the functioning of the human mind.d. compare, analyze, and control human behavior.3. The "father" of psychology and founder of the first psychological laboratory wasa. Wilhelm Wundt.b. Sigmund Freud.c. John B. Watson.d. B. F. Skinner.4. You see a psychologist and tell her that you are feeling depressed. She talks to you about the goals you have for yourself, about your image of yourself, and about the choices that you make in your life and that you could make in your life. This psychologist would probably belong to the __________ school of psychology.a. humanisticb. psychodynamicc. behavioristicd. Gestalt5. Biopsychologistsa. limit the scope of their study to animals.b. are concerned with self-actualization and free will.c. stress the unconscious aspect of behavior.d. attempt to explain behavior in terms of biological or physical mechanisms.6. In a study of effects of alcohol on driving ability, the control group should be givena. a high dosage of alcohol.b. one-half the dosage given the experimental group.c. a driving test before and after drinking alcohol.d. no alcohol at all.7.The phrase "a theory must also be falsifiable" meansa. researchers misrepresent their data.b. a theory must be defined so it can be disconfirmed.c. theories are a rich array of observations regarding behavior but with few facts to support them.d. nothing.8. A common method for selecting representative samples is to select thema. randomly from the larger population.b. strictly from volunteers.c. by threatening or coercing institutionalized populations.d. from confidential lists of mail order firms.9. The chief function of the control group in an experiment is that ita. allows mathematical relationships to be established.b. provides a point of reference against which the behavior of the experimental group can be compared.c. balances the experiment to eliminate all extraneous variables.d. is not really necessary.10. Which of the following best describes a double-blind experimental procedure?a. All subjects get the experimental procedure.b. Half the subjects get the experimental procedure, half the placebo; which they receive is known only to the experimenter.c. Half the subjects get the experimental procedure, half the placebo; which they receive is not known to subjects or experimenters.d. All subjects get the control procedure.11. A simple experiment has two groups of subjects calleda. the dependent group and the independent group.b. the extraneous group and the independent group.c. the before group and the after group.d. the control group and the experimental group.12. One of the limitations of the survey method isa. observer bias.b. that it sets up an artificial situation.c. that replies may not be accurate.d. the self-fulfilling prophecy.13. To replicate an experiment means toa. use control groups and experimental groups.b. use statistics to determine the effect of chance.c. control for the effects of extraneous variables.d. repeat the experiment using either identical or improved research methods.14. Information picked up by the body's receptor cells is termeda. cognitionb. perception.c. adaptation.d. sensation.15. The incoming flow of information from our sensory systems is referred to asa. sensation.b. perception.c. adaptation.d. cognition.16. A researcher presents two lights of varying brightness to a subject who is asked to respond "same" or "different" by comparing their intensities. The researcher is seeking thea. just noticeable difference.b. absolute threshold.c. subliminal threshold.d. minimal threshold.17. Film is to camera as __________ is to eye.a. retinab. irisc. lensd. pupil18. Black and white vision with greatest sensitivity under low levels of illumination describes the function ofa. the cones.b. the visual pigments.c. the rods.d. the phosphenes.19. Unpleasant stimuli may raise the threshold for recognition. This phenomenon is calleda. aversive stimulation.b. absolute threshold.c. perceptual defense.d. unconscious guard.20. When infants are placed in the middle of a visual cliff, they usuallya. remain still.b. move to the shallow side of the apparatus.c. move to the deep side of the apparatus.d. approach their mothers when called, whether that requires moving to the shallow or deep side.21.The fact that objects that are near each other tend to be grouped together is known asa. closure.b. continuation.c. similarity.d. nearness.22. An ability to "read" another person's mind is termeda. clairvoyance.b. telepathy.c. precognition.d. psychokinesis.23. The fact that infants will often crawl off tables or beds shows thata. depth perception is completely learned.b. human depth perception emerges at about 4 months of age.c. integration of depth perception with motor skills has not yet been accomplished.d. depth perception is completely innate.24. Sensations are organized into meaningful perceptions bya. perceptual constancies.b. localization of meaning.c. perceptual grouping (Gestalt) principles.d. sensory adaptation.25. The analysis of information starting with features and building into a complete perception is known asa. perceptual expectancy.b. top-down processing.c. bottom-up processing.d. Gregory's phenomenon.26.One recommended way for parents to handle problems of occasional bed wetting in children is toa. limit the amount of water they drink in the evening.b. punish them for "wet" nights.c. wake them up during the night to use the toilet.d. consider medication or psychotherapy.27. Teachers, peers, and adults outside the home become important in shaping attitudes toward oneself in Erikson's stage ofa. trust versus mistrust.b. initiative versus guilt.c. industry versus inferiority.d. integrity versus despair.28. With aging there is a decline of __________ intelligence, but not of __________ intelligence.a. fluid; fixedb. fixed; fluidc. fluid; crystallizedd. crystallized; fluid29. The single most important thing you might do for a dying person is toa. avoid disturbing that person by not mentioning death.b. allow that person to talk about death with you.c. tell that person about the stages of dying.d. keep your visits short and infrequent in order to avoid tiring that person.30. The five-factor model of personality includesa. social interactionism.b. neuroticism.c. agreeableness.d. sense of humor.31. An adjective checklist would most likely be used by aa. psychodynamic therapist.b. behaviorist.c. humanistic therapist.d. trait theorist.32. Jung believed that there are basic universal concepts in all people regardless of culture calleda. persona.b. collective consciousness.c. archetypes.d. mandalas.33. Behaviorists are to the external environment as humanists are toa. stress.b. personal growth.c. humankind.d. internal conflicts.34. Self-actualization refers toa. a tendency that causes human personality problems.b. what it is that makes certain men and women famous.c. anyone who is making full use of his or her potentials.d. the requirements necessary for becoming famous, academically distinguished, or rich.35. If you were asked to describe the personality of your best friend, and you said she was optimistic, reserved, and friendly, you would be using the __________ approach.a. psychodynamicb. analyticalc. humanisticd. trait36. The halo effect refers toa. the technique in which the frequency of various behaviors is recorded.b. the use of ambiguous or unstructured stimuli.c. the process of admitting experience into consciousness.d. the tendency to generalize a favorable or unfavorable first impression to unrelated details of personality.37.A truck gets stuck under a bridge. Several tow-trucks are unable to pull it out. At last a little boy walks up and asks the red-faced adults trying to free the truck why they haven't let the air out of the truck's tires. Their oversight was due toa. divergent thinking.b. cognitive style.c. synesthesia.d. fixation.38. __________ thinking goes from specific facts to general principles.a. Deductiveb. Inductivec. Divergentd. Convergent39. In most anxiety disorders, the person's distress isa. focused on a specific situation.b. related to ordinary life stresses.c. greatly out of proportion to the situation.d. based on a physical cause.40. The antisocial personalitya. avoids other people as much as possible.b. is relatively easy to treat effectively by psychotherapy.c. tends to be selfish and lacking remorse.d. usually gives a bad first impression.41. One who is quite concerned with orderliness, perfectionism, and a rigid routine might be classified as a(n) __________ personality.a. histrionicb. obsessive-compulsivec. schizoidd. avoidant42.In psychoanalysis, patients avoid talking about certain subjects. This is calleda. avoidance.b. transference.c. analysis.d. resistance.43. In psychoanalysis, an emotional attachment to the therapist that symbolically represents other important relationships is calleda. resistance.b. transference.c. identification.d. empathy.44. In aversion therapy a person __________ to associate a strong aversion with an undesirable habit.a. knowsb. learnsc. wantsd. hopes45. Behavior modification involvesa. applying non-directive techniques such as unconditional positive regard to clients.b. psychoanalytic approaches to specific behavior disturbances.c. the use of learning principles to change behavior.d. the use of insight therapy to change upsetting thoughts and beliefs.46. A cognitive therapist is concerned primarily with helping clients change theira. thinking patterns.b. behaviors.c. life-styles.d. habits.47.__________ is best known for his research on conformity.a. Aschb. Rubinc. Schachterd. Zimbardo48. Solomon Asch's classic experiment (in which subjects judged a standard line and comparison lines) was arranged to test the limits ofa. social perception.b. indoctrination.c. coercive power.d. conformity.49. Aggression is best defined asa. hostility.b. anger.c. any action carried out with the intent of harming another person.d. none of these50. Which of the following is the longest stage of grieving for most people?a. shockb. angerc. depressiond. agitation51. Which of the following is NOT part of the definition of psychology?A) scienceB) therapyC) behaviorD) mental process52．The term psychopathology refers toA) the study of psychology.B) study of psychological disorders.C) the distinction between psychologists and psychiatrists.D) the focus of counseling psychology.53. In which area of psychology would a researcher interested in how individuals persist to attain a difficult goal (like graduating from college) most likely specialize?A) motivation and emotionB) physiological psychologyC) social psychologyD) community psychology54. A psychologist who focused on the ways in which people's family background related to their current functioning would be associated with which psychological approach?A) the behavioral approachB) the psychodynamic approachC) the humanistic approachD) the cognitive approach55. The researcher most associated with functionalism isA) William James.B) Wilhelm Wundt.C) Charles Darwin.D) E. B. Titchener.56. A psychologist is attempting to understand why certain physical characteristics are rated as attractive. The psychologist explains that certain characteristics have been historically adaptive, and thus are considered attractive. This explanation is consistent with which of the following approaches?A) the sociocultural approachB) the humanistic approachC) the cognitive approachD) the evolutionary approach57. Which approach would explain depression in terms of disordered thinking?A) the humanistic approachB) the evolutionary approachC) the cognitive approachD) the sociocultural approach58. Which of the following would a sociocultural psychologist be likely to study?A) the impact of media messages on women's body imageB) the way in which neurotransmitters are implicated in the development of eating disordersC) the impact of thinking patterns on weight managementD) the benefits of exercise in preventing obesity59. Why is psychology considered a science?A) It focuses on internal mental processes.B) It classifies mental disorders.C) It focuses on observation, drawing conclusions, and prediction.D) It focuses on behavior.60. Why is it important to study positive psychology?A) Psychologists are only interested in the experiences of healthy persons.B) We get a fuller understanding of human experience by focusing on both positive and negativeaspects of life.C) Negative experiences in people's lives tell us little about people's mental processes.D) Psychology has been too focused on the negativeIV. Blank filling1.The perspective that focuses on how perception is organized is called psychology.2.A(n) is a broad explanation and prediction concerning a phenomenon of interest.3.The variable is expected to change as a result of the experimenter's manipulation.4.Bill refuses to leave his house because he knows spiders live outside. Bill is most clearlysuffering from a .5.Learned _______ may develop when a person is repeatedly exposed to negative events overwhich he/she has no control.6.Troublesome thoughts that cause a person to engage in ritualistic behaviors are called________.7.Psychologists consider deviant, maladaptive, and personally distressful behaviors to be______.8.Ken is impulsive, reckless, and shows no remorse when he hurts other people. He is often introuble with the law. Kevin is most likely to be diagnosed with _______ personality disorder.9.The researcher known as the "father of modern psychology" was Wilhelm _______.10.Asking someone to think about their conscious experience while listening to poetry wouldbe an example of _______.11.The field of psychology that is interested in workplace behavior is called Industrial and___________ psychology.12.________ is a statistic that measures the strength of the relationship between two variables.13.In a set of data, the number that occurs most often is called the ______.14.In a set of data, the average score is called the _______.15.A study that collects data from participants over a period of time is known as a(n) ______.16.The variable that a researcher manipulates is called the _______ variable.17._______statistics are used to test a hypothesis.18.A mental framework for how a person will think about something is called a ______.19.Rapid skeletal and sexual development that begins to occur around ages nine to eleven iscalled _______.20.A generalization about a group that does not take into account differences among membersof that group is called a(n) ________.21.Feeling the same way as another, or putting yourself in someone else's shoes, is called______.22.Feelings or opinions about people, objects, and ideas are called _______.23.When you saw a movie in a crowded theater you found yourself laughing out loud witheveryone else. When you saw it at home, though, you still found it funny but didn't laugh as much. This is an example of ________ contagion.24.When Carlos first sat next to Brenda in class he didn't think much of her. After sitting nextto her every day for a month he really likes her. This is best explained by the ________ effect.V．True or false (10 points, 1 point each)1 Positive psychology is not interested in the negative things that happen in people's lives.A) True2 The behavioral approach is interested in the ways that individuals from different cultures behave.A) TrueB) False3. Developmental psychologists focus solely on the development of children.A) TrueB) False4. Psychologists study behavior and mental processes.A) TrueB) False5. Meta-analysis examines many studies to draw a conclusion about an effect.A) TrueB) False6. The 50th percentile is the same as the median.A) TrueB) False7. The standard deviation is a measure of central tendency.A) TrueB) False8. Variables can only have one operational definition.A) TrueB) False9. The scores for 5 participants are 3, 2, 6, 3, and 7. The range is 4.A) TrueB) False10. In correlational research, variables are not manipulated by the researcher.A) TrueB) False11. The placebo effect refers to experimenter bias influencing the behavior of participants.A) TrueB) FalseCarol and Armando work together, go to school together, and socialize together. Carol notices that Armando is always on time to work and class and is never late when they make plans. One day, Armando is late to class. It is likely that Carol would make an external attribution about Armando's lateness.A) TrueB) False12. Violence in movies and television has no effect on people's levels of aggression.A) TrueB) False13. Rioting behavior is usually understood to occur because of groupthink.A) TrueB) False14. Small groups are more prone to social loafing than larger groups.A) TrueB) False15. Piaget believed that children were active participants in their cognitive development.A) True16 A strong ethnic identity helps to buffer the effects of discrimination on well-being.A) TrueB) False17. Older adults experience more positive emotions than younger adults.A) TrueB) False18. Harlow's research showed that infant monkeys preferred to spend time with the "mother" (wireor cloth) on which they were nursed.A) TrueB) False19. To help adolescents research their full potential, parents should be effective managers of theirchildren.A) TrueB) False20. Emerging adulthood is the period between 18 and 30 years of age.A) TrueB) False21. Health psychologists work only in mental health domains.A) TrueB) FalseVI. Essays questions (20 points, 10 points each)1. What is qualitative research interview?2. What is bystander effect? When is it most likely to occur? How can its effects be minimized?3. How important is fathering to children?。

Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLA Ⅰ . The nature of languagecharacteristics of languages主要研究成果 systematic socialword meaningpronunciation; spellingMorphology (word structure)Lexicon(vocabulary)Phonology (soundsystem)levels of a languageSyntax (grammar)grammatical category (part of speech)combination; idioms phonemesintonation patterns; tonessyllable structurerhythmic patterns (pauses and stops)morphemesprefixes and suffixesinflections that carry grammaticalinformation word orderagreement between sentence elements ways to form sentencesDiscourseways to connet sentences and organizeinformations across sentencesstructures for telling stories, etc scripts for interacting and eventssymbolicⅡ . Early approaches to SLA1. Contrastive Analysis (CA)1) . as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches. It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2) . CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting andexplaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3) . influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4) . Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2teaching and testing.structuralist linguisticsthe surface forms of L1 and L2 systems phonology → morphology → syntax → lexion → bottom- updiscourseCAassumptionsbehaviorist psychologyLA essentially invoves habit formationstimulus- response- reinofrcement Llinguistic inputrespond habituate... transfer(S-R-R)practice makesperfect5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may cause6). Assessment:Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than they ' ve heard and been taught) Not always validated byevidence from actual learner errors.Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2. Error analysis (EA)1) . EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes aninternal focus on learner 's creative ability to construct language. (based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors inL2)2) . CA → EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are nottransferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns → underlying rulesBehaviorism →mentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity) Teachingconcerns as motivation ↓3) . Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4) . ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3. Interlanguage (IL)1) . IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learner ' slanguage as it moves toward the target L2.2) . Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3) . Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2 nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4) . L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they 'll cease their IL development in somerespects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4. Morpheme order studies1) . Refers to ：an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there is a naturalorder (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners.2) . Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, togive it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3) . The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4) . The concept of natural order remains very important for understanding SLA.(both from linguistic and cognitive approaches)5. Monitor model1) . One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focus in theMonitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2) . It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device(LAD) (Chomsky used for children 's innate knowledge of language)3) . Krashen 's approach: 5 hypotheses6. Consensus:1) . What is being acquired in SLA is a“rule0governed ” languagesystems2) . How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3) . Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relatesprimarily to the age of the learner.Ⅲ . Universal Grammar (UG)1. UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1) . Two important concepts linguistic competence (speaker-hearers 'underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LA such knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2) . The nature of speaker-hearers ' competence in native language can be explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with. 3) . The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2. Principles and Parameters1) . With Chomsky ' s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles andParameters framework [often called the Government and Binding (GB)subconsciousinnate language acquisition deviceconsciousexemplified by theL2 learningwhat is "learned" is availableonly as a monitor acquire the rules of languagein a predictable order inputcomprehensiviblehypothesisinputenough understandableinput may not be processed if theaffective filter is "up"natral order hypothesisaffective filter hypothesismonitor hypothesis 5hypothesisacquisitionacquisition-learning hypothesislearningmodel] and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process.2) . UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3) . What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. 4) . How acquisition occurs for children: natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5) . Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)Ⅳ . Functional approaches1. Functional approach1) . Based on: the framework of Functionalism2) . Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAstructural such as which element is the object or subject functionsuch as convey information or express emotioFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA requirecommunicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used ininteraction; include aspects of communication beyond language2. Systemic linguistics (M.A.K.Halliday)1) . Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of theinterrelated systems of choices that are available forexpressing meaning.“ language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguisticfunctions ”2) . What language learners acquire: meaning potential3) . Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of language developing a meaning potential for each4) . pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition: instrumental →regulatory → interactional → personal → heuristic → imagination →representational5) . linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions that language serves;related to the social and personal needs3. Functional Typology1) . Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world 's language2) . Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages;to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or areuniversal in distribution.3) . Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficult than others forL2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4) . important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specific feature oflanguage is marked or unmarked)5) . Markedness differential prediction for SLAIn SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6) . Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA)to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints; the Markedness Differential Hypothesis 7) . implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2 nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs)4. Function-to-form mapping1) . Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization. 2) . Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker. Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3) . Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical elementtopic- comment → subject -predict structure loose conjunction → tight subordinationslow rate of delivery → fast rate of delivery word order governed by pragmatic principle of old information then new information → word order used to signal semantic case functionsroughly one-to-one ratio of verbs → nouns in discourse toa larger ratio of nouns over verbs4) . According to function-to-mapping approach, LAimportantly involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.5. Information organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their words together.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)discovering what organizational principles guide learners ' production atIn all languages: to express functions (such as time)reliance on grammatical forms ↑ liance on context and lexical words ↓no use of grammatical morphology↓elavorate useofgrammatical morphologyvarious stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3) . European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 andL2, the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.organizing principles:* there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints; semanticconstraints; pragmatic constraints) which learners make use of fororganizing information.* Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。

Transportation Systems交通运输系统Transportation system in a developed nation consists of a network of modes that have evolved over many years. The system consists of vehicles,guideways,terminal facilities, and control systems; these operate according to established procedures and schedules in the air, on land and on water. The system also requires interaction with the user, the operator,and the environment. The system that are in place reflect the multitude of decisions made by shippers,earners, government, individual travelers, and affected nonusers concerning the investment in or the use of transportation. The transportation system that has evolved has produced a variety of modes that complement each other.在发达国家，经过多年发展交通运输系统已经形成了一个网络模式。

这一体系由车辆、导轨、码头设施和控制系统构成并根据已建立的程序和时间表在水陆空进行运作。

该系统还需要用户、操作员和环境的之间的相互作用。

U1 AToward a brighter future for all奔向更加光明的未来Good afternoon! As president of the university, I am proud to welcome you to this university. Your achievement is the triumph of years of hard work, both of your own and of your parents and teachers. Here at the university, we pledge to make your educational experience as rewarding as possible.下午好！作为校长，我非常自豪地欢迎你们来到这所大学。

你们所取得的成就是你们自己多年努力的结果，也是你们的父母和老师们多年努力的结果。

在这所大学里，我们承诺将使你们学有所成。

In welcoming you to the university, I am reminded of my own high school graduation and the photograph my mom took of my dad and me. "Pose naturally." Mom instructed us. "Wait!" said Dad, "Let's take a picture of me handing him an alarm clock." The clock woke me up every morning in college. It is still on my office desk.在欢迎你们到来的这一刻，我想起自己高中毕业时的情景，还有妈妈为我和爸爸拍的合影。

Unit 1 Section Ⅰ一、语言基础训练Ⅰ.单句语法填空1．(2020·新高考全国Ⅰ卷)And in Karakalpakstan, he is saddened by the dust storms, diseases and fishing boats __stuck__(stick) miles from the sea.2．Some people have drawn the __conclusion__ (conclude) from Bowlby’s work that children should not be sent to day care before the age of three.3．(2018·全国Ⅰ卷)The living-room television is replaced and gets __planted__ (plant) in the kids’ room.4．__Apparently__ (apparent), he was not satisfied with the result.5．He refused to acknowledge __being defeated__ (defeat) in the match, but in vain.6．__It__ is acknowledged that the shortest distance between persons is a sincere smile.7．The results of the survey fell into __distinct__ groups. The old were scholars of great __distinction__ while the young were the opposite. (distinct) 8．That is why it is vital that we __(should) observe__ (observe) the traffic lights.9．It is said that the building program __has been evaluated__ (evaluate) for its usefulness and effect it would have.10．(2021·1月浙江卷)In 1985, urban men and women in more than three quarters of the countries __studied__(study) had higher BMIs than men and women in rural areas.Ⅱ.完成句子1．__The expert insisted that he (should) analyse the extract in public__．那位专家坚持要当众分析那些提取物。

U1 AToward a brighter future for all奔向更加光明的未来Good afternoon! As president of the university, I am proud to welcome you to this university. Your achievement is the triumph of years of hard work, both of your own and of your parents and teachers. Here at the university, we pledge to make your educational experience as rewarding as possible.下午好！作为校长，我非常自豪地欢迎你们来到这所大学。

你们所取得的成就是你们自己多年努力的结果，也是你们的父母和老师们多年努力的结果。

在这所大学里，我们承诺将使你们学有所成。

In welcoming you to the university, I am reminded of my own high school graduation and the photograph my mom took of my dad and me. "Pose naturally." Mom instructed us. "Wait!" said Dad, "Let's take a picture of me handing him an alarm clock." The clock woke me up every morning in college. It is still on my office desk.在欢迎你们到来的这一刻，我想起自己高中毕业时的情景，还有妈妈为我和爸爸拍的合影。

Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants，money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer’ needs are not identical。

Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also，it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product，mass—market strategy。

However, if the market is correctly segmented，the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency。

教育硕士开题报告英文IntroductionEducation plays a crucial role in shaping the future of individuals, societies, and nations. As a result, the pursuit of advanced degrees in education, such as a Master's in Education, has become increasingly popular. This report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the proposed research study for the Education Master's thesis.BackgroundTraditional teaching methods often fail to capture the attention and engage students effectively in the learning process. With the advancement of technology, schools have seen a shift towards integrating digital tools and resources into the classroom environment. This digital transformation has brought forth several benefits, including improved student engagement and enhanced learning outcomes. However, it is essential to evaluate the impact and effectiveness of these digital tools on education comprehensively.Research ProblemThe primary focus of this study is to investigate the impact of integrating digital tools, specifically interactive multimedia, in primary classrooms. The goal is to assess the effectiveness of these tools in enhancing student engagement, developing critical thinking skills, and improving academic performance. It is essential to understand the challenges and opportunities associatedwith implementing these digital tools to inform pedagogical practices and ensure successful integration into the classroom. Research Questions1. What is the impact of interactive multimedia tools on student engagement in primary classrooms?2. How do interactive multimedia tools contribute to the development of critical thinking skills in primary students?3. Do interactive multimedia tools improve academic performance in primary students?4. What challenges and opportunities arise from the implementation of interactive multimedia tools in primary classrooms?Research Objectives1. To evaluate the impact of interactive multimedia tools on student engagement in primary classrooms.2. To assess the contribution of interactive multimedia tools to the development of critical thinking skills.3. To examine the correlation between the use of interactive multimedia tools and academic performance in primary students.4. To identify the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing interactive multimedia tools in primary classrooms. Research MethodologyTo accomplish the research objectives, a mixed-methods approach will be employed. The study will involve both quantitative andqualitative data collection and analysis. Questionnaires will be administered to primary school teachers and students to measure student engagement, critical thinking skills, and academic performance. Additionally, interviews and focus groups will be conducted to gather qualitative data on the challenges and opportunities regarding the implementation of interactive multimedia tools in classrooms.Expected OutcomesBased on the analysis of the collected data, this study aims to provide insights into the effectiveness of integrating interactive multimedia tools in primary classrooms. It is anticipated that the research will demonstrate a positive impact on student engagement, critical thinking skills, and academic performance. Additionally, the study will identify potential challenges and opportunities to aid educators in effectively implementing these tools in their teaching practices.ConclusionWith the increasing prevalence of technology in education, it is crucial to evaluate the impact of digital tools, such as interactive multimedia, on primary students' educational experiences. Through this research, we hope to contribute to the knowledge base surrounding the integration of digital tools in classrooms and inform educators about the potential benefits and challenges associated with their implementation.。

对外经济贸易大学《跨文化交际（英）》期末考试I. True-False: Decide whether each of the following statements is true orfalse. Write T for “true” and F for “false”. （每题 1 分，共 20 分）1. The term “intercultural communication” was first used by Geert Hofstede in1959.2. Hall defines culture as the "software of the mind" that guides us in ourdaily interactions.3. In most of Africa, Argentina and Peru, putting one’s index finger to his templemeans ‘You are crazy.’4. Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizesyour experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people.5. Values are social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons in a culture.They are the innermost “skin of the onion.”6. People from some cultures may lower their gaze to convey respect, whereasthis may be understood as evading or even insulting in other cultures.7. Unbuttoning one’s coat is a sign of openness, friendliness or willingness to reachan agreement.8. In order for intercultural negotiation to be successful, the parties must providefor a win-lose situation.9. Edward Hall’s theory states that the four levels embody the total conceptof culture like an onion – symbols, heroes, rituals, and values.10. Successful intercultural business communication involves knowing theethnocentrisms of persons in other cultures. Understanding the mindsets of both oneself and the person of another culture will result in more efficient communication.11. Ethnocentrism is the belief that somebody else’s cultural background, includingways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbalcommunication, is better than our own.12. People in the United States place a greater emphasis on history and do notlike change as compared with people of Asian and Latin cultures.13. When dealing with German business people, you should avoid jokes andother forms of humor during the actual business sessions.14. In the business circle, American business people use first names immediately.15. Companies should avoid sending female employees to the Middle East, as inArab countries men may refuse to work with women.16. In Southeast Asia, you should avoid presenting your business card with your righthand.17. When accepting a business card, German business people carefully look at thecard, observe the title and organization, acknowledge with a nod that theyhave digested the information, and perhaps make a relevant comment or aska polite question.18. The OK sign may be interpreted as asking for money by Japanese businesspeople.19. Nonverbal communication is important to the study of interculturalcommunication because a great deal of nonverbal behavior speaks auniversal language.20. In short, intercultural communication competence requires sufficientawareness knowledge, motivations, and skills. Each of these components alone is sufficient to achieve intercultural communication competence.II. Translation: Translate the following Chinese terms into English and English terms into Chinese.（每题 1 分，共 20 分）1. stereotypes2. paralanguage3. ethnocentrism4. masculinity5. high-context culture6. monochronic time7. speech act 8. conversation taboos9. vocal qualifiers 10. power distance11. 译码12.偏见13. 文化震惊14.不确定性回避15. 概念意义16.语用错误17. 礼貌原则18.归纳法19. 空间语言20.礼仪与礼节III. Multiple Choice: Choose the ONE appropriate answer. （每题 1 分，共20 分）1. Understanding another culture .a. enables businesspeople to know why foreign associates believe andact as they dob. is best achieved through “do’s and don’ts” listsc. is important for businesspeople because they can appear to bebetter informedd. isn’t necessary for businesspeople2. Non-linear languages .a. are object orientedb. see time as a continuum of present, past andfuture c. are circular, tradition oriented andsubjectived. lead to short-range planning in business practices3. Which statement about values is incorrecta. Values are social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons ina culture.b. Values are learned by contacts with family members, teachers,and religious leaders.c. Values will be influenced by what is seen on television or read innewspapers.d. People in various cultures have basically similar values.4. People from cultures that follow the monochronic time system tendto a. do one thing at a time.b. be committed to people.c. borrow and lend things often.d. build lifetime relationships.5. Which statement regarding haptics is incorrecta. In Thailand, it is offensive to touch the head.b. Japan is considered a "don't touch" culture.c. Greece is considered a "touch" culture.d. In Latin American countries, touching between men is unacceptable.6. The opinion that everyone has a position and clearly defined privileges is .a. a view of hierarchical structure of social relationshipb. a view of group orientation structure of social relationshipc. a view of individual orientation structure of social relationshipd. none of the above7. General guidelines to follow when conversing with someone fromanother culture include all of the following except:a. politics is a safe topic in most cultures.b. avoid telling jokes.c. avoid personal questions.d. keep the conversation positive.8. Which statement best describes an incorrect handshakea. In the ., a handshake should be firm.b.An Asian handshake is usually gentle.c. Germans repeat a brusque handshake upon arrival anddeparture. d. A British handshake is firm and repeated frequently.9. Which statement referring to thought patterns is incorrecta. Asians typically use the inductive method of reasoning.b. Thought patterns impact oral communication.c. When using the deductive method of reasoning, one starts with thefacts and goes to generalizations.d. Recognizing different thought patterns is important in negotiation withdifferent cultures.10. Which statement is incorrecta. Costly business blunders are often the result of a lack of knowledgeof another culture's nonverbal communication patterns.b. Processes of reasoning and problem solving are the same in all cultures.c. Attitudes toward time and use of space convey nonverbal messagesin intercultural encounters.d. When in another culture, an appropriate caution would be to watchthe behavior of the persons you are talking with and match their style.11. Language is important because ita. helps us shape concepts, controls how we think, and controls howwe perceive others.b. allows us to be understood by foreigners.c. is determined by colonialism.d. is stable, easily understood, and free of diversity.12. Which of the following countries uses high-context languagea. Canadab. Germanyc. Japand. United States13. Slang is generallya. understood by everyone.b. spoken by the masses.c. easily translated.d. used by subgroups.14. Nonverbal communication does not includea. chromatics.b. chronemics.c. haptics.d. semantics.15. Dominance, harmony, and subjugation are all value orientations that correspond to which of the following cultural problemsa. What is the nature of human beingsb. What is the relationship of humans to naturec. What is the orientation of humans to timed. What is the human orientation to activity16. Proverbs are significant to the study of intercultural communicationbecause .a. they provide a compact description of a culture’s valuesb. they tell a great deal about what a culture praises and what itrejects c. they unite a people with the wisdom of their ancestorsd. all of the above17. Which statement highlights weak uncertainty avoidancea. One group's truth should not be imposed onothers. b. Scientific opponents cannot be personalfriends.c. Citizen protest should be repressed.d. Negative attitudes are expressed toward young people.18. The main idea of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is thata. language is just a device for reporting a person's experience.b. two languages can represent the same social reality.c. the social reality can be conveyed to a person who does not speakthe language.d. language functions as a way of shaping a person's experience.19. Many multinational firms find that cultural shock can be alleviated bya. sending only top executives abroad.b. sending only young, single associates on overseas assignments.c. testing associates to see who is most qualified.d. selecting employees for overseas assignments who possesscertain personal and professional qualifications.20. Which of the following statement is incorrecta. Knowing cultural variations in the use of silence is helpful whenconversing with persons in another culture.b. We need to keep things in perspective and not get offended each timewe deal with someone who has a different attitude toward touchingc. Good advice when communicating with persons in other cultures isto keep gestures to a minimumd. Although oral communication varies from culture to culture, non-verbal communication is almost always interpreted the same in eachculture.IV. Answer the following essay question. (共 20 分)Compare and contrast the following proverbs from two different cultures: “It is the duck that squawks that gets shot” and “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.”How do people from these cultures perceive silence and talk In light of their different perceptions, how might they view each other What problems might arise in their interactionsV. Case Analysis: Analyze the following conversation from an intercultural perspective. (共 20 分)The following conversation took place between two Chinese friends.A: We’re going to New Orleans this weekend.B: What fun! I wish we were going with you. How long are you going to be thereA: Three days.B: Do you need a ride to the airport I’ll take you.A: Are you sure it’s not too much troubleB: No, no. It’s no trouble at all.Case Analysis: Analyze the following conversation f rom an intercultural perspective.参考答案及评分标准A 卷VI. True-False: Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. Write T for “true” a nd F for “false”. （每题 1 分，共 20 分）1. F2. F3. F4. T5. T6. T7. T8. F9. F 10. T11. F 12. F 13. T 15. T 16. F 17. F 18. T 19. T 20. FVII.Translation: Translate the following Chinese terms into English and English terms into Chinese.（每题 1 分，共20 分）1. stereotypes 定势/刻板印象2. paralanguage 辅助语言/副语言3. ethnocentrism 民族中心主义4. masculinity 男性特征5. high-context culture 高语境文化6. m onochronic t ime 单一时间观念7. speech act 言语行为8. conversation taboos 对话禁忌9. vocal qualifiers 声音修饰10. power distance 权力距离11. 译码 decoding 12. 偏见prejudice13. 文化震惊 cultural shock 14. 不确定性回避uncertaintyavoidance15. 概念意义 denotational meaning 16. 语用错误 pragmatic f ailure17. 礼貌原则 the Politeness Principle 18. 归纳法inductivepattern19. 空间语言 spatial language/proximics 20. 礼仪与礼节etiquette andprotocolVIII. Multiple Choice: Choose the ONE appropriate answer. （每题 1 分，共 20 分）1. a2. a3. d4. a5. d6. a7. a8. d9. c 10. b11. a 12. c 13. d 14. d 15. b 16. d 17. a 18. d 19. d 20. d IX. Answer the following essay question. (共 20 分)测试重点： Compare and contrast the proverbs “It is the duck that squawks that gets shot”and “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.”The former is an English proverbwhile the latter is a Chinese proverb. In light of their different perceptions, the two cultures might differ in terms of silence and talk etc. and problems might arise in their interactions.评分标准：从以上角度进行分析，其他根据具体答题情况酌情。