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新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax

新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax

Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。

〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。

This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。

word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。

在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。

英语语言学chapter_4_syntax

英语语言学chapter_4_syntax
• phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built .
• Types:
Noun phrase (NP): the pretty girl
Verb phrase ((PP) …
PP
(Adv) P (NP) …
(Note: “ ” means “consist of”; ( ) means “can be omitted”; “…” means other complement options are available)
An NP can consist of a determiner,an N head and a PP compliment.
V. Sentences (The S rule)
• The S rule S NP VP (does not have an internal structure) S
NP
Det
N
The
boy
V found
VP
NP N
Det the book
• Sentences have their own heads, the abstract category inflection (Infl) as their heads, NP (subject) as its specifier, and VP as its compliment.
How to read the three others? My best friend (NP) Always forget something ? Ready for a fight? Mainly about the village?

Chapter 4 Syntax

Chapter 4 Syntax

4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)

Chapter_4_syntax

Chapter_4_syntax

Syntax
Here we deal with Syntax that studies how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, etc. As we know, every language has its particular ways to form correct clauses, phrases and other syntactic units. Therefore we can define syntax as the ‘study of the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences’. By defining Grammar we may say that it is the overall pattern of a language that clearly includes the basic subfield of linguistics such as Morphology, Syntax and certainly other features.
Brazil defeated Germany.
Germany defeated Brazil.
However, sometimes a change of word order has no effect on meaning:
The Chief Justice swore in the new President.
The little young red cat.
The red little young cat
Joseph gave a rose to Edith.
Edith a rose Joseph gave.

chapter 4 syntax 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋

chapter 4 syntax 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋

3.3 IC Analysis (直接成分分析法) immediate constituent（直接成分）
Constituent (构成成分) ultimate constituent （最终成分）
IC（直接成分）: Can be further segmented until we obtain the smallest grammatical units. UC（最终成分）: The smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.
2.2.1 Concord/agreement(一致关系)
A verb is to agree with the subject in person and in number. In English, this rule only affects the verb according to the number of the subject.
This principle refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion. e.g The government have asked the country to decide by a vote The new military government does not have popular support.
subject subject

英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax

英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
Leave the book on the shelf.
❖ Indocentric construction (内心结构): An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole, for example, NP, VP, AP and AdvP are typical endocentric constructions.
❖ Number: Number is inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. It is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English there are two terms of number: singular and plural. But languages like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number: dual, something like the English “both”. And Fijian has a fourth: trial.
First, it must be an animate noun, nouns like book, desk are not possible choices.
Secondly, even within the type of animate nouns, only those which have a semantic component of human are most naturally used with the verb smile.

语言学Chapter 4 Syntax参考答案

Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。

简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析

In linguistics, Syntax (句法学) is a branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?

3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)

Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

语言学导论第四章

NP VP AP PP (Det) N (PP): (Qual) V (NP): (Deg) A (PP): (Deg) P (NP): the man in the car often sing songs very close to it so in love
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]

语言学_Chapter 4_Syntax


The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussure’s ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.
Chapter contents
4.2 how to define each word in the sentence? 4.3, 4.4 How to describe the phrases involved? 4.5 How is the sentence formed?

形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的 描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。

Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
Structural approach
Generative approach
Traditional approach
Functional approach Rule-governed sentence formation
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้Word
Sentence
Traditional approach
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2. The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” The structural approach regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.

9
The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.

2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
Please
show some examples.
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1.3
Grammatical categories: a class or group of items which fulfills the same or similar functions in a language. e.g.: Number, gender, case: for nouns and pronouns. Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
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ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ Number
is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
In English, number is mainly observed in nouns,

2.1
Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 2.2 Immediate constituent analysis 2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
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C. Agreement with verb: in the simple present
tense, an –s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular. (She angers him.) D. Content questions: if the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged. (Who/John stole the picture from the store?) E. Tag question: a tag question always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject. (John loves Mary, doesn‟t he?)
In English, object is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation. (How about other nominal unit?)
Chapter Four Syntax
1
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.
14
Agreement
(or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
8

Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that relate to the subject.
and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.
12
Gender
displays such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes. English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type. In French, gender is mostly grammatical.
Properties
A. Word order: subject ordinarily precedes the
verb in statement. (The father loves the son.) B. Pro-forms: the first and third person pronouns appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject. (They threw stones at us.)

4
The traditional approach to the study of sentence formation
1.1
Lexical categories 1.2 Syntactic function 1.3 Grammatical categories
5
1.1
Lexical categories: part of speech or word class. e.g.: n, v, adj, det. etc.
Tense (past, present, future) indicates time
relative to the time of utterance. Aspect (perfective/perfect, progressive/continuous) indicates time relative to the time of another event described, or implied, in the narrative.
Such as a book, some books; this man, these
men; he speaks English, they speak English.
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Tense
and aspect are two important categories of the verb and they were not separated in traditional grammar.
1.2
Syntactic function The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
Names of functions are expressed in terms of
subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.