--外文翻译

附录A 英文文献Speaker RecognitionBy Judith A. Markowitz, J. Markowitz ConsultantsSpeaker recognition uses features of a person‟s voice to identify or verify that person. It is a well-established biometric with commercial systems that are more than 10 years old and deployed non-commercial systems that are more than 20 years old. This paper describes how speaker recognition systems work and how they are used in applications.1. IntroductionSpeaker recognition (also called voice ID and voice biometrics) is the only human-biometric technology in commercial use today that extracts information from sound patterns. It is also one of the most well-established biometrics, with deployed commercial applications that are more than 10 years old and non-commercial systems that are more than 20 years old.2. How do Speaker-Recognition Systems WorkSpeaker-recognition systems use features of a person‟s voice and speaking style to:●attach an identity to the voice of an unknown speaker●verify that a person is who she/ he claims to be●separate one person‟s voice from other voices in a multi-speakerenvironmentThe first operation is called speak identification or speaker recognition; the second has many names, including speaker verification, speaker authentication, voice verification, and voice recognition; the third is speaker separation or, in some situations, speaker classification. This papers focuses on speaker verification, the most highly commercialized of these technologies.2.1 Overview of the ProcessSpeaker verification is a biometric technology used for determining whether the person is who she or he claims to be. It should not be confused with speech recognition, a non-biometric technology used for identifying what a person is saying. Speech recognition products are not designed to determine who is speaking.Speaker verification begins with a claim of identity (see Figure A1). Usually, the claim entails manual entry of a personal identification number (PIN), but a growing number of products allow spoken entry of the PIN and use speech recognition to identify the numeric code. Some applications replace manual or spoken PIN entry with bank cards, smartcards, or the number of the telephone being used. PINS are also eliminated when a speaker-verification system contacts the user, an approach typical of systems used to monitor home-incarcerated criminals.Figure A1.Once the identity claim has been made, the system retrieves the stored voice sample (called a voiceprint) for the claimed identity and requests spoken input from the person making the claim. Usually, the requested input is a password. The newly input speech is compared with the stored voiceprint and the results of that comparison are measured against an acceptance/rejection threshold. Finally, the system accepts the speaker as the authorized user, rejects the speaker as an impostor, or takes another action determined by the application. Some systems report a confidence level or other score indicating how confident it about its decision.If the verification is successful the system may update the acoustic information in the stored voiceprint. This process is called adaptation. Adaptation is an unobtrusive solution for keeping voiceprints current and is used by many commercial speaker verification systems.2.2 The Speech SampleAs with all biometrics, before verification (or identification) can be performed the person must provide a sample of speech (called enrolment). The sample is used to create the stored voiceprint.Systems differ in the type and amount of speech needed for enrolment and verification. The basic divisions among these systems are●text dependent●text independent●text prompted2.2.1 Text DependentMost commercial systems are text dependent.Text-dependent systems expect the speaker to say a pre-determined phrase, password, or ID. By controlling the words that are spoken the system can look for a close match with the stored voiceprint. Typically, each person selects a private password, although some administrators prefer to assign passwords. Passwords offer extra security, requiring an impostor to know the correct PIN and password and to have a matching voice. Some systems further enhance security by not storing a human-readable representation of the password.A global phrase may also be used. In its 1996 pilot of speaker verification Chase Manhattan Bank used …Verification by Chemical Bank‟. Global phrases avoid the problem of forgotten passwords, but lack the added protection offered by private passwords.2.2.2 Text IndependentText-independent systems ask the person to talk. What the person says is different every time. It is extremely difficult to accurately compare utterances that are totally different from each other - particularly in noisy environments or over poor telephone connections. Consequently, commercial deployment of text-independentverification has been limited.2.2.3 Text PromptedText-prompted systems (also called challenge response) ask speakers to repeat one or more randomly selected numbers or words (e.g. “43516”, “27,46”, or “Friday, c omputer”). Text prompting adds time to enrolment and verification, but it enhances security against tape recordings. Since the items to be repeated cannot be predicted, it is extremely difficult to play a recording. Furthermore, there is no problem of forgetting a password, even though the PIN, if used, may still be forgotten.2.3 Anti-speaker ModellingMost systems compare the new speech sample with the stored voiceprint for the claimed identity. Other systems also compare the newly input speech with the voices of other people. Such techniques are called anti-speaker modelling. The underlying philosophy of anti-speaker modelling is that under any conditions a voice sample from a particular speaker will be more like other samples from that person than voice samples from other speakers. If, for example, the speaker is using a bad telephone connection and the match with the speaker‟s voiceprint is poor, it is likely that the scores for the cohorts (or world model) will be even worse.The most common anti-speaker techniques are●discriminate training●cohort modeling●world modelsDiscriminate training builds the comparisons into the voiceprint of the new speaker using the voices of the other speakers in the system. Cohort modelling selects a small set of speakers whose voices are similar to that of the person being enrolled. Cohorts are, for example, always the same sex as the speaker. When the speaker attempts verification, the incoming speech is compared with his/her stored voiceprint and with the voiceprints of each of the cohort speakers. World models (also called background models or composite models) contain a cross-section of voices. The same world model is used for all speakers.2.4 Physical and Behavioural BiometricsSpeaker recognition is often characterized as a behavioural biometric. This description is set in contrast with physical biometrics, such as fingerprinting and iris scanning. Unfortunately, its classification as a behavioural biometric promotes the misunderstanding that speaker recognition is entirely (or almost entirely) behavioural. If that were the case, good mimics would have no difficulty defeating speaker-recognition systems. Early studies determined this was not the case and identified mimic-resistant factors. Those factors reflect the size and shape of a speaker‟s speaking mechanism (called the vocal tract).The physical/behavioural classification also implies that performance of physical biometrics is not heavily influenced by behaviour. This misconception has led to the design of biometric systems that are unnecessarily vulnerable to careless and resistant users. This is unfortunate because it has delayed good human-factors design for those biometrics.3. How is Speaker Verification Used?Speaker verification is well-established as a means of providing biometric-based security for:●telephone networks●site access●data and data networksand monitoring of:●criminal offenders in community release programmes●outbound calls by incarcerated felons●time and attendance3.1 Telephone NetworksToll fraud (theft of long-distance telephone services) is a growing problem that costs telecommunications services providers, government, and private industry US$3-5 billion annually in the United States alone. The major types of toll fraud include the following:●Hacking CPE●Calling card fraud●Call forwarding●Prisoner toll fraud●Hacking 800 numbers●Call sell operations●900 number fraud●Switch/network hits●Social engineering●Subscriber fraud●Cloning wireless telephonesAmong the most damaging are theft of services from customer premises equipment (CPE), such as PBXs, and cloning of wireless telephones. Cloning involves stealing the ID of a telephone and programming other phones with it. Subscriber fraud, a growing problem in Europe, involves enrolling for services, usually under an alias, with no intention of paying for them.Speaker verification has two features that make it ideal for telephone and telephone network security: it uses voice input and it is not bound to proprietary hardware. Unlike most other biometrics that need specialized input devices, speaker verification operates with standard wireline and/or wireless telephones over existing telephone networks. Reliance on input devices created by other manufacturers for a purpose other than speaker verification also means that speaker verification cannot expect the consistency and quality offered by a proprietary input device. Speaker verification must overcome differences in input quality and the way in which speech frequencies are processed. This variability is produced by differences in network type (e.g. wireline v wireless), unpredictable noise levels on the line and in the background, transmission inconsistency, and differences in the microphone in telephone handset. Sensitivity to such variability is reduced through techniques such as speech enhancement and noise modelling, but products still need to be tested under expected conditions of use.Applications of speaker verification on wireline networks include secure calling cards, interactive voice response (IVR) systems, and integration with security forproprietary network systems. Such applications have been deployed by organizations as diverse as the University of Maryland, the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, and AMOCO. Wireless applications focus on preventing cloning but are being extended to subscriber fraud. The European Union is also actively applying speaker verification to telephony in various projects, including Caller Verification in Banking and Telecommunications, COST250, and Picasso.3.2 Site accessThe first deployment of speaker verification more than 20 years ago was for site access control. Since then, speaker verification has been used to control access to office buildings, factories, laboratories, bank vaults, homes, pharmacy departments in hospitals, and even access to the US and Canada. Since April 1997, the US Department of Immigration and Naturalization (INS) and other US and Canadian agencies have been using speaker verification to control after-hours border crossings at the Scobey, Montana port-of-entry. The INS is now testing a combination of speaker verification and face recognition in the commuter lane of other ports-of-entry.3.3 Data and Data NetworksGrowing threats of unauthorized penetration of computing networks, concerns about security of the Internet, and increases in off-site employees with data access needs have produced an upsurge in the application of speaker verification to data and network security.The financial services industry has been a leader in using speaker verification to protect proprietary data networks, electronic funds transfer between banks, access to customer accounts for telephone banking, and employee access to sensitive financial information. The Illinois Department of Revenue, for example, uses speaker verification to allow secure access to tax data by its off-site auditors.3.4 CorrectionsIn 1993, there were 4.8 million adults under correctional supervision in the United States and that number continues to increase. Community release programmes, such as parole and home detention, are the fastest growing segments of this industry. It is no longer possible for corrections officers to provide adequate monitoring ofthose people.In the US, corrections agencies have turned to electronic monitoring systems. Since the late 1980s speaker verification has been one of those electronic monitoring tools. Today, several products are used by corrections agencies, including an alcohol breathalyzer with speaker verification for people convicted of driving while intoxicated and a system that calls offenders on home detention at random times during the day.Speaker verification also controls telephone calls made by incarcerated felons. Inmates place a lot of calls. In 1994, US telecommunications services providers made $1.5 billion on outbound calls from inmates. Most inmates have restrictions on whom they can call. Speaker verification ensures that an inmate is not using another inmate‟s PIN to make a forbidden contact.3.5 Time and AttendanceTime and attendance applications are a small but growing segment of the speaker-verification market. SOC Credit Union in Michigan has used speaker verification for time and attendance monitoring of part-time employees for several years. Like many others, SOC Credit Union first deployed speaker verification for security and later extended it to time and attendance monitoring for part-time employees.4. StandardsThis paper concludes with a short discussion of application programming interface (API) standards. An API contains the function calls that enable programmers to use speaker-verification to create a product or application. Until April 1997, when the Speaker Verification API (SV API) standard was introduced, all available APIs for biometric products were proprietary. SV API remains the only API standard covering a specific biometric. It is now being incorporated into proposed generic biometric API standards. SV API was developed by a cross-section of speaker-recognition vendors, consultants, and end-user organizations to address a spectrum of needs and to support a broad range of product features. Because it supports both high level functions (e.g. calls to enrol) and low level functions (e.g. choices of audio input features) itfacilitates development of different types of applications by both novice and experienced developers.Why is it important to support API standards? Developers using a product with a proprietary API face difficult choices if the vendor of that product goes out of business, fails to support its product, or does not keep pace with technological advances. One of those choices is to rebuild the application from scratch using a different product. Given the same events, developers using a SV API-compliant product can select another compliant vendor and need perform far fewer modifications. Consequently, SV API makes development with speaker verification less risky and less costly. The advent of generic biometric API standards further facilitates integration of speaker verification with other biometrics. All of this helps speaker-verification vendors because it fosters growth in the marketplace. In the final analysis active support of API standards by developers and vendors benefits everyone.附录B 中文翻译说话人识别作者：Judith A. Markowitz, J. Markowitz Consultants 说话人识别是用一个人的语音特征来辨认或确认这个人。

英文文献英文资料：Artificial neural networks (ANNs) to ArtificialNeuralNetworks, abbreviations also referred to as the neural network (NNs) or called connection model (ConnectionistModel), it is a kind of model animals neural network behavior characteristic, distributed parallel information processing algorithm mathematical model. This network rely on the complexity of the system, through the adjustment of mutual connection between nodes internal relations, so as to achieve the purpose of processing information. Artificial neural network has since learning and adaptive ability, can provide in advance of a batch of through mutual correspond of the input/output data, analyze master the law of potential between, according to the final rule, with a new input data to calculate, this study analyzed the output of the process is called the "training". Artificial neural network is made of a number of nonlinear interconnected processing unit, adaptive information processing system. It is in the modern neuroscience research results is proposed on the basis of, trying to simulate brain neural network processing, memory information way information processing. Artificial neural network has four basic characteristics:(1) the nonlinear relationship is the nature of the nonlinear common characteristics. The wisdom of the brain is a kind of non-linear phenomena. Artificial neurons in the activation or inhibit the two different state, this kind of behavior in mathematics performance for a nonlinear relationship. Has the threshold of neurons in the network formed by the has better properties, can improve the fault tolerance and storage capacity.(2) the limitations a neural network by DuoGe neurons widely usually connected to. A system of the overall behavior depends not only on the characteristics of single neurons, and may mainly by the unit the interaction between the, connected to the. Through a large number of connection between units simulation of the brain limitations. Associative memory is a typical example of limitations.(3) very qualitative artificial neural network is adaptive, self-organizing, learning ability. Neural network not only handling information can have all sorts of change, and in the treatment of the information at the same time, the nonlinear dynamic system itself is changing. Often by iterative process description of the power system evolution.(4) the convexity a system evolution direction, in certain conditions will depend on a particular state function. For example energy function, it is corresponding to the extreme value of the system stable state. The convexity refers to the function extreme value, it has DuoGe DuoGe system has a stable equilibrium state, this will cause the system to the diversity of evolution.Artificial neural network, the unit can mean different neurons process of the object, such as characteristics, letters, concept, or some meaningful abstract model. The type of network processing unit is divided into three categories: input unit, output unit and hidden units. Input unit accept outside the world of signal and data; Output unit of output system processing results; Hidden unit is in input and output unit, not between by external observation unit. The system The connections between neurons right value reflect the connection between the unit strength, information processing and embodied in the network said the processing unit in the connections. Artificial neural network is a kind of the procedures, and adaptability, brain style of information processing, its essence is through the network of transformation and dynamic behaviors have akind of parallel distributed information processing function, and in different levels and imitate people cranial nerve system level of information processing function. It is involved in neuroscience, thinking science, artificial intelligence, computer science, etc DuoGe field cross discipline.Artificial neural network is used the parallel distributed system, with the traditional artificial intelligence and information processing technology completely different mechanism, overcome traditional based on logic of the symbols of the artificial intelligence in the processing of intuition and unstructured information of defects, with the adaptive, self-organization and real-time characteristic of the study.Development historyIn 1943, psychologists W.S.M cCulloch and mathematical logic W.P home its established the neural network and the math model, called MP model. They put forward by MP model of the neuron network structure and formal mathematical description method, and prove the individual neurons can perform the logic function, so as to create artificial neural network research era. In 1949, the psychologist put forward the idea of synaptic contact strength variable. In the s, the artificial neural network to further development, a more perfect neural network model was put forward, including perceptron and adaptive linear elements etc. M.M insky, analyzed carefully to Perceptron as a representative of the neural network system function and limitations in 1969 after the publication of the book "Perceptron, and points out that the sensor can't solve problems high order predicate. Their arguments greatly influenced the research into the neural network, and at that time serial computer and the achievement of the artificial intelligence, covering up development new computer and new ways of artificial intelligence and the necessity and urgency, make artificial neural network of research at a low. During this time, some of the artificial neural network of the researchers remains committed to this study, presented to meet resonance theory (ART nets), self-organizing mapping, cognitive machine network, but the neural network theory study mathematics. The research for neural network of research and development has laid a foundation. In 1982, the California institute of J.J.H physicists opfield Hopfield neural grid model proposed, and introduces "calculation energy" concept, gives the network stability judgment. In 1984, he again put forward the continuous time Hopfield neural network model for the neural computers, the study of the pioneering work, creating a neural network for associative memory and optimization calculation, the new way of a powerful impetus to the research into the neural network, in 1985, and scholars have proposed a wave ears, the study boltzmann model using statistical thermodynamics simulated annealing technology, guaranteed that the whole system tends to the stability of the points. In 1986 the cognitive microstructure study, puts forward the parallel distributed processing theory. Artificial neural network of research by each developed country, the congress of the United States to the attention of the resolution will be on jan. 5, 1990 started ten years as the decade of the brain, the international research organization called on its members will the decade of the brain into global behavior. In Japan's "real world computing (springboks claiming)" project, artificial intelligence research into an important component.Network modelArtificial neural network model of the main consideration network connection topological structure, the characteristics, the learning rule neurons. At present, nearly 40 kinds of neural network model, with back propagation network, sensor, self-organizing mapping, the Hopfieldnetwork.the computer, wave boltzmann machine, adapt to the ear resonance theory. According to the topology of the connection, the neural network model can be divided into:(1) prior to the network before each neuron accept input and output level to the next level, the network without feedback, can use a loop to no graph. This network realization from the input space to the output signal of the space transformation, it information processing power comes from simple nonlinear function of DuoCi compound. The network structure is simple, easy to realize. Against the network is a kind of typical prior to the network.(2) the feedback network between neurons in the network has feedback, can use a no to complete the graph. This neural network information processing is state of transformations, can use the dynamics system theory processing. The stability of the system with associative memory function has close relationship. The Hopfield network.the computer, wave ear boltzmann machine all belong to this type.Learning typeNeural network learning is an important content, it is through the adaptability of the realization of learning. According to the change of environment, adjust to weights, improve the behavior of the system. The proposed by the Hebb Hebb learning rules for neural network learning algorithm to lay the foundation. Hebb rules say that learning process finally happened between neurons in the synapse, the contact strength synapses parts with before and after the activity and synaptic neuron changes. Based on this, people put forward various learning rules and algorithm, in order to adapt to the needs of different network model. Effective learning algorithm, and makes the godThe network can through the weights between adjustment, the structure of the objective world, said the formation of inner characteristics of information processing method, information storage and processing reflected in the network connection. According to the learning environment is different, the study method of the neural network can be divided into learning supervision and unsupervised learning. In the supervision and study, will the training sample data added to the network input, and the corresponding expected output and network output, in comparison to get error signal control value connection strength adjustment, the DuoCi after training to a certain convergence weights. While the sample conditions change, the study can modify weights to adapt to the new environment. Use of neural network learning supervision model is the network, the sensor etc. The learning supervision, in a given sample, in the environment of the network directly, learning and working stages become one. At this time, the change of the rules of learning to obey the weights between evolution equation of. Unsupervised learning the most simple example is Hebb learning rules. Competition rules is a learning more complex than learning supervision example, it is according to established clustering on weights adjustment. Self-organizing mapping, adapt to the resonance theory is the network and competitive learning about the typical model.Analysis methodStudy of the neural network nonlinear dynamic properties, mainly USES the dynamics system theory and nonlinear programming theory and statistical theory to analysis of the evolution process of the neural network and the nature of the attractor, explore the synergy of neural network behavior and collective computing functions, understand neural information processing mechanism. In order to discuss the neural network and fuzzy comprehensive deal of information may, the concept of chaos theory and method will play a role. The chaos is a rather difficult toprecise definition of the math concepts. In general, "chaos" it is to point to by the dynamic system of equations describe deterministic performance of the uncertain behavior, or call it sure the randomness. "Authenticity" because it by the intrinsic reason and not outside noise or interference produced, and "random" refers to the irregular, unpredictable behavior, can only use statistics method description. Chaotic dynamics of the main features of the system is the state of the sensitive dependence on the initial conditions, the chaos reflected its inherent randomness. Chaos theory is to point to describe the nonlinear dynamic behavior with chaos theory, the system of basic concept, methods, it dynamics system complex behavior understanding for his own with the outside world and for material, energy and information exchange process of the internal structure of behavior, not foreign and accidental behavior, chaos is a stationary. Chaotic dynamics system of stationary including: still, stable quantity, the periodicity, with sex and chaos of accurate solution... Chaos rail line is overall stability and local unstable combination of results, call it strange attractor.A strange attractor has the following features: (1) some strange attractor is a attractor, but it is not a fixed point, also not periodic solution; (2) strange attractor is indivisible, and that is not divided into two and two or more to attract children. (3) it to the initial value is very sensitive, different initial value can lead to very different behavior.superiorityThe artificial neural network of characteristics and advantages, mainly in three aspects: first, self-learning. For example, only to realize image recognition that the many different image model and the corresponding should be the result of identification input artificial neural network, the network will through the self-learning function, slowly to learn to distinguish similar images. The self-learning function for the forecast has special meaning. The prospect of artificial neural network computer will provide mankind economic forecasts, market forecast, benefit forecast, the application outlook is very great. The second, with lenovo storage function. With the artificial neural network of feedback network can implement this association. Third, with high-speed looking for the optimal solution ability. Looking for a complex problem of the optimal solution, often require a lot of calculation, the use of a problem in some of the design of feedback type and artificial neural network, use the computer high-speed operation ability, may soon find the optimal solution.Research directionThe research into the neural network can be divided into the theory research and application of the two aspects of research. Theory study can be divided into the following two categories:1, neural physiological and cognitive science research on human thinking and intelligent mechanism.2, by using the neural basis theory of research results, with mathematical method to explore more functional perfect, performance more superior neural network model, the thorough research network algorithm and performance, such as: stability and convergence, fault tolerance, robustness, etc.; The development of new network mathematical theory, such as: neural network dynamics, nonlinear neural field, etc.Application study can be divided into the following two categories:1, neural network software simulation and hardware realization of research.2, the neural network in various applications in the field of research. These areas include: pattern recognition, signal processing, knowledge engineering, expert system, optimize the combination, robot control, etc. Along with the neural network theory itself and related theory, related to the development of technology, the application of neural network will further.Development trend and research hot spotArtificial neural network characteristic of nonlinear adaptive information processing power, overcome traditional artificial intelligence method for intuitive, such as mode, speech recognition, unstructured information processing of the defects in the nerve of expert system, pattern recognition and intelligent control, combinatorial optimization, and forecast areas to be successful application. Artificial neural network and other traditional method unifies, will promote the artificial intelligence and information processing technology development. In recent years, the artificial neural network is on the path of human cognitive simulation further development, and fuzzy system, genetic algorithm, evolution mechanism combined to form a computational intelligence, artificial intelligence is an important direction in practical application, will be developed. Information geometry will used in artificial neural network of research, to the study of the theory of the artificial neural network opens a new way. The development of the study neural computers soon, existing product to enter the market. With electronics neural computers for the development of artificial neural network to provide good conditions.Neural network in many fields has got a very good application, but the need to research is a lot. Among them, are distributed storage, parallel processing, since learning, the organization and nonlinear mapping the advantages of neural network and other technology and the integration of it follows that the hybrid method and hybrid systems, has become a hotspot. Since the other way have their respective advantages, so will the neural network with other method, and the combination of strong points, and then can get better application effect. At present this in a neural network and fuzzy logic, expert system, genetic algorithm, wavelet analysis, chaos, the rough set theory, fractal theory, theory of evidence and grey system and fusion.汉语翻译人工神经网络（ArtificialNeuralNetworks，简写为ANNs）也简称为神经网络（NNs）或称作连接模型（ConnectionistModel），它是一种模范动物神经网络行为特征，进行分布式并行信息处理的算法数学模型。

英文原文computer virusWith the computer in all areas of social life, the extensive use of computer virus attacks and prevention techniques are expanding. According to reports, the world suffer from computer virus infections and attacks of hundreds of millions of events, which seriously interferes with the normal life of human society, to the computer networks and systems have brought tremendous potential threats and destruction. At the same time, the virus also in the field of war, widely used in the Gulf War, the recent Kosovo war, both sides have used computer viruses to attack enemy, destroy the opponent's computer networks and weapons control systems, to a certain political objectives and military objectives. Can be expected, with the computer, the growing popularity of Internet use, in-depth to prevent computer viruses will be more and more national attention.A computer virus is a group by copying itself to infect other software programs. When the program runs, the embedded virus also will be run and infect other programs. Some viruses do not attack with a malicious code, but more carriers of the virus carrying code, if it is pre-configured environment for excitation, to infection and destruction. Maurice compiled from 80 of the first "worm" virus program so far, the world has appeared in many different types of viruses.It has long been the main goal of computer design is the pursuit of improved information processing capabilities and lower production costs, and inadequate attention to security problems are. The various components of a computer system, interface interface, conversion between various levels, there are many loopholes and weak links. Hardware designeven consider the lack of overall security, software, there are also more risks and potential threats. Testing of computer systems, the current lack of automated software testing tools and a complete inspection means, the vulnerability of computer systems for the generation and dissemination of computer viruses provides an opportunity; the global World Wide Web (www) so that the "Earth Village "and the implementation of the computer virus to create a space; new computer technology [/ url] in the continuous application of electronic systems for the realization of computer viruses, the objective conditions. Experts believe that the distributed data processing, re-programming embedded computers, network communications, computer standardization, software standardization, the standard message format, a standard data link, have made it possible for computer viruses. Implementation of computer virus's core technology is an effective solution injected into the virus. Which targets a variety of other systems, and from the computer host to a variety of sensors, bridges, etc., so that their computers are at a critical time trick or collapse, can not play a role. Current research from the foreign point of view, the virus injection methods are the following:1. Radio mode. Mainly through the radio transmitting the signature to the other electronic systems. This approach is the best way into the computer virus, while technical difficulties are greatest. Possible ways are: ① the other electronic systems directly to the radio receiver or transmitter device, so the receiver to process it and spread the virus to the target. ② posing as legitimate wireless transmission of data. Obtained or used according to standard protocols and data formats of radio transmission, emission pattern, to enable lawful transmission signal mixed into the receiver, and then enter the information network.③ looking for other information systems to protect the worst place to put the virus injection. Unprotected by the other data link will transmitthe virus to be protected or the target of the link.2. "Cure" approach. That the virus prior to the hardware store (such as chips) and software, then the hardware and software, directly or indirectly delivered to each other, so that the virus directly transmitted to the other electronic system to activate when needed to achieve the attack purpose. This attack is very subtle, even if the chip or component is thoroughly checked, it is difficult to ensure there are no other special features. At present, many computer components dependent on imports, the storm of this, the chip is vulnerable to attack.3. Backdoor attacks. Back door, a computer security system in a small hole, or maintenance by the software designers invented to allow people who know of its existence to bypass normal security measures into the system. Attacks in the form of back door there are many kinds, such as electromagnetic pulse can control the virus into the target system. Computer intruders often carried out through the back door attacks, such as the current widespread use of WINDOWS98, there is such a back door.4. Data control chain invasive. With the wide application of Internet technology to make computer viruses through the chain of computer systems, data control invasive as possible. Modification technique using the remote, you can easily change the data in the normal path of the control chain.In addition to these methods, but also through other ways into the virus.Because computer viruses are likely to cause great losses to users, people began to try every means to carry out preventive measures. Approximate methods are the following:1. Establishment of an effective computer virus protection system. Effective computer virus protection system should include multiple protection layers. One is access control layer; second layer of virus detection; third virus containing layer; Fourth, virus removal layer;Fifth, system recovery layer; six layers of contingency plans. The six computer protection system, there must be effective support for hardware and software technologies, such as safety design and standard operation.2. To prevent electromagnetic radiation and electromagnetic leakage. Electromagnetic shielding methods to block the electromagnetic radiation, so that can not only achieve the purpose of preventing leakage of computer information, and can prevent the "electromagnetic radiation type" virus attacks.3. Strengthen the building of a computer emergency response unit. Automated system should be set up security support unit to address issues related to the computer defensive.Computer virus attack and defense is evolving, to stay ahead of the computer virus against the position, must be based on trends, to implement key techniques in the follow-up study. Implementation of the follow-up study should focus on the following aspects: First, the model of computer viruses. Second, computer virus injection method, focused on "curing" stimulate the virus. Third, computer virus attacks, wireless networks focus on the standardization of data transfer and its security vulnerability and high-frequency electromagnetic pulse virus human virus, the effectiveness of the gun home. Fourth, studies dealing with computer viruses, security policy and defense technologies.中文翻译计算机病毒随着计算机在社会生活各个领域的广泛运用，计算机病毒攻击与防范技术也在不断拓展。

外文原文Customer Brand LoyaltyAbstractWith the appearance of deceptive sales, poor customer care and crooked promotion, keeping loyal customers becomes even more difficult .Even though pursuing consumer reliability costs time and effort, it is really the most valuable asset of a successful company.Keywords: Customer care, Brand, Customer loyalty, Brand loyalty1.Back ground information of customer brand loyaltySince the world is a global marketing now, competition among diverse corporations has become more drastic. In order to seize hold of the advantaged position in the marketplace, a mass of marketing specialists work out multifarious strategies to insure their triumph for a long time. Among these advanced strategies, developing and maintaining customer brand loyalty is considered to be a preferable option by more and more entrepreneurs. Nevertheless, there are still lots of people who refuse to attempt to this technique. They assert that it is impossible to achieve the ideal target, especially in the developed marketing economy. One can clearly see that even though pursuing consumer reliability costs time and effort, it is really the most valuable asset of a successful company.1.1The definition of brand loyaltyBrand loyalty is defined as keeping preferable to a specific product or service (BNET Business Dictionary). To rephrase it, faithful purchasers trend to pay money for the same brand of merchandise, and speak highly of its values. What’ more, they believe that their choice is better than others.1.2The development of the conceptThe notion of purchaser trustworthiness came through a long time and changed a lot. In an article by Gonring (2008, p.29), customer brand was given the definition of product quality before the 1980s. During the late 1980s and near the beginning 1990s, its emphasis changed from quality to customers. Still, with the competitors coming into the market in the late 1990s, satisfying and caring much about the clients becamea much more significant object of many corporations. Since then, people have paid more and more attention on customer to make more profits.1.3Four types of loyaltyCustomer brand loyalty has many aspects. Rowley (2005, p.574) concludes that there are four types of loyalty: captive, convenience-seekers, contented and committed. Captive customers prefer repeatedly purchasing the same product, service and brand because of lack of opportunities to substitute for alternatives. Convenience-seekers may not respect the brand itself, but look on the convenience that can carry. Contented consumershowever, have a positive attitude to a brand, but they won’t attempt to some extr a consumption. The perfect one is the committed, who are active both in attitude and behavior.2.Consumer brand loyalty has a significant position in the marketing.2.1Regarded as an essential feature of brand valueIt is admittedly true that shopper allegiance for a brand in truth contributes much to marketing. According to the concept of brand loyalty, it is regarded as the essential feature of brand value. The American Marketing Association gives it the explanation as “the situation in which a consumer genera lly pays money for the same manufacturer-originated product or service repeatedly over time rather than buying from multiple suppliers withi n the category” or “the degree to which a consumer consistently purchases the same brand within a product class”(2006, qtd in Moisescu).The author draws attention to the fact that since other descriptive aspects of brand equity, such as considerable quality, associations and awareness, all have consanguineous relationship with purchase and appreciation, they can guarantee the level of brand loyalty. It follows that brand fidelity may add the satisfaction of other dimensions of brand value. For example, brand devotion always leads the payers to believe the perceived quality of the brand is better than others.2.2Cut down costsThis strategy may facilitate vendors expend less but attain utmost money in the marketing. The work of Reichheld (2000, qtd in Banasiewicz) reveals that sellers have to waste as much as four times money to attract new clients than to continue the loyal customer. On account of this, the author turned to a perfect statistic to prove this contention. He goes on to indicate that for an individual customer, you have to just spend 5 percent of wealth for keeping his loyalty; alternatively, you will receive 75% of profits that he will bring in. It can be comprehended as acquiring new purchasers expend more money to advertising, giveaway and industry discount.2.3Less sensitive to priceTypical loyal purchasers are less sensitive to price. Because of this, when a product mark up, they won’t lessen the quantity of they buy. It is the view of Reilly (2008) that loyal customers deem the assessment of the product. As a consequence, they strong believe their choices. In that case, they trend to center less on the price.2.4Bring in new potential faithful consumersThe potential benefit that the loyal customers are able to add is that they may bring in more new consumers. At the same time, these potential consumers are also possible to become the future loyal customers. A goodexample of this is that when one repeatedly buy the same brand cosmetic, and consider it convenient to use, he will recommend it to his classmates and girl friend. Hence, there is no wonder that people around always own the same brand of clothes as well as other commodity. In contrast, if people around me complain the poor quality of a brand to me frequently, I won’t think of owning it as well.2.5Benefit in global marketplaceMost of all, in the global economy, client brand dependability stands out as an important competitive weapon. Kust (2008, p.24) correctly argues that the world has switched into a global business in the last 10 decades; developing the brand loyalty globally is essential to enter the market. He goes on to indicate that in order to keep a trust relationship with their consumer, corporations should create a customer brand loyalty program among customers.3.Difficulties sometimes stop businessmen from working out the technology.3.1Purchasers refuse loyalty programsIt is a popular belief, however, that we may find certain difficulties to face with consumer loyalty. First of all, Consumers are less willing to participate to customer loyalty program for several reasons. The excellent consumer loyalty program concludes both rewards and recognition; nevertheless, notwithstanding, the target doesn’t make sense in the modern society. Thomas (2009, qtd in Silverstein) draws attention to the fact that with customers facing an array of choices, they will be particular about what they buy; as a consequence, we are paying more attention on the rewards of a product. It means that little rewards won’t satisfy us any more. In other words , it is the modern economy environment that makes it more difficult for the sellers to remunerate people.3.2Loyal programs is incompleteYet another primary reason for non-participation is that customers have more requirements on loyalty program .According to Silverstein (2009), more than 50% of audiences complain that most loyalty programs look the same, so they lose interest to belong to any program. Worse still, some people who once took part in any loyalty program even drop out because of these two reasons. At the same time, some people content that companies entrepreneurs shouldn’t rely ab solutely on customer fidelity. A good example of this is that current loyalty program exists some drawbacks which make its function incomplete (2003, Uncles, p.294). The author examines that most people trend to pay money for the product they require. In simpler terms, customers choose only one category of brands is an ideal condition.4.There are several infections of purchasers5 loyalty.While it is true that retaining loyalty meets a lot of trouble, there is something can be done to reduce the risks. It can be clearly be maintained that finding the complication of brand loyalty can aid us solve the problems. To begin with, they should have a deep anal ysis of the customers5 purchase inclination. For instance, what they would like to pay, how much they prefer to spent on the particular kind of good, and how often they go on shopping (Neuberger, 2008).4.1Brand reputationEnterprisers should pay more attention on the relationship of brand loyalty and brand reputation. Reference to Selnes (1996, p.19) reveals that, brand reputation is one of the most significant driver of brand loyalty, so it is efficient to pursue reputation for better consumer reliability. To put it briefly, having a good reputation means that customers are preferable for this product on attitude; hence, they will take action to buy this products. That is to say, brand reputation contributes to brand loyalty by increasing willingness and belief so that the attitude may change to behavior.4.2Brand imageBrand image play an important role in brand building, especially in customer dependability. As Reichheld (2001,qtd in Hsieh and Li, p.529) perceptively state that preferable brand image will lead consumers to conceive a perception of an organization’s public relationship practice, which matches the cor porate reputation better. With this in mind, customers are more likely to retain optimistic faith, attitude, and action. It must be therefore be acknowledged that customer loyalty grows fast through approving brand image.4.3Consumers5 satisfaction4.3.1Positive effect on a single productThe evidence seems to be strong that when we talk about loyalty, we can’t forget to mention customer satisfaction. Ha (2009, p.198) has expressed the view that satisfaction is a crucial factor of the customer performance and attitude. In the example, the researcher gets the data from different countries. Even though the culture is different, the result of the conclusion is the same.4.3.2Weaker influence on brand aloneIt is a popular belief, however, that some people content that the condition of the effect of satisfaction depends. A good example of this is that when checking product singly, satisfaction is more indispensable. Conversely, its function becomes weaker in case of applying brand alone (2008, Torres-Moraga, p.302).4.4Internal brandingInternal branding is also a valuable outcome of brand loyalty. Internal brandingaffects mostly the employee’s identification. Whafs more, empolyee’s identification makes an positive effect on customer loyalty. It must therefore be recognized that internal branding contributes to customer loyalty (2009, Punjaisri, p.206).5. Corporations can do some effort to build and improve loyaltyAccording to the author, in order to achieve this goal, managers should use the street teams, brand reps, and brand Ambassadors. And yet, street teams will work well, only by the audience fit the target.5.1Pay more attention on customer careCustomer care is considered a good point to building customer loyalty. As Webb (1999, p.72) has indicated that companies should think much about what the customers care. They can know much about the customers by asking a series of open-mind question. To be sure, the customer would like to talk deeply about their situation.5.2Keep honest to customersNot only that, but also keeping honest to customers may retain customers5 trust. As an illustration, online travel agency Orbitz Worldwide displays the actual price on the internet on the purpose of winning customers trust. On the contrary, numerous companies only show the basic rate on the internet. Actually, the price is a 15% higher (2009, Peterson). If we customers are treated fairly on the price, we would like to give out our trust.5.3Measurement of loyaltyMost of all, the measurement of the customer loyalty is another point that we need focus on. Turning to Terry,one finds that the good method to do measure is to separate 3 groups of the consumers according to the sore they receive. If they get the score 1-6, they are called detractors. The passives are those who have the score 7-8, and the promoters ‘achieve are 9-10. Next, divide the total people who take part in the test with the promoters, and then you will get a percentage, which represents the level of your customer loyalty. He goes on to indicate that most companies get 10%-20% loyal clients.出处 :Junjun Mao, International Journal of Business and Management [J]. Science and Education :July 2010. Vol. 5, No. 7出处：616 International Journal of Management Vol. 27 No. 3 Part 2 Dec 2010中文译文：顾客品牌忠诚度摘要：随着销售欺诈、顾客关注度降低、非法促销这些现象的出现，维持客户忠诚变得越来越困难。

外文翻译----产品生命周期理论The Product Life Cycle (PLC) theory。

XXX by Raymond Vernon in his book "nal Investment and nal Trade in the Product Cycle"。

refers to the entire process of a product's market life。

from its XXX。

Just like human life。

a product goes through stages of development。

growth。

maturity。

XXX with varying levels of technological advancement。

XXX n of the same productin different XXX these countries。

XXX)。

XXX countries。

XXX.The typical product life cycle can be divided into four stages: n。

growth。

maturity。

and decline。

When a new product enters the market。

it enters the n stage。

At this stage。

the product has fewer varieties。

and customers are not yet familiar with it。

Apart from a few XXX。

few people buy the product。

To expand sales。

producers have to XXX the product。

At this stage。

due to technical ns。

Harvest systems and analysis for herbaceous biomassAbstractBiomass feedstocks including crop residues and energy crops hold great potential for energy source. They are currently being considered for use in direct combustion systems and for value added byproducts such as biofuels or biocrude. A major roadblock associated with utilization of biomass feedstocks is the high cost of handling and storage due to low energy and bulk density of these feedstocks. In addition, a wide variety of existing harvest systems creates logistics difficulties for bioenergy industries.The utilization of herbaceous biomass requires optimized handling systems to collect, store, and transport year round. This then requires selecting the most economical methods from various existing handling systems for loose and baled biomass materials. How these different harvesting systems can be integrated into a cost-effective supply system is a challenge. The number of harvest days or the window of harvest depends on the type of crops, geographic and climate conditions, soil and nutrient management strategies, etc. The window of harvest could greatly impact on harvest, handling and storage costs. Efficient use of existing harvesting and handling equipment in a limited harvest window is desired. This chapter provides principles of selecting field harvest machine systems to increase system efficiency and productivity. Practical examples are used to demonstrate cost analysis methods of different harvest systems. Field observation results are used to quantitatively describe field capacities of typical biomass harvest and handling machine systems. Optimization models based on typical biomass logistics systems are described.This chapter will guide readers through the decision process to address the methodology required to design, or specify, a biomass logistics system based on the size of the bioenergy plant being supplied. Cost analysis methods and examples are used to demonstrate components of the process that will enable biorefinery industries and landowners to determine the most cost-effective way to harvest, store, and transport biomass feedstocks.1. IntroductionBiomass is a distributed energy resource. It must be collected from production fields and accumulated at storage locations. Previous studies of herbaceous biomass as a feedstock for a bioenergy industry have found that the costs of harvesting feedstocks are a key cost component in the total logistics chain beginning with a crop on the field and ending with a stream of size-reduced material entering the biorefinery. Harvest of herbaceous biomass is seasonal and the window of harvest is limited. Biomass needs to be stored at a central location.Normally, several or many of these central storage locations in a certain range of a biorefinery are needed to ensure 24 hours a day and seven days a week supply. These centralized storage locations are commonly called satellite storage locations (SSL). The size and number of SSLs depend on the size of the biorefinery plant, availability of biomass within a given radius, window of harvest, and costs.It is convenient to envision the entire biomass logistics chain from fields to biorefineries with three sections. The first section is identified as the “farmgate operations”, whic h include crop production, harvest, delivery to a storage location, and possible preprocessing at the storage location. This section will be administrated by farm clientele with the potential for custom harvest contracts. The second section is the “highway hauling operations,” and it envisions commercial hauling to transport the biomass from the SSL to the biorefinery in a cost effective manner. The third section is the “receiving facility operations,” and it includes management of the feedstock at the biorefinery, control of inventory, and control of the commercial hauler contract holders to insure a uniform delivery of biomass for year-round operation.Agricultural biomass has low bulk density, and it is normally densified in-field with balers, or chopped with a self-propelled forage harvester. Currently, there are four prominent harvesting technologies available for biomass harvesting [1]. They are: (1) round baling, (2) rectangular baling, (3) chopping with a forage harvester, and separate in-field hauling, and (4) a machine that chops and loads itself for in-field hauling (combined operation). Large round and large rectangular balers are two well-known and widely accessible harvesting technologies [2], which offer a range of advantages and disadvantages to farmgate operations. Round bales have the ability to shed water. When these bales are stored in ambient storage, they will store satisfactorily without covering and storage cost is significantly reduced. The round baler, because it is a smaller machine with fewer trafficability issues, can be used for more productive workdays during an extended harvest season over the winter months [3]. Large rectangular bales have greater bulk density, ease of transport, and increased baler productivity (Mg/h). However, the increased capital cost for the large rectangular baler and the bales’ inability to shed water limit its use on farms inSoutheastern United States. Bale compression machines are available to compress a large rectangular bale and produce high-density packages [4]. The densified package has two or three times higher density than the field density of large rectangular bales [5].The goal of an effective logistics system is to streamline storage, handling, and preserve the quality of the biomass through the entire logistics chain. This goal will minimize average feedstock cost across year-round operation. The farmer shares the goal to preserve the qualityof the biomass, and also desires to produce the biomass at minimum cost. To assist in the accomplishment of the mutual objectives of both parties, this chapter will discuss major logistics and machine systems issues starting from the farmgate to the receiving facilities at a biorefinery. Constraints in this biomass supply chain will also be discussed. The impact of different harvest scenarios for herbaceous biomass harvest will be shown. Logistics systems have been designed for many agricultural and forest products industries. Thus, it is wise to use the lessons learned in these commercial examples. Each of these industries faces a given set of constraints (length of harvest season, density of feedstock production within a given radius, bulk density of raw material, various storage options, quality changes during storage, etc.), and the logistics system was designed accordingly. Typically, none of these systems can be adopted in its entirety for a bioenergy plant at a specific location, but the key principles in their design are directly applicable. Commercial examples will be used in this chapter to interpret these principles.2. Biomass Harvesting and the Field Performance of Harvest Machine Systems2.1 HarvestingHarvesting of cellulosic biomass, specifically herbaceous biomass, is done with a machine, or more typically a set of machines, that travel over the field and collect the biomass. These machines are designed with the traction required for off-road operation, thus they typically are not well suited for highway operation. Therefore, the transition point between “in-field hauling” and “highway hauling” is critical in the logistics system. In-field hauling is defined as the operations required to haul biomass from the point a load is created in-field to a storage location chosen to provide needed access for highway trucks. This hauling includes hauling in-field plus some limited travel over a public road to the storage location.Harvesting systems can be categorized as coupled systems and uncoupled systems. Ideal coupled systems have a continuous flow of material from the field to the plant. An example is the wood harvest in the Southeast of the United States. Wood is harvested year-round and delivered directly to the processing plant. Uncoupled systems have various storage features in the logistics system.Sugarcane harvesting is an example of a coupled system for herbaceous crops. The sugar cane harvester cuts the cane into billets about 38-cm long and conveys this material into a trailer traveling beside the harvester (Figure 1). The harvester has no on-board storage. Thus, a trailer has to be in place for it to continue to harvest. The trailer, when full, travels to a transfer point where it empties into a truck for highway hauling (Figure 2). Each operation is coupled to the operation upstream and downstream. It requires four tractors, trailers, andoperators to keep one harvester operating. The trucks have to cycle on a tight schedule to keep the trailers moving. One breakdown delays the whole operation.A “silage system” can be used to harvest high moisture herbaceous crops for bioenergy. With this system, a forage harvester chops the biomass into pieces about one inch (25.4 mm) in length and blows it into a wagon beside the harvester. This wagon delivers directly to a silo (storage location), if the field is close to the silo, or it dumps into a truck for a longer haul to the silo. All operations are coupled. That is, a wagon must be in place to keep the harvester moving, and a truck must be in place at the edge of the field to keep the wagons cycling back to the chopper. It is a challenge to keep all these operations coordinated.A coupled system can work very efficiently when an industry is integrated like the sugarcane industry in South Florida, USA. Because the sugar mill owns the production fields surrounding the mill and the roads through these fields, the mill controls all operations (harvesting, hauling, and processing). Sugarcane has to be processed within 24 hours after harvest so the need for a tightly-controlled process is obvious. Fig.1. Sugar cane harvester delivering material into a dump trailer for delivery to edge of field (Photo by Sam Cooper, courtesy of Sugar Journal, P.O. Box 19084, New Orleans, LA 70179).Fig.2.Transfer of sugar cane from in-field hauling trailers to highway-hauling trucks.An example of an uncoupled system is cotton production using the cotton harvester that bales cotton into 7.5-ft diameter by 8-ft long round bales of seed cotton. This system was developed to solve a limitation of the module system. With the module system, in-field hauling trailers (boll buggies), have to cycle continuously between the harvester and the module builder at the edge of the field. The best organized system can typically keep the harvester processing cotton only about 70% of the total field time. Harvesting time is lost when the harvester waits for a trailer to be positioned beside the harvester so the bin on the harvester can be dumped.Baling is an uncoupled harvest system and this offers a significant advantage. Harvesting does not have to wait for in-field hauling. Round bales, which protect themselves from rain penetration, can be hauled the next day or the next week. Rectangular bales have to be hauled before they are rained on.2.2 Field Capacity and Efficiency of Biomass Harvest MachinesThe equipment used for baling and in‐field hauling is a critical issue to the farm owners. More efficient harvest systems coupled with well‐matched harvesting technologies specific to farm size and crop yield can minimize costs. The importance of understanding the linkage between various unit operations in the logistics chain was illustrated [6,7]. Similarly, researchers have quantified the handling and storage costs for large square bales at abioenergy plant [8]. However, in both of these evaluations the details of field operations and field capacities of machines involved in the field harvesting and handling were not available [9]. Instead, costs of bales at the farm gate were used to analyze bioenergy production costs. To maximize the field efficiency of field machine systems, it is essential for farm managers to know the field capacity of each machine involved in harvesting. In addition, quantitatively understanding the capacity of biomass harvest machines is essential to assess daily production and supply rate for a biorefinery or a storage facility.The field efficiency of rectangular balers can be determined by calculating the theoretical material capacity of the baler and actual field capacity [10]. Calculation of material capacity can be demonstrated using a large rectangular baler as an example. The end dimensions of the large bales were 1.20 m ×0.90 m; bale length was 2.44 m. The depth and width of the chamber were 0.9 m and 1.2 m, respectively. Plunger speed was 42 strokes per minute. Measured bale density was 146 kg/m3, and the thickness of each compressed slice in bale was 0.07 m. Thus, calculated theoretical bale capacity using equation 11.60 in [10] is 27.83 Mg/h. The plunger load could be set higher and produce higher density bales.The theoretical capacity was obtained from a baler manufacturer under ideal conditions. Ideal conditions exist when a baling operation has [11]:1) Long straight windrows2) Windrows prepared with consistent and recommended density (mass/length)3) Properly adjusted and functioning baler4) Experienced operatorActual field capacity of a baler will be impacted by the size and shape of the field, crop type, yield and moisture content of the crop at harvest, and windrow preparation. Typical field efficiencies and travel speeds can be found from ASAE Standards D497 [12]. Cundiff et al.[11] analyzed the field baler capacity and considered the effect of field size on baler field capacity. They found that the field capacities of round and large rectangular balers were 8.5 Mg/h and 14.4Mg/h, respectively.Another example of testing the baling capacity of a large rectangular would be the field tests conducted on wheat straw and switchgrass fields [13,14]. Results showed that actual field capacity of a large rectangular baler was between 11 and 13 Mg/h. This indicates that the field capacity of a large rectangular baler could be 50% or less compared to its theoretical capacity.2.3 Power Performance of Harvest Machine SystemsMachine system field efficiency is limited by tractor power performance, machine field capacity, and field conditions. Field conditions limit operational parameters and the percentage of the maximum available power. Since the high cost of harvest and in-field handling is still one of the main roadblocks of utilizing biomass feedstocks to produce biofuels, increasing machine system field efficiency through designing or selecting suitable machine systems is the challenge to machinery design and management professionals.Power performance of a 2WD rear drive tractor was presented in a format of flow chartin ASAE standards [12,15]. Total power required for a tractor is the sum of PTO power ，drawbar power , hydraulic power , and electric power as expressed by equation (1). Depending on the type of implement, components in equation (1) may vary. Total power calculated with equation (2) is defined as equivalent PTO power, which can be used to estimate the tractor fuel consumption under specific field operations.et hyd pto db P P P P P +++=tm r E E (1) Where m E and t E are mechanical efficiency of the transmission and tractive efficiency, respectively. Each of the power requirements in Equation (1) can be estimated using recommended equations in [12]. Example of using this standard to estimate power requirements for a large rectangular baler system is available [13].3. References[1] Brownell D K, Liu J, Hilton J W, Richard T L, Cauffman G R, and MacAfee B R (2009)Evaluation of two forage harvesting systems for herbaceous biomass harvesting. ASABE Paper No. 097390, St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.[2] Reynolds S G, and Frame J (2005) Grasslands: Developments, opportunities, perspectives.Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publ. Inc.[3] Cundiff J S, and Grisso R D (2008) Containerized handling to minimize hauling cost ofherbaceous biomass. Biomass & Bioenergy 32(4): 308-313[4] Hierden E V (1999) Apparatus for processing large square hay bales into smallerrecompressed Bales. U.S. Patent No. 6339986.[5] Steffen Systems (2009) High Density Bale Compression Systems. Available at:/Products/Bale_Press/index.htm. Accessed 2012 April 19.[6] Sokhansanj S, Turholow A F, Stephen J, Stumborg M, Fenton J and Mani S (2008)Analysis of five simulated straw harvest scenarios. Can. Biosys. Eng. 50:2.27-2.35[7] Sokhansanj S, Turhollow A F and Wilkerson E G (2008) Development of the IntegratedBiomass Supply Analysis and Logistics Model (IBSAL). Technical MemorandumORNL/TM-2006/57. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory.[8] Kumar, P.K., and K.E. Ileleji. 2009. Tech-no-economic analysis of the transportation,storage, and handling requirements for supplying lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks for ethanol production. ASABE Paper No. 097427, St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.[9] Brownell D K (2010) Analysis of biomass harvest, handling, and computer modeling.M.S.Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.[10] Srivastava A K, Carroll E G, Rohrbach R P, and Buchmaster D R (2006) Engineeringprinciples of Agricultural Machines. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.[11] Cundiff J S, Grisso R D, and McCullough D (2011) Comparison of bale operations forsmaller production fields in the Southeast. ASABE Paper No. 1110922. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.[12] ASAE Standards D497.5 (2006) Agricultural machinery management data. AmericanSociety of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.[13] Liu J and Kemmerer B (2011) Field performance analysis of a tractor and a large squarebaler. SAE Technical Paper 2011-01-2302,Presented at Commercial VehicleEngineering Congress, Chicago, IL doi:10.4271/2011-01-2302.收获系统和分析草本植物的产量1 摘要作物原料包括秸秆和其他有潜在价值的遗留物，现在它们正被考虑炼成生物燃料或生物原油。

Enterprise life cycle and the enterprise culture choiceN.J:Prentice Hall Journal of Management,2003,(17):191-211.In the 1980s, the American management experts Iraq chuck? Adizes' (IChakAdizes) put forward enterprise dr life-cycle theory, it follows the same with biological enterprise "life cycle" rule, will experience a from birth, growth to aging until death life. Figures show that, 1970 among the fortune global 500 list to 1983, the enterprise should have 1/3 has been extinguished. This list from the enterprise production to decay, average life expectancy is only 40 ~ 50 years old. In Japan and Europe, enterprise's average life cycle of 125 years. In the United States, the enterprise average 62 less than 5 years the life cycle, live can over 20 years of enterprise accounts for only the total enterprises, only two of the 10 businesses can live for 50 years, but the average life expectancy of Chinese enterprises only 7 ~ 8 years old, especially private enterprise, not only average life expectancy is only 2.9 years old, and survival over five years less than 9, more than 8 years of less than 3. Those who once famous enterprise: for this reason, giants, more... After all the brilliance of swamp in acme off bright-coloured, a flash in the pan.Why so many enterprise life cycle is so short? Why then another some enterprise has undergone several hundred years still inheritance evergreen? Scholars have different explain this. Some people think that is the difference, others industrial explanation operational modes for different, still some people find reasons from management system, some people think that entrepreneurs of the pros and cons. Although these claims have certain truth, but seem to have involved in the root of the problem, did not find the enterprise decision. The real reason for heritage evergreen.With the emergence of enterprise culture theory and the unceasing development, the enterprise culture ", "Z theory", "seek advantages", "Japanese enterprise management art" four books published monographs, caused the enterprise culture research upsurge. Enterprise more and more aware of the organizational culture and regulating the important significance of organizational development, more and more profound understanding to an excellent organizational culture on enterprise long-term business and enterprise development plays a potential yet crucial role.Rand corporation, the international management consulting firm McKinsey study found the company, all the achievements are great, the role of enterprise culture is very obvious. Excellent enterprise culture is the world's 500 to the foundation of success. The fundamental causes of longevity and outstanding, is the constant innovation enterprise culture, and maintain its advanced nature. World famous longevity companies have a common feature, which they have a persistent core values, has its unique, enrich and excellent enterprise culture. Enterprise culture is a kind of strength, with the development of knowledge economy, it to enterprise's prosperity and decline will play more and more important role, even the decisive role. Can say, the 21st century enterprise competition between enterprises is the fundamental culture of competition. Who has strength in culture, who has competitive advantage, benefit advantages and development advantage.Although enterprise culture theory is mature and perfect,widely enterprise accepted and us ed.A large enterprise with excellent enterprise culture in the market competition tide the invinci ble position.But,on the other hand is countless companies looking for suits own enterprise cultu re.And some company,because enterprise life cycle and the change of environment,the original enterprise culture has not suitable for enterprise growth,even discourages enterprise from the shackles of sustainable development.Therefore,how to choose conform to the enterprise develo pment needs of the enterprise culture,according to the environment and life cycle changes appr opriate choice of enterprise culture,become a relationship between all enterprises are facing the prosperity of the enterprise major issue.The author thinks that,with inner and outer environment analysis enterprise handhold to gr asp different life cycle,the main contradiction,through the enterprise principal contradiction to c hoose the enterprise culture,is the enterprise culture is the only choice.The marxist handhold the contradiction that things,the law of the unity of opposites laws,is the most fundamental materialist dialectics of rules.The self-contradict reveals the essential contents of the associations with things development intrinsic po wer,is our most basic methods of knowledge.In the enterprise internal,always don't exist countl ess contradiction,these contradictions unceasing development and transformation,formed the e nterprise life cycle goes forward.Contradiction is the enterprise life cycle motivation,the evolutio n of the enterprise life cycle is contradictory results of progressive struggle.On the other hand,e nterprise's various contradictions with enterprise's prosperity and decline success or failure too cl osely.Due to the contradictory nature of the complexity of status,and conditions,the solution of the problem varied also.Only found the right solution,solve the contradictions of the principal co ntradiction,enterprise can unceasingly develop,eventually inheritance evergreen.Different life cycles,each stage the enterprise internal conflict,interest is different,the facin g problems and pressure is different,the main inconsistencies also vary wildly,therefore enterpri se have different also,must choose match different enterprise culture.But because enterprise lif e cycle,each phase of the inherent regularity of enterprise culture of normal performance has ge nerality,although as a means of implement cultural kernel with manifestation can vary,but as the core value orientation and management style still have rules.The life cycle analysis of enterprise pointed out the different stages of the main contradiction formation,conversion and integration,and explains the different stages the features of enterprise culture,thus for enterpris e culture choice the establishment of complete pattern laid a foundation.Enterprise culture choice must follow some principles,can correctly development and imple mentation.There are usually has the following four principles:enterprise life cycle associated wit h enterprise culture choice of principle,the enterprise culture selection and enterprise strategic i nterrelated principle,universality and individuality,carry forward the principle of combining the t radition and the principle of combining the development innovation.Because enterprise life cycle changes is a long-term incremental process,in order to guarantee the enterprise culture choice of maneuverability, achieve successful culture choice,therefore,it is necessary to find some specific timing.Choose t he things change timing reflects the degree.There is a clear changes in the enterprise,mainly in t he enterprise's survival and development of external politics,economy,culture,science and tech nology,and environment that significant changes have occurred,the enterprise quantitative chan ge to qualitative changes conversion,thus mastered the degrees,is something the best timing ch oice of enterprise ually have the following three time:enterprise business performanc e materially changes,enterprise management efficiency is low,the increased examing enterprise external environment materially changes.Enterprise culture choice is a systematic project,pinpoint the breakthrough,is the guarantee success choice.The author thinks that point of enterprise culture,choose from the enterprise,must present roughly as follows three based.Starting from the main contradiction,starting from th e enterprise the fine tradition of the major change,from the enterprise forward.Enterprise culture choice of content including spiritual culture,system culture,material cult ure choice.Enterprise culture spirit layer,system layer and physicality is inseparable,they influen ce each other,interaction,so in enterprise culture when the choice but also from grasping.Enterprise culture type selection is an important link of choice of enterprise culture.Enterpri se culture type varied,according to statistics,the existing scholars put forward about200species of cultural types.How in the dime found in the enterprise culture type suitable enterprise culture type,principal contradiction is a key.In the initial,enterprises are faced with the main contradiction weak strength.Exploration c ulture promotes cautious capital management and bold exploit the competition strategy,and is c haracterized by considering risk/benefit conversion between,clear enterprise this where action, be willing to accept change,dares to innovate,therefore appropriate strength weak start-ups make limited capital investment and a lot of new market development.Meanwhile,explorati on culture emphasize consider risk,advocate through careful explore avoid enterprise,its fickle in to various traps the character also suitable for enterprise flexible coping market risk.In growing up,the enterprise strength has achieved great growth,market share,but increas ed competition,looking around at the a inadvertent,easily lead to enterprise die young.The gro wth of this enterprise faster than the ascension of enterprise entrepreneurs ability,enterprise ma nagement level is low speed has become a major conflict.Often leads to low level management e nterprise decision makers and,on the other hand,even in a bad year successively on market dev elopment,on the other hand,often fall into trap or reckless expansion of diversification.Attackin g culture emphasize struggle and offensive spirit,take"simple foremost",in a variable system cha nges,measures,and continued to speed leap to winning,the first,win in attack.In addition,attac king culture also advocate the dovish,emphasize the orderly development of enterprise,against blind offense,avoid enterprise by hot heads blind investment.At maturity,enterprise management level abundant funds,mature,enterprise function prop erly.But because the enterprise system consummation,the enterprise leaders of the lesser,techn ical personnel and other reasons,the conservative enterprise innovation spirit gradually disappea r.At this time,transformational culture is to solve this principal contradiction best choice.Transfo rmational culture emphasize break existing pattern,praise highly technical innovation and thoug ht innovation,reform the previous system and hierarchy.Through the transformational cultural in tegration,mature can often heavy calls vitality and vigor.In a recession,the enterprise usually suffer from"big enterprise disease",management seri ous rigidity.At the same time,because of long time lost innovation and don't improve,so the pro ducts and technology seriously outdated,losing their competitive ually the enterprise or die,recession or change.Metamorphosis to type culture emphasize aggressive spirit of enterpris e layer,system layer,behavior level and physical comprehensive metamorphosis,through the bod y eliminate enterprise old abuses of reasonable advanced composition,reserves,to create an ent irely new enterprises.Because of the circumstance of the enterprise different,so we can't take some enterprise cu lture type derivative in one type of enterprise.True sense of enterprise culture type choice for ea ch enterprise,it would be the only.Other enterprise successful experience for reference,and can not copy only.Enterprise culture type of choice is more the core competitiveness,management concept,management concept,innovation consciousness choice,suitable for all firms enterprise c ulture type is not exist.Therefore,the enterprise culture type of choice is a dynamic and flexible working,which don't get bogged down in any form and rules,also cannot copy others successful experience.Enterprise culture selection process is a grey hazy set four states of the evolutionary process .In this process,the potential matching enterprise culture type of relevant information constantl y replenish and whiting,finally picked the most appropriate enterprise culture,this evolution cha racteristics based on enterprise life cycle determines the choice of enterprise culture is more tha n a stage decision-making process,gradual.The author put enterprise culture choice can be grouped into,featured, optimization,enterprise culture flexibility management four stages.The first stage:the ly,to many potential enterprise culture for fast filtering,d etermine the candidate goal evaluation.In this phase,the enterprise according to realize the spec ific situation in life cycle,main contradictions analysis to determine the enterprise to the problem s of the enterprise culture,and so as to determine the scope of domain with main the solution of the problem for the principle,according to enterprise culture type matching strategy for prelimin ary screening.Based on the main conflict resolution of potential enterprise culture search strateg y is the key to the stage.Second stage:the selection.According to the first phase of each candidate determined by th e nature of enterprise culture and the contradiction between solution oriented quantified compa re integratedly,further narrowing the scope of candidate enterprise culture.This one phase key li es in the life cycle according to specific principal contradiction,establishing enterprises with the e valuation index system and the characteristic of choice appraisal method.This phase is mainly ai med at specific index system,adopting effective algorithm to evaluate candidate enterprise cultur e,and the candidate with similar evaluation value filter of enterprise culture.Stage3:optimization.According to the life cycle,the main contradiction multi-objective optimization decision analysis,the enterprise culture to integrate different optimization ,finally discovers the optimal enterprise culture.Fourth step:elastic management enterprise culture.This one phase mainly is establishing th e enterprise culture management mechanism,according to the selected enterprise culture in ent erprise operations of the contribution and principal contradiction,the change of dynamic adjust ment to reduce because the opportunism behavior and damage and reduce the current enterpris e culture choice of opportunity cost.To the enterprise culture follow-up assessment and management is the emphasis.In the actual enterprise culture choice process,the enterprise culture choice of process and mode is vary.The author establish the four-stage model is usually sense the steps necessary to enterprise culture choice.In fact,a successful enterprise culture choice and innovation must be a long-term systematic project,must include the following aspects:seize enterprise life cycle and enterp rise principal contradiction this masterstroke,pinpoint opportunity and the breakthrough,deter mine the enterprise culture choice of content,with enterprise actual situation choose enterprise culture type,and according to the four-steps model selection of concrete steps,finally choosing and establish a good enterprise culture.企业生命周期与企业文化选择上个世纪八十年代，美国管理学家伊查克？爱迪思（IChakAdizes）博士提出了企业生命周期理论，认为企业同生物一样都遵从“生命周期”规律，都会经历一个从出生、成长到老化直至死亡的生命历程。

附录附录1Sand CastingThe first stage in the production of sand castings must be the design and manufacture of a suitable pattern. Casting patterns are generally made from hard word and the pattern has to be made larger than the finished casting size to allow for the shrinkage that takes place during solidification and cooling. The extent of this shrinkage varies with the type of metal or alloy to be cast. For all but the simplest shapes the pattern will be made in two or more pieces to facilitate moulding. If a hollow casting is to be made the pattern design will include extension pieces so that spaces to accept the sand core are moulded into sand. These additional spaces in the mould are termed core prints.Sand moulds for the production of small and medium-sized castings are made in a moulding box. The mould is made in two or more parts in order that the pattern may be removed.The drag half of the mould box is placed on a flat firm board and the drag half of the pattern placed in position. Facing sand is sprinkled over the pattern and then the mould box is filled with moulding sand. The sand is rammed firmly around the pattern. This process of filling and ramming may be done by hand but mould production is automated in a large foundry with the mould boxes moving along a conveyor, firstly to be filled with sand from hoppers and then to pass under mechanical hammers for ramming. When ramming of the sand is complete, excess sand is removed to leave a smooth surface flush with the edges of the moulding box.The completed drag is now turned over and the upper, or cope, portion of the moulding box positioned over it. The cope half of the pattern is placed in position, correct alignment being ensured by means of small dowel pins. Patterns for the necessary feeder, runner and risers are also placed so as to give an even distribution of metal into the mould cavity. The risers should coincide with the highest readily escape from the mould. The sizes of risers should be such that the metal in them does not freeze too rapidly. An important function of a riser is to act as reservoir of liquid metal to feed solidification within the mould. A thin coating of dry parting sand is sprinkled into mould at this stage. This is to prevent the cope and drag sticking together when the cope half is moulded. The cope is now filled with moulding sand and this is rammed firmly into shape in the same manner as in the making of the drag.After the ramming of sand in the cope is completed the two halves of the moulding box are carefully separated. At this stage venting of the moulding box are carefully separated. At this stage venting of the mould can be done, if necessary, to increase the permeability of the mould.After venting the patterns are carefully removed from both cope and drag, and a gate or gates are carefully cut to connect the runner channel with the main cavity. Gates should be sited to allow for entry into mould with a minimum of turbulence. Any loose sand is gently blown away and if a core is to be used it the cope upon the drag and it is then ready for use. Liquid metal is poured smoothly into the mould via the feeder. Pouring ceases when liquid metal appears at the top of the risers and the feeder channel is also full.When the metal that has been poured into a sand mould has fully solidified the mould is broken and casting is removed. The casting still has the runner and risers attached to it and there will be sand adhering to portions of the surface. Runners and risers are cut off and returned to the melting furnace. Sand cores are broken and adherent sand is cleaned from the surface by vibration or by sand blasting with dry sand. Any fins or metal flash formed at mould parting lines are removed by grinding and the castings are then ready for inspection.EngineAn engine is a device that uses the energy in a fuel to do work. The energy in the chemicals of the fuel is turned into heat energy. The heat is then used to move the metal parts of a machine. There are many kinds of fuel. Most engines use gasoline, oil, kerosene, coal, or coke. The heat that comes from burning the fuel makes a gas expand. This expand gas drives pistons or turbine blades. The pistons or turbines turn shafts. The turning shafts move gears and other wheels. We use these rotating wheels and shafts to move automobiles, airplanes, and other transport. We can also use them for pumping, drilling, digging, and other such activities.Early engines burned coal or wood to heat water. The steam was used to drive steam engine. Until the middle of this century, most locomotives were powered by steam. At the beginning of the century, even some automobiles were run on steam. We still use steam engines, but most of them are being replaced by more efficient engines. Today we have powerful gasoline and diesel engines to work for us.The steam engine is an external combustion engine. This means that fuel is combustion, or burned, outside the cylinder that produces power. Since the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in 1769s, steam engines had a great effect on the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century. Until the middle of the twentieth century, most locomotives were powered by steam. At the end of the century, even some automobiles were run on steam. Today most of the functions of steam engine have been taken over by internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline and diesel oil. However, there are many steam engines in use at sea. Steam is also used to generate electricity. The kind of steam engine that is used today does not have cylinders. It is generally a steam turbine. The steam turbine was invented by Sir Charles Parsons. Steamturbines can handle steam at higher pressures than piston engines can, and they are more compact than piston engines of similar power.The gasoline engine The engine of most automobiles and small vehicle use gasoline as fuel. The gasoline engine is a combustion engine. The fuel is burned in combustion (burning) chambers inside the engine. The combustion chambers are placed at one end of the cylinders. Pistons move up and down in the cylinders. They are pushed by the hot gases from the burning fuel. When the fuel is mixed with air it burns so quickly that it explodes. The combustion chambers and cylinder apart like a bomb, the explosion simply kicks hand against the head of the piston. It pushes it as far as it can.Each movement of a piston up or down in its cylinder is called a stroke. Most gasoline engines work on a four-stroke cycle. This means that each piston goes up and down twice for each explosion. That makes four movement or strokes. This cycle of events is repeated over and over again. On the first down stroke, the piston moves to the lowest part of the cylinder. A mixture of gasoline droplets and air is drawn into the cylinder above it. Now the piston moves up again. This is its second stroke. It squeezes the mixture into a small space. An electric lights the mixture, and it explodes. The piston is force down again for its third stroke. This is called the power stroke. For the fourth stroke, the piston moves to the top again. This time it pushes the burnt gases out of the cylinder. The gases leave the engine as exhaust fumes.The first engine that used the four-stroke cycle was made in about 1876. It was designed by a German engineer, August Otto. He used coal gas, not gasoline. The first engines to burn gasoline were developed by Karl Benz and Gottlieb. These two men were famous as automobile pioneers.A piston simply going up and down cannot push an automobile along. Its movement must be changed to a turning movement. To do this, a crankshaft is used. Each piston of the engine is linked to part of the crankshaft. Each push it gives makes the shaft turn. The spinning shaft passes the power on to the automobile’s transmission system. It usually does this through a heavy flywheel. The transmission system transmits power to the clutch and to the propeller shaft, through a gearbox. The propeller shaft drives the road wheels by means of axles.To keep an automobile engine going, there need to be several systems. There must be a fuel system. This has to supply gasoline to the engine cylinders in the right amounts. It has also to mix it with the right amount of air, so that it will explode properly. There must be an ignition system. This has to provide sparks to ignite the explosive mixture fat exactly the right time. There has to be a cooling system, otherwise the engine would overheat. The lubrication system must keep all the moving parts oiled and moving freely. Too much friction causes wear of the metal and makes the engine overheat.The engine unit Gasoline engine has two basic parts. They are called the cylinder head andthe cylinder block. The cylinder block is machined from solid metal. The metals usually cast side the cylinder blocks are the cylinders. The walls of the cylinders have to be very accurately made, and are highly polished. The pistons that move up and down in the cylinders must be accurately made, too. They have springy bands of metal around them to press tight against the cylinder walls and stop gases leaking. The bands are called piston rings. They are often made of aluminum alloy for strength and lightness.An engine may have any number of cylinders. They may be arranged in a line, or in opposite pairs. They are often arranged in a “V” shape. In many air planes with piton engines, the cylinders are arranged in a ring around the crankshaft.The lower part of the cylinder block is called the crankcase. This is where the crankshaft lies. The crank shaft is linked to each piton by a connecting rod. The crankshaft is made in a single piece. It must be tough and accurately machined. It may spin as many as 6000 times a minute. It changes up-and-down motion. It does this by means of cranks, one for each piston. The cranks are set at different angles round the shaft. Each piston gives a push to its crank during its power stroke. During the other three strokes, the crank pushes the piston up ,down and up again. The heavy flywheel is bolted to one end of the crankshaft. It keeps the shaft turning smoothly between the power strokes. Strong main bearings support the crankshaft in its case.The cylinder head is bolted to the cylinder block. Inside it are the combustion chambers. Each combustion chamber is a space above a piston inside a cylinder. This is where the explosio n of the mixture of fuel and air takes place. A spark plug is set into the top of the chamber. Each chamber has a pair of valves. There is an inlet valve to allow the fuel and air mixture into the chamber. The other valve is an outlet or exhaust valve. Through this pass the burnt gases after the explosion. The valves are opened and closed by push rods and springs. The push rods are moved up and down by links with the crankshaft. The linkage is through a turning shaft called the camshaft.To carry water to cool the engine, there are passages in the metal of the cylinder head and cylinder block. Oil passes through other passages. Between the cylinder head and block is a gasket.This is a thin plate of metal that acts as a seal. It is put in when the parts o f the engine are bolted together. It is often made of copper.The fuel system Fuel system of the engine supplies the gasoline to be burnt. The gasoline is stored in a large tank. In a powerful car, the tank holds many gallons of fuel. The tank is placed well away from the engine, to reduce the risk of fire .The gasoline is pumped through a fuel line. The pump may be driven by links with the engine camshaft. Sometimes it has its own electric motor. Before the gasoline reaches the cylinders, it must be mixed with air. The fuel lineleads to the carburetor. In the carburetor the gasoline is forced through a fine nozzle, or jet. It forms a spray of small droplets. The droplets vaporize as they mix with the air. Now the mixture is ready for ignition.The speed of the engine is controlled by a valve. Opening and closing the throttle valve regulates the amount of mixture leaving the carburetor. From the carburetor the mixture passes to the inlet valves of the combustion chambers. The mixture is delivered through a set of tubes called the inlet manifold. A similar set of tubes takes away exhaust gases form the exhaust valves of the combustion chambers. This is called the exhaust manifold. It leads to the outside air through the exhaust pipe.In some automobiles, the fuel is delivered by a different system. Instead of passing through a carburetor, the fuel is sprayed into the air stream just before the inlet valves. It is sprayed in small amounts, which are carefully metered. The system is called fuel injection.The ignition system Mixture inside each cylinder must be made to explode. A spark is used to do this. The spark must jump across the gap in the spark plug at exactly the right times, each of the autombile’s cylinders must fire in turn. The igniti on system depends upon very accurate timing. If the sparks are a fraction of a second too early or too late, the engine will not run properly.The electricity to make the sparks comes from the automobile’s electric storage battery. This battery is kept charged by a dynamo, or generator, run by the engine. The battery supplies electricity at only about 12 volts. To make a spark, volts are required. The voltage from the battery is boosted up to about 30 000 volts by means of a transformer. The transformer is called the ignition coil. The ignition coil supplies high voltage to the distributor. This is a device that distributes in surges, or pulses, to each of the spark plugs in turn. When a surge of electricity at high voltage reaches a plug, a spark leaps across a small gap. The spark is so hot that it makes the mixture of gasoline and air ignite and explode.The cooling system Heat produced by burning the gasoline in the engine is very great. The temperature inside each combustion chamber may reach more than 1 000℃ [over1 800].The engine must be constantly cooled. The cooling system supplies cool water through channels called water jack. The water jackets surround the cylinders. They carry away the excess heat as the water passes through them. The hot water is led away to be cooled in radiator. The radiator is a system of many tubes, linked together, with spaces between them. The hot water loses its heat to the air. The cooled water is then pumped to the engine again.Some automobiles do not have a water-cooled system. They use air cooling. Air from the frontOf the automobile is blown over the cylinder block and the cylinder head. The engine is filledwith special cooling fins, sticking out into the air stream. These help the head to radiate more quickly. Air-cooled engines tend to be noisier than water-cooled engines. In a water-cooled engine, the water jacket helps to absorb the engine noise.To prevent the water in the cooling system from freezing in cool weather, antifreeze is usually added in water. This is often ethylene glycol or a similar compound.The lubrication system Oil is needed to keep the engine’s parts from wearing too quickly. A storage tank of oil, called the sump, is attached under the crankcase. The oil is pumped through channels to all the main bearings and the big-end bearings. Eventually it reaches the sump again. It passes through a filter to remove dirt before it is used again. Whenever metal surfaces rub against others, ting particles are worn off. The oil picks them up as it flows between the surfaces .They are trapped by the oil filter. The filter must be changed regularly. The oil itself gradually burns and becomes impure. It must be replaced at intervals.The wankel engine The wankel engine is a gasoline engine that works without pistons. It was invented in Germany by Felix Wankel. He started development of it in 1956. The pistons in an ordinary gasoline engine must move up and down, or backwards and forwards. This kind of motion is called reciprocating motion. It needs to be converted into a turning motion (rotary motion) by a crankshaft. In a Wankel engine, burning the flue produces a rotary motion directly. These is no need for a crank shaft, It is a rotary engine.A Wankel engine has a specially designed combustion chamber. It is roughly an ellipse, , I n shape. Inside is rotor. The rotor is shaped with bulging, rounded sides. Though the center of the rotor passes the driving shaft, it has teeth like a gearwheel that meet teeth inside the rotor. The rotor is shaped so that its corners just touch the walls of the chamber. The rotor can move up and down and also side to side as it turns.The rotor divides the chamber into three parts. As the rotor the shapes of the three parts change. They act like three separate combustion chambers. As in an ordinary engine, there are spark plugs, an inlet port for the gasoline and air mixture, and an outlet port for the exhaust gases.The rotor turns so that each part of chamber in turn meets the inlet. The gasoline and air mixture is drawn in. This is like the first piston down stroke of an ordinary engine. Further turning sweeps the mixture round into a smaller space .The mixture is compressed. This is like the second stroke. Now the spark plugs fires. The explosion drives the rotor further around. This is the power stroke. When the rotor has turned a little further, the exhaust gases are pushed from the chamber through the exhaust port. The process is continuous. It happens as each part of the chamber sweeps round.The Wankel engine has several advantages over an ordinary engine. It has fewer moving parts. There is less vibration. It is lighter, it costs less to produce. However, there are difficulties. Themain difficulty is ensuring that the seals, where the corners of the rotor meet the chamber walls, are gastight. The Wankel engine is used successfully in several kinds of automobile.The diesel engine The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine that is used for heavy-duty work. It uses low-cost oil for fuel, and usually has a long life. Railroad locomotives, trail trucks, buss, tractors, and road building equipment are powered by diesel engine .Ships and electric power generating stations also use diesel engine. Small models are used to power some automobiles. The diesel engine was developed in 1897 by Rudolf Diesel.The diesel engine differs from the gasoline engine in two main ways. The diesel is a compression-ignition engine, whereas the gasoline engine is a spark-ignition engine. In a diesel engine, air is compressed in each cylinder, causing its temperatures to rise. Fuel is then injected into the cylinders. The heat of the air causes the mixture to ignite and to explode. Gasoline engines use electric sparks to ignite the fuel and air mixture in the cylinders. Diesel engines use low grade oils that require less refining than gasoline and are less expensive.Pressure of over 10500 KN per square meter [1500 lbs per square in] is built up in the cylinder of a diesel engine by compression and the subsequent explosion, or combustion. This pressure forces the piston downwards, which turns the crankshaft. Cylinder walls and most other parts of diesel engines are thicker and stronger than those parts in gasoline engines so they can stand the extra strains and stresses.There are two main types of diesel engines, the four-stroke engine and the two-stroke engine. In the four-stroke model, which is the larger and more powerful of the two, each moves down, up, down, and up to complete a cycle. The first down stroke draws air into the cylinder. The second down stroke is the power stroke .The second up stoke exhaust the gases produced by combustion.In a two-stroke diesel engine, the exhaust and intake of air occur though openings in the cylinder near the end of the power stroke. The one up stoke is the compression stroke. The down stoke is the power stroke. Two-stroke engines have twice as many power stroke recycle as four-stroke engines. Two-stroke engines are used for applications that require high power in a small engine.……附录2砂型铸造砂型铸造生产的第一步是设计并制作一个合适的模型。

外文原文Object TechnologyObject technology is a new approach to developing software that allows programmers to create objects, a combination of data and program instructions. This new technology has been steadily developed since the late 1960s and promises to be one of the major ingredients in the response to the ongoing software crisis.1.1 Introduction to OTThere exists a critical technology that is changing the way we conceive, build, use and evolve our computer systems. It is a technology that many companies are adopting to increase their efficiency, reduce costs and adapt to a dynamic marketplace. It is called Object Technology (OT).By allowing the integration of disparate and non compatible source, OT has the potential to precipitate a revolution in information systems design on a par with that caused in computer hardware by the introduction of the computer chip. Yet OT is not a new phenomenon. Development and product releases have been ongoing since its origin many years ago. However, the recent emphasis task of enterprise information technology integration has brought OT into the spotlight.OT promises to provide component-level software objects that can be quickly combined to build new applications that respond to changing business conditions. Once used, objects may be reused in other applications, lowering development costs and speeding up the development process. Because objects communicate by sending messages that can be understood by other objects, large integrated systems are easier to assemble.Each object is responsible for a specific function within either an application or a distributed system. That means that as the business changes, individual object may be easily upgraded, augmented or replaced, leaving the rest of the system untouched. This directly reduces the cost of maintenance and the timing and extendibility of new systems.1.2 OT-based ProductsThe current market for OT-based products can be divided into four major segments: ·Languages and programming tools·Developers’ toolkits·Object-Oriented database·Object-Oriented CASE toolsThe largest segment of the current market for OT-based products is languages and programming tools. Products in this area include language compliers for C++, Smalltalk, Common Lisp Object System (CLOS), Eiffel, Ada and Objective-C, as well as extensions to PASCAL and Modula-2.Products in this category are available from a variety of vendors. Increasingly, the trend in this group is to offer the language compliers with associated development tools as part of a complete development environment.Developers’ toolkits account for the next largest part of the OT market. These products are designed to develop a program that enables a developer to easily do one of two things. The first is interfacing an application to distributed environment. The second is developing a graphical screen through a product.By providing developers with higher level description language and reusable components, products in this category give developers an easy and cost effective way to begin producing object-oriented systems.An important component in this category is the relatively new area of end-users tools. This element is important because organizing and analying the increasingly large amounts of data that computer systems are capable of collecting is a key problem.Object-oriented database management systems are one of the most interesting and rapidly growing segments of the OT market. A number of companies, including systems vendors like Digital and HP, and start-ups such as Object Design, Servio, and Objectivity, have all produced products.These products, dubbed ”Objectbases”, fill an important need by storing complex objects as a single entity. The objectbase products allow objects to be stored, retrieved and shared in much the same way as data is stored in a relational database management system. The value of an objectbase, as opposed to a database, is best described as following: “Object databases offer a better way to store objects because they provide all of thetraditional database services without the overhead of disassembling and reassembling objects every time they are stored and retrieved. Compared with an object database, storing complex objects in a relational database is tedious at best. It’s like having to disassembling your car each night rather than just putting it into the garage!”Over the next few years, a shift from proprietary CASE implementations to those based on the object paradigm can be expected. This area has lagged growth from earlier projections. OT-based CASE tools will have to emerge as a viable product category to address the wide scale development of large systems. This category also include those tools that are methodological in nature.1.3 0bject-oriented ProgrammingObject-oriented programming (OOP) is a new approach to developing software that allows programmers to create objects, a combination of data and program instructions. Traditional programming methods keep data, such as files, independent of the programs that work with the data. Each traditional program, t5herfore, must define how the data will be used for that particular program. This often results in redundant programming code that must be changed every time the structure of the data is changed, such as when a new field is added to a file. With OOP, the program instructions and data are combined into objects that can be used repeatedly by programmers whenever they need them. Specific instructions, called methods define how the object acts when it is used by a program.With OOP, programmers define classes of objects. Each class contains the methods that are unique to that class. Each class can have one or more subclasses. Each subclass contains the methods of its higher level classes plus whatever methods are unique to the subclass. The OOP capability to pass methods to lower levels is called “inheritance”. A specific instance of an object contains all methods from its higher level classes plus any methods that a unique to the object. When an OOP object is sent an instruction to do something, called a message, unlike a traditional program, the message does not have to tell the OOP object exactly what to do. What to do is defined by the methods that the OOP object contains or has inherited.Object—oriented programming can bring many advantages to users. It can bringproductivity gains as high as 1000 to 1500 percent instead of the 10 or 15 percent gains available from structured programming methods. It allows large complex systems to be built which are not economically feasible using traditional programming techniques. It allows program modifications to be made more easily. It could mean two different user interfaces within an application, one for the user who likes to type, and another for the users who just want to shout at the terminal.Objects can be viewed as reusable components, and once the programmer has developed a library of these components, he can minimize the amount of new coding required. One user envisions a commercial library of objects which could be purchased by programmers and reused for various applications. But creating a library is no simple task because the integrity of the original software design is critical. Reusability can be a mixed blessing for users, too, as a programmers has to be able to find the object he needs. But if productivity is your aim, reusability is worth the risks.The long-term productivity of systems is enhanced by object-oriented programming. Because of the modular nature of the code, programs are more malleable. This is particularly beneficial for applications that will be used for many years, during which company needs may change and make software modifications necessary.Software reliability can be improved by object-oriented programming. Since the objects are repeatedly tested in a variety of applications, bugs are more likely to be found and corrected. Object-oriented programming also has potential benefits in parallel processing. Execution speed under object oriented methods will improve with parallel processing.1.4 Object-oriented DBMSA shift toward object-oriented DBMSs does not have to replace relational DNMS. As its name implies, it is orientation rather than a full-blown DBMS model. As such, it can blend with and build on the relational schema.Object-oriented DBMSs integrate a variety of real-world data types –such as business procedures and policies, graphics, pictures, voice, and an non-tated text. Current relational products are not equipped to handle them efficiently. Data types in RDBMSs are more commonly record-oriented and expressed in numbers and text.Object orientation also makes contributions to application development efficiency. It makes the data function, attributes, and relationships an integral part of the object. In this way, objects can be reused and replicated. You can query the data on its functions, attributes, and relationships.By contrast, most RDBMSs demand that the knowledge associated with the data be written into and maintained separately in each application program.Object orientation is going to be available in two forms: one for those who need and want a radical change, and one for those who want some of its advantages without going through a major conversion.The first form of object-oriented DBMS focused largely on the computer-aided design (CAD) market, which needed to store complex data types such as the graphics involved with an aircraft design.The second form is made up of the leading RDBMS vendors who support the concept of integrating object management capabilities whit their current line of relational products. Sybase, Inc, the first vendor to introduce an object-oriented capability, offers Sybase , which enables the user to program a limited number of business procedures along with the data types in a server’s database engine . Any client attempting a transaction that does not conform to these procedures is simply rejected by the database. That capability enables users to shorten the development cycle, since integrity logic and business rules no longer need to be programmed into each application.This approach reduces maintenance costs as well, since any changes in the procedure can be made once at the server level instead of several times within all the affected applications.Last, the server-level procedures increase the system’s performance, since the operations are taking place closer to where the data is actually stored.中文译文对象技术对象技术是开发软件的一种新方法，它允许程序员生成数据和程序相结合的对象。

中文翻译题目(模版)
摘要：
摘要部分需空两格进行书写，单倍行距，字体为宋体4号字体。

摘要内容需符合原翻译内容。

介绍：
正文部分一律用宋体4号字，单倍行距。

对于文献翻译中的公式一律需要用mathtype手写输入，不能针对文献翻译内容截图。

每一个公式都有相应的公式编号，采用右对其的方式。

例如：
eff=2p m (1)
f
1
对于文献翻译中的图表可以进行截图，但是对于图表的注解一律用中文说明，例如：
图1: 驱动电压和消光比的关系图
总结：
本论文主要的研究内容是，
参考文献：(文献字体为4号字体为Times New Roman)
1、
2、。