外文翻译--稻草到能源--它可能是个有价值的尝试

两分钟英语故事：稻草、木炭和豌豆A little while later, the straw thought of a good idea. “Since my body is light and long, if I lie down and stretch myself across the stream you guys can cross.” “Will it be alright?” “We will have to see.” On the one hand, pea and charcoal couldn’t help in worrying.不一会儿，稻草想到了一个好主意。

“我的身体又轻又长，要是我躺下来游过小溪，你们也就可以越过小溪了。

”“这样可以吗”“我们试试看啊”其实，豌豆和木炭还是顾虑重重。

The straw laid across the stream. “Hurry! You must cross quickly. If you stay in one place too long, I could catch on fire.” Charcoal quic kly began crossing over the straw.稻草平躺在小溪上。

“快点！你必须快点过小溪。

如果你在我身上待得太久，我可能会着火。

”木炭很快跳到稻草身上。

But, as charcoal was crossing, he looked down. “I’m scared! Oh what should I do?” Charcoal could no longer move. “Hurry up and cross!” Straw said with all his might.但是，当木炭跳上去之后，他向下俯视着。

“我很害怕！哦，我该怎么办？”“木炭不敢再动弹。

“快起来，跳过去啊！”稻草使出浑身的力气喊道。

稻草建筑材料在未来是否成为可能？露易丝·蒂克尔用稻草修房子并没有为《三只小猪》中的第一只带来任何好处，但是，如果巴斯大学的研究成果被建筑行业所接受的话，那么现代草砖将会成为未来的伟大设计。

说到一个草砖房子，你可能会联想到一个摇摇欲坠的窝棚，它漏水，发出吱吱的响声，随时都会垮塌在地，还带着类似农家的气息。

但是当你踏入BaleHaus的时候，一个被修建于巴斯大学校园里，看起来原始的当代房屋，将会令你吃惊地出展现在你面前，并且，你会发现你无法找到任何一缕稻草。

相反，你在一楼的走廊将会看到一个拥有两间卧室和一个浴室的倒置房子，和楼上一个通风的开放式的生活区。

这就像是从斯堪的纳维亚半岛抵达了萨默赛特郡。

这些由石灰做底泥制成的，干燥稻草捆，原来都是被紧紧捆住并放置于一系列预制好的木质矩形框架结构的墙中的，它们像乐高拼装玩具一样被嵌入一个叫做ModCell 的嵌板中。

这些“草屋”存在的问题似乎并不在于它们并不实用，而是人们意识到它们有点非主流，并且并不是特别耐用。

再加上，这样的草屋很难拿去获得抵押贷款。

巴斯大学BRE的建筑材料创新中心的主管Peter Walker 教授指出，稻草的好处在于：“它是便宜、易于广泛应用的良好绝缘体材料，它被用在房屋建筑上已经好几百年。

”作为整个世界的工业副产品——这些秸秆在谷物收获以后被留下——只要它们不分解，就仍然有效地吸收和固定大气中的碳。

对于建筑行业来说，当前所依赖的材料是无论在生产还是运输上都具有极高的能耗和碳消耗的嵌入式混凝土和砖——因此，稻草可以为解决温室气体排放这一问题提供一个友好的解决方案。

无论这个草屋看上去有多时髦，多现代化还是多环保，你仍然想要知道它是否会在雷电交加的暴风雨中被淋得湿透或者是否会因你打翻的蜡烛，而被被嗖嗖的火焰烧的精光。

Walker 教授和他的研究伙伴公布了他们的研究结果，Dr Katharine Beadle 花费了18个月的时间，通过一个详尽的危险因素清单去测试这个BaleHaus被腐蚀、烧毁、吹倒的可能，到目前为止，这个房子看来似乎是可靠的。

稻草定律作文800范文英文回答，The Straw Man fallacy, also known as the Straw Person fallacy, is a rhetorical technique where someone distorts an opponent's argument in order to make it easier to attack. This fallacy is named after the idea of creating a "straw man" – a figure made of straw that is easy to knock down. In other words, instead of addressing the actual argument made by the opponent, the person using the Straw Man fallacy attacks a distorted or exaggerated version of that argument.One common example of the Straw Man fallacy is when someone misrepresents their opponent's position in order to make it seem weaker or more extreme than it actually is. For instance, if someone argues that we should put more funding into education, and their opponent responds by saying, "So you think we should just throw money at every problem and hope it goes away?" – that would be a Straw Man fallacy. The opponent has distorted the original argument about education funding in order to make it easierto attack.Another example of the Straw Man fallacy is when someone oversimplifies their opponent's argument in order to attack it. For instance, if someone argues that we should have stricter gun control laws, and their opponent responds by saying, "So you want to take away everyone's guns and leave them defenseless?" – that would be a Straw Man fallacy. The opponent has oversimplified the original argument about gun control in order to attack it more easily.It's important to recognize and avoid using the Straw Man fallacy in our own arguments, as it can undermine the quality of our reasoning and the strength of our positions. Instead of distorting or oversimplifying our opponent's arguments, we should strive to engage with their actual points and address them directly.中文回答，稻草定律，也称稻草人谬误，是一种修辞技巧，其中某人扭曲对手的论点，以便更容易进行攻击。

第14讲实战口译英译汉笔记示范（能源专题）Passage 1: Toward a sustainable energy future （寻求可持续能源之路）Words and ExpressionsAvailability供应能力"business as usual" scenario一切照常的情景，假如一切照常primary energy sources一次能源（又称“天然能源”，指直接来自自然界未经过加工转换的能源）per annum每年energy efficiency能源效率abatement减少greenhouse gases (GHGs)温室气体inexhaustible取之不尽，用之不竭reserves储备，储量Passage 2: Energy innovationWords and Expressionsstart-up初创公司energy Information Administration能源信息署department of Energy美国能源部hydrocarbons碳氢化合物spell导致，将为……带来……viable可行的，有效的cost-efficient成本低廉的，具有成本效益的light at the end of the tunnel希望之光，黑暗尽头的光明，曙光unconventional sources非传统能源，非常规能源hydraulic fracturing水力压裂技术horizontal drilling水平钻井技术reverse 扭转frack压裂tight oil致密油tar sands焦油砂temporary reprieve暂时缓解，一时之计reality check审视现状，现状核实frenzy狂热count on指望，依靠silver bullet良方，高招，杀手铜portfolio能源组合，能源结构conserve节约Good morning. It gives me great pleasure to speak at this summit, which gathers 2,500 researchers, entrepreneurs, investors, large companies, start-ups and government officials for three days to discuss energy innovation. //According to projections from the Energy Information Administration of the Department of Energy, the world will see a 47 percent increase in total energy consumption over 2010 levels by 2035, at which point hydrocarbons will make up 79 percent of energy consumption. // This translates to the consumption of 27 percent more oil, 48 percent more gas, and 45 percent more coal in 2035 compared to 2010. Such an outlook spells higher-cost supplies of oil and gas in the future and has intensified the need to find viable, reliable, cost-efficient energy solutions, both for the U.S. and for other countries in the world. //There are many potential solutions on the horizon. But these days many seem to think the light at the end of the energy tunnel is natural gas. The International Energy Agency says global gas production will rise 50 percent by the year 2035; some claim that two-thirds of that growth will come from unconventional sources like shale gas – a market the U.S. completely dominates. // It is claimed that natural gas resources will provide the United States with 100 years of energy thanks to recent technological advancement in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling techniques thatsparked the so-called "shale revolution". Shale gas has grown from about 2 percent of the U.S. natural gas production in 2000 to almost 40 percent now and has reversed the trend of declining gas production numbers. //Will the unconventional sources save our energy future? Geologist David Hughes of the Post Carbon Institute obviously doesn't think so. Hughes finds that unconventional energy is unlikely to accommodate the growing demand if we stick to the current energy consumption pattern, negating the idea that these resources can be counted on as a viable foundation of the energy sector in the long term. // His belief is shared by many other researchers, who strongly believe that the U.S. cannot drill and frack its way to "energy independence". At best, shale gas, tight oil, tar sands, and other unconventional resources only provide a temporary reprieve from having to deal with the real energy problems. //However, this does not mean that natural gas has no role to play in the overall energy mix, but a reality check is needed before the natural gas frenzy spirals out of control. It is simply dangerous to assume that unconventional resources can be counted on heavily in the future, and creating a dependence on natural gas will only serve to prolong the energy issues we currently face. // If unconventional sources are not the only key to our energy independence, what else do we need? My answer to this question is: there is no silver bullet to solve America's or the world's energy problems. There is no magic wand to sweep away all our energy challenges. I've always believed that, in energy, America needs a mixed approach, so diversity is key. // New sources of advanced energy, such as solar and wind, are already part of the portfolio and need continued development. But we must do more. We must create other efficient solutions to generate, store and conserve energy. // Moreover, commitments must be made at the highest level of government to develop policies that will drive cooperation between the public and private sectors. With government, industry and research working together, we have a better chance of advanced energy innovations becoming a reality and creating a more sustainable energy future for generations to come. Thank you. //参考译文：能源创新各位早上好！能在这里发言，我深感荣幸。

发明超级水稻作文英语英文：Super rice is a revolutionary invention that has had a huge impact on agriculture and food production. It is a type of rice that has been genetically modified to be more resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stress, as well as to have higher yields. This means that farmers can produce more rice with less effort and resources, helping to address food shortages and improve food security.I remember reading about the development of super rice in a scientific journal a few years ago. The researchers had been working on it for a long time, and when they finally succeeded, it was a game-changer for the agricultural industry. I was amazed by the potential of this new type of rice and how it could benefit so many people around the world.One of the key advantages of super rice is its abilityto thrive in challenging environments. For example, in regions with poor soil quality or limited water supply, traditional rice varieties may struggle to grow and produce good yields. However, super rice is engineered to be more resilient and adaptable, allowing it to flourish in these conditions. This is particularly important in developing countries where agriculture is a major source of livelihood for many people.Another benefit of super rice is its resistance to pests and diseases. In the past, farmers often had to use chemical pesticides and herbicides to protect their rice crops, which not only added to their production costs but also had negative environmental impacts. With super rice, the need for these harmful chemicals is significantly reduced, leading to more sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.In addition to its resilience and productivity, super rice also offers nutritional benefits. It has been enhanced to contain higher levels of essential nutrients such as vitamins and minerals, which can help combat malnutritionand improve public health. This is especially important in regions where rice is a staple food and a major source of nutrition for the population.Overall, super rice has the potential to transform the way we grow and consume rice. It has already made a positive impact in many countries, and I believe its significance will continue to grow in the future. I am excited to see how this innovative technology will contribute to global food security and sustainable agriculture.中文：超级水稻是一项具有革命性意义的发明，对农业和粮食生产产生了巨大影响。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Biomass co-firing options on the emission reduction and electricity generation costs in coal-fired power plantsAbstractCo-firing offers a near-term solution for reducing CO2 emissions from conventional fossil fuel power plants. Viable alternatives to long-term CO2 reduction technologies such as CO2 sequestration, oxy-firing and carbon loop combustion are being discussed, but all of them remain in the early to mid stages of development. Co-firing, on the other hand, is a well-proven technology and is in regular use though does not eliminate CO2 emissions entirely. An incremental gain in CO2 reduction can be achieved by immediate implementation of biomass co-firing in nearly all coal-fired power plants with minimum modifications and moderate investment, making co-firing a near-term solution for the greenhouse gas emission problem. If a majority of coal-fired boilers operating around the world adopt co-firing systems, the total reduction in CO2 emissions would be substantial. It is the most efficient means of power generation from biomass, and it thus offers CO2 avoidance cost lower than that for CO2 sequestration from existing power plants. The present analysis examinesseveral co-firing options including a novel option external (indirect) firing using combustion or gasification in an existing coal or oil fired plant. Capital and operating costs of such external units are calculated to determine the return on investment. Two of these indirect co-firing options are analyzed along with the option of direct co-firing of biomass in pulverizing mills to compare their operational merits and cost advantages with the gasification option.1. IntroductionThe evidence of the effects of anthropogenic emission on global climate is overwhelming [1]. The threat of increasing global temperatures has subjected the use of fossil fuels to increasing scrutiny in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) and pollutant emissions. The issue of global warming needs to be addressed on an urgent basis to avoid catastrophic consequences for humanity as a whole.Socolow and Pacala [2] introduced the wedge concept of reducing CO2 emissions through several initiatives involving existing technologies, instead of a single future technology or action that may take longer to develop and stronger willpower to implement. A wedge represents a carbon-cutting strategy that has the potential to grow from zero today to avoiding 1 billion tons of carbon emissions per year by 2055. It has been estimated [3] that at least 15 strategies are currently available that, with scaling up, could represent a wedge of emissions reduction.Although a number of emission reduction options are available to the industry, many of them still face financial penalties for immediate implementation. Some measures are very site/location specific while others are still in an early stage of development. Carbon dioxide sequestration or zero emission power plants represent the future of a CO2 emissions-free power sector, but they will take years to come to the mainstream market. The cost of CO2 capture and sequestration is in the range of 40e60 US$/ton of CO2, depending on the type of plant and where the CO2 is stored [4,5]. This is a significant economic burden on the industry, and could potentially escalate the cost of electricity produced by as much as 60%.Canada has vast amounts of biomass in its millions of hectares of managed forests, most of which remain untapped for energy purposes. Currently, largequantities of the residues from the wood products industry are sent to landfill or are incinerated [6]. In the agricultural sector, grain crops produce an estimated 32 million tons of straw residue per year. Allowing for a straw residue of 85% remaining in the fields to maintain soil fertility, 5 million tons would still be available for energy use. Due to an increase in land productivity, significant areas of land in Canada, which were earlier farmed, are no longer farmed. These lands could be planted withfast-growing energy crops, like switch-grass offering potentially large quantities of biomass for energy production [6].Living biomass plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. So, its combustion/gasification for energy production is considered carbon neutral. Thus if a certain amount of biomass is fired in an existing fossil (coal, coke or oil) fuel fired plant generating some energy, the plant could reduce firing the corresponding amount of fossil fuel in it. Thus, a power plant with integrated biomass co-firing has a lower net CO2 contribution over conventional coal-fired plants.Biomass co-firing is one technology that can be implemented immediately in nearly all coal-fired power plants in a relatively short period of time and without the need for huge investments. It has thus evolved to be a near-term alternative to reducing the environmental impact of electricity generation from coal. Biomass co-firing offers the least cost among the several technologies/ options available for greenhouse gas reduction [7]. Principally, co-firing operations are not implemented to save energy but to reduce cost, and greenhouse gas emissions (in some cases). In a typical co-firing plant, the boiler energy usage will be the same as it is operated at the same steam load conditions (for heating or power generation), with the same heat input as that in the existing coal-fired plant. The primary savings from co-firing result from reduced fuel costs when the cost of biomass fuel is lower than that of fossil fuel, and avoiding landfill tipping fees or other costs that would otherwise be required to dispose of unwanted biomass. Biomass fuel at prices 20% or more below the coal prices would usually provide the cost savings needed [8].2. Co-firing optionsBiomass co-firing has been successfully demonstrated in over 150 installationsworldwide for a combination of fuels and boiler types [9]. The co-firing technologies employed in these units may be broadly classified under three types:i. Direct co-firing,ii. indirect co-firing, andiii. gasification co-firing.In all three options, the use of biomass displaces an equivalent amount of coal (on an energy basis), and hence results in the direct reduction of CO2 and NOx emissions to the atmosphere. The selection of the appropriate co-firing option depends on a number of fuel and site specific factors. The objective of this analysis is to determine and compare the economics of the different co-firing options. Brief descriptions of the three co-firing options are presented here.2.1. Direct co-firingDirect co-firing involves feeding biomass into coal going into the mills, that pulverize the biomass along with coal in the same mill. Sometime separate mills may be used or biomass is injected directly into the boiler furnace through the coal burners, or in a separate system. The level of integration into the existing plant depends principally on the biomass fuel characteristics.Four different options are available to incorporate biomass cofiring in pulverized coal power plants [10]. In the first option, the pre-processed biomass is mixed with coal upstream of the existing coal feeders. The fuel mixture is fed into the existing coal mills that pulverize coal and biomass together, and distribute it across the existing coal burners, based on the required co-firing rate. This is the simplest option, involving the lowest least capital costs, but has a highest risk of interference with the coal firing capability of the boiler unit. Alkali or other agglomeration/corrosion-causing agents in the biomass can build-up on heating surfaces of the boiler reducing output and operational time [11]. Furthermore, different combustion characteristics of coal and biomass may affect the stability and heat transfer characteristics of the flame [12]. Thus, this direct co-firing option is applicable to a limited range of biomass types and at very low biomass-to-coal co-firing ratios.The second option involves separate handling, metering, and pulverization of the biomass, but injection of the pulverized biomass into the existing pulverized fuel pipe-work upstream of the burners or at the burners. This option requires only modifications external to the boiler. One disadvantage would be the requirement of additional equipment around the boiler, which may already be congested. It may also be difficult to control and to maintain the burner operating characteristics over the normal boiler load curve.The third option involves the separate handling and pulverizationof the biomass fuel with combustion through a number of burners located in the lower furnace, dedicated to the burning of the biomass alone. This demands a highest capital cost, but involves the least risk to normal boiler operation as the burners are specifically designed for biomass burning and would not interfere with the coal burners.The final option involves the use of biomass as a reburn fuel for NOx emission control. This option involves separate biomass handling and pulverization, with installation of separate biomass fired burners at the exit of the furnace. As with the previous option, the capital cost is high, but risk to boiler operation is minimal.2.2. Indirect or external co-firingIndirect co-firing involves the installation of a completely separate biomass boiler to produce low-grade steam for utilization in the coal-fired power plant prior to being upgraded, resulting in higher conversion efficiencies. An example of this option is the Avedore Unit 2 project in Copenhagen, Denmark. In Canada, Greenfield Research Inc. has developed a similar CFB boiler design that utilizes a number of units of the existing power plant systems like ID fan etc. to reduce the capital cost. In this system, a subcompact circulating fluidized bed boiler is designed specifically to have a piggy-back ride on an existing power plant boiler. Since it is not a stand-alone boiler it does not need many of the equipment or component of a separate boiler. This unit releases flue gas at relatively high temperature and joins the existing flow stream of the parent coal-fired boiler after air heater. Thus, the flue gas from the co-firing unit does not come in contact with any heating elements of the existing boiler, thusavoiding the biomass related fouling or corrosion problem, which is the largest concern of biomass cofiring.This boiler is totally independent of the parent unit, and as such, any outage in the co-firing unit does not affect the generation of the parent plant. Thus this indirect combustion-based option offers high reliability. The piggy-back boiler produces low pressure steam feeding into the process steam header of the power plant. Fig. 1 shows the photograph of one such unit built by Greenfield Research Inc., for a 220MWe Pulverized coal-fired boiler in India. In this specific case, the piggy-back boiler fired waste fuel from the parent boiler as that was the need of the plant.2.3. Gasification co-firingCo-firing through gasification involves the gasification of solid biomass and combustion of the product fuel gas in the furnace of the coal-fired boiler. This approach offers a high degree of fuel flexibility. Since the gas can be injected directly into the furnace for burning, the plant can avoid expensive flue gas cleaning as one would need for syngas or fuel gas for diesel engines. As the enthalpy of the product gas is retained, this results in a very high energy conversion efficiency. If the biomass contains highly corrosive elements like chlorine, alkali etc., a certain amount of gas cleaning may be needed prior to its combustion in the furnace.Another important benefit of injection of gas in the furnace is that it serves as a gas-over firing designed to minimize NOx.Although less popular, indirect or external and gasification cofiring options have certain advantages, such as the possibility to use a wide range of fuels and easy removal of ash. Despite the significantly higher capital investment requirement, these advantages make these two options more attractive to utility companies in some cases.3. Current status of biomass co-firingThere are a number of co-firing installations worldwide, with approximately a hundred in Europe, 40 in the US and the remainder in Australia and Asia (Fig. 2) [9,13]. Most of these installations employ direct co-firing, mainly because it is the simplest and least cost option. Examples include the 635 MWe EPON Project of Gelderland Power Station in Holland which uses direct co-firing with waste wood andthe 150 MWe Studstrup Power Plant, Unit 1, near Aarhus, Denmark co-firing straw.Gasification co-firing is also an attractive option. Three examples of the plants operating on this type of co-firing are: the 137 MWe Zeltweg Power Plant in Styria in Austria, the AMERGAS biomass gasification project at the Amer Power Plant in Geertruidenberg, Holland, and the Kymiarvi power station at Lathi in Finland.The majority of biomass co-firing installations is operated at biomass: coal co-firing ratios of less than 10%, on a heat input basis. The successful operation of these plants shows that co-firing at low ratios does not pose any threat or major problems to the boiler operation.4.ConclusionCo-firing reduces the cost of CO2 reduction as its cost is potentially lower than that for CO2 sequestration in an existing power plant. For example, the cost of sequestration of 40e60$/ton of CO2 was much higher than the 33$/ton CO2 reduction cost through cofiring. The present analysis examines a special external co-firing option in an existing plant with two other co-firing options: direct combustion co-firing, and gasification based indirect co-firing. An analysis carried out for a plant in the eastern Canada indicates that direct co-firing can offer an IRR of more than twice that of indirect co-firing. Direct co-firing however suffers from a major uncertainty about fouling and corrosion of its superheater tubes, and breakdown of the mills while handling biomass. This loss, conservatively estimated at 1%, could have significant impact on the viability of the co-firing option. The novel external co-firing option, needs higher capital investment, but is entirely free from these uncertainties. For high alkali, high chlorine biomass with high moisture content, the loss in capacity factor could increase significantly. A sensitivity analysis of the effect of plant capacity factor on the IRR indicates a strong dependency of IRR on the Capacity Factor (CF). IRR reduces at an increasing rate for a steady loss of CF. However, the plant can operate viably even at a CF loss of 4%, offering an IRR of 22.2%.译文：生物质混燃的燃煤电厂减排和发电成本的选择混烧提供了减少传统化石燃料电厂的二氧化碳排放量近期解决方案。

稻草建筑材料在未来是否成为可能？露易丝·蒂克尔用稻草修房子并没有为《三只小猪》中的第一只带来任何好处，但是，如果巴斯大学的研究成果被建筑行业所接受的话，那么现代草砖将会成为未来的伟大设计。

说到一个草砖房子，你可能会联想到一个摇摇欲坠的窝棚，它漏水，发出吱吱的响声，随时都会垮塌在地，还带着类似农家的气息。

但是当你踏入BaleHaus的时候，一个被修建于巴斯大学校园里，看起来原始的当代房屋，将会令你吃惊地出展现在你面前，并且，你会发现你无法找到任何一缕稻草。

相反，你在一楼的走廊将会看到一个拥有两间卧室和一个浴室的倒置房子，和楼上一个通风的开放式的生活区。

这就像是从斯堪的纳维亚半岛抵达了萨默赛特郡。

这些由石灰做底泥制成的，干燥稻草捆，原来都是被紧紧捆住并放置于一系列预制好的木质矩形框架结构的墙中的，它们像乐高拼装玩具一样被嵌入一个叫做ModCell 的嵌板中。

这些“草屋”存在的问题似乎并不在于它们并不实用，而是人们意识到它们有点非主流，并且并不是特别耐用。

再加上，这样的草屋很难拿去获得抵押贷款。

巴斯大学BRE的建筑材料创新中心的主管Peter Walker 教授指出，稻草的好处在于：“它是便宜、易于广泛应用的良好绝缘体材料，它被用在房屋建筑上已经好几百年。

”作为整个世界的工业副产品——这些秸秆在谷物收获以后被留下——只要它们不分解，就仍然有效地吸收和固定大气中的碳。

对于建筑行业来说，当前所依赖的材料是无论在生产还是运输上都具有极高的能耗和碳消耗的嵌入式混凝土和砖——因此，稻草可以为解决温室气体排放这一问题提供一个友好的解决方案。

无论这个草屋看上去有多时髦，多现代化还是多环保，你仍然想要知道它是否会在雷电交加的暴风雨中被淋得湿透或者是否会因你打翻的蜡烛，而被被嗖嗖的火焰烧的精光。

Walker 教授和他的研究伙伴公布了他们的研究结果，Dr Katharine Beadle 花费了18个月的时间，通过一个详尽的危险因素清单去测试这个BaleHaus被腐蚀、烧毁、吹倒的可能，到目前为止，这个房子看来似乎是可靠的。

2008年12月一、Sustainable development is applied to just about everything from energy to clean water and economic growth, and as a result it has become difficult to question either the basic assumptions behind it or the way the concept is put to use.可持续发展适用于诸如能源，净水，经济增长等几乎所有的方面，因此，要对可持续发展的基本假设或其概念的实施方法提出质疑也变得日益困难。

This is especially true in agriculture, where sustainable development is often taken as the sole measure of progress without a proper appreciation of historical and cultural perspectives.这在农业方面尤其显著，可持续发展经常被认为是农业进步的唯一标准，而这并没有从历史和文化的角度进行适当的评估。

To start with, it is important to remember that the nature of agriculture has changed markedly throughout history, and will continue to do so .medieval agriculture in northern Europe fed, clothed and sheltered a predominantly rural society with a much lower population density than it is today.首先，重要的是认识到农业的本质随着历史的发展已经发生了显著的变化，并且这种变化仍将持续。

TPO65阅读-3 Pastoralism and Agriculture in Iran原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文Pastoralism and Agriculture in Iran①Geographical constraints have had important consequences for the economy and society of Iran. Where rainfall is adequate, there are fertile valleys and grasslands suitable for grazing animals. However, since the natural vegetation tends to be sparse, it is difficult for such animals to remain in one place for any length of time. Thus nomadic pastoralism—keeping livestock (such as sheep and goats) by wandering from place to place—was one of the first and most persistent human economic activities to flourish in this area. This nomadic movement was often of the vertical variety, with people and animals moving from lowlands in wintertime to highlands in summer. The animals raised by the pastoralists provided not only food but also material for crafts such as the making of carpets, thick felt cloth, and tents. The pastoralists were typically organized into large tribal confederations capable of controlling the vast territories needed for maintaining their herds.②The tribes were a powerful social and political factor throughout Iranian history. The skills necessary for herding animals, hunting and chasing off predators, directing migrations, disciplining tribesmen, and protecting lands and animals from rivals could be easily adapted and directed toward military purposes as well. It was typically the tribes that produced the soldiers and rulers of the country and provided the power base for most of its dynasties. Once established, governments needed to cultivate the support of friendly tribal groups and tried to control hostile tribes by combat, deportation, or forcible settlement. At the beginning of the twentieth century, approximately one-fourth of the population were tribal peoples, and they were a potent force in Iranian affairs. With the advent of mechanized armies in the 1930s, however, there were systematic efforts to break the power of the tribes and to coerce the tribal population into a sedentary way of life. These efforts have been largely successful, and the tribes are no longer so significant a force in either the Iranian economy or society. Less than 5 percent of the population now consists of nomadic pastoralists.③The aridity of the Iranian plateau retarded its agricultural development in comparison to adjacent regions such as Mesopotamia, which had great rivers to draw upon for a supply of water. Eventually, at some uncertain date probably about 26 centuries ago, there was a technological breakthrough that made it possible to farm crops outside the few oases, streams, and other places with sufficient rainfall for agriculture. This was the development of underground canals known as qanats. The qanat system took advantage of the natural slope (inclination) of the plateau basins. A well would be dug in the foothills to reach a water source, usually water from melting snow that had seeped underground. Then a sequence of wells and shafts connected by underground canals would be constructed to transport the water to an area suitable for cultivation, where it could support the needs of one or more villages. The slope of the underground canals had to be controlled carefully to prevent erosion, and the interior surface of wells and shafts needed to be kept under constant maintenance to prevent them from collapsing.④Since the canals were underground, loss from evaporation was minimized. Gravity provided the means of moving the water, so no mechanical energy was required to operate the system. The numerous wells and shafts kept the length of the tricky underground canal short and facilitated repairs of each segment. Built up over the centuries, the system eventually became immense. It has been estimated that the total length of the qanat system today, counting wells, shafts, and canals, is in excess of 300,000 kilometers (almost the distance from Earth to the Moon!), which gives some idea of the tremendous investment in money and labor power it represents. Yet the type of agriculture that developed around the qanat system gave modest yields and required hard work from the peasant farmers, who received only a small share of the agricultural produce.译文伊朗的畜牧和农业①地理上的限制对伊朗的经济和社会产生了重要的影响。