中西方称谓对比分析研究

中西方称谓对比分析研究An Analysis of the Differences in Forms of Address between China and WesternCountriesAbstract:Address forms, as important components in the process of communication, are special language mark for interaction. The speaker will always choosethe appropriate forms of address because of the hearer's age, occupation,status, identity and the degree of emotion. Address forms in China andwestern countries belong to different addressing systems and also havedifferent usages of address terms. The paper will discuss the differences ofseveral types of address forms between China and western Countries. Thisstudy will be helpful for people to overcome the cultural obstacles andmisunderstandings between the east and west.Key words: address forms; comparison; differences摘要：称谓语是一种特殊的语言符号，是言语交往过程的重要组成部分。

由于年龄、职业、地位、身份及感情程度，说话者总会选择合适的称谓语。

但是由于中国和西方国家的称谓语是不同称谓系别，应用起来也会不同。

文章将论述中西方的几种称谓的差别，这对人们克服东西方文化障碍，避免造成误解有一定帮助。

本文将对四种称谓形式的不同应用及原因进行讨论，分别展现中西方不同的文化特点。

本文将重点探讨亲属称谓的异同。

关键词：称谓语；比较；差异ContentsI.Introduction (1)A. Necessity and importance of studying address forms (1)B. Situation of studying address forms (1)1. Situation of studying address forms in China (1)2. Situation of studying address forms abroad (2)C. Some essential concepts concerning address forms (3)II. Classification of Address Forms (3)A. Classification of address forms in English (3)B.Classification of address forms in Chinese (4)III. The Similarities of Address Forms in Western Countries and China (5)IV. General Introduction of Three Address Forms (5)A. Address names (5)B. Address of courtesy (6)C. Address forms based on social relations (7)V. Address of Kinship (7)A. Definitions of address of kinship (7)B. similarities in address of kinship (7)C. Differences of address of kinship between China and western countries (8)1. The degree of definitude (8)a. The differences of kinship address in ages and generation (9)b. The differences of addresses in paternal and maternal relationship (9)c. The diversity in the gender of addresses (10)d. A contrast in-law relationship (10)2. The differences of extensiveness (10)D. Reasons and the origin of the differences of address of kinship (11)1. Differences of family schema (11)2. Differences of relationship between people (11)3. Differences of social values system (12)VI. Conclusion (12)Works Cited (13)I. IntroductionA. Necessity and importance of studying address formsAddress forms are the important components in the process of speech communication. In most cases, addressing is the first message sent to the people. Different address forms not only reflect the speaker's social status, but also express the speaker's emotion and attitudes towards the listener. In a sense, implications in the communication may be expressed only by address forms. On the one hand, different address forms reflect the differences in the communicators' social status; on the other hand, they may indicate the speaker's feelings and attitudes towards the listener.When we study any aspect of language, we will inevitably have certain linguistic theories. So it goes the same thing to the study of address. In order to express concepts, communicators will definitely choose a proper address form. “In the study of English address system, Aph Fasold differentiated two kinds of address forms in pragmatic functions, that is, the address form of indicating social relationship and the summonses of getting the interlocutor's attention”(杨维忠12). Ervin-Tripp held the view that “if an individual of the specific status was once titled with an accepted normal form of address, then any departure or shift in the referred address form would signify a certain message”(132). As a matter of fact, the traditional sociology, anthropology, ethnology and linguistics mainly do search on the structure of address systems and the various traditions in societies, peoples, culture and historical traditions.In contrast, the modern sociolinguistics, in regard of the applications of address forms, not only pays more attention to the different speech participants in different social contexts, but also studies the motivations and regulations that the speaker chooses.Through categorizing and comparing, the paper distinguishes Chinese and English addressing forms, and concludes that proper use of addressing is of vital importance to any successful intercultural communication.B. Situation of studying address forms1. Situation of studying address forms in ChinaIn China, there have been several works of address terms, which are mainly on the address of kinship. Some famous scholars ever criticized that some overseaspapers on the Chinese address of kinship merely listed the nouns of the kinship, but not explained the social significances.With the development of sociolinguistics these years, scholars started to notice the usages of address forms in the daily communication of speech. Chen Yuan has put forwards some forms and semantics of address that occurred in Mainland of China since 1949. He illustrated it with an example of 爱人and a fresh usage of friend (78-82). “Ti Yongshun point ed out in his Address and Its Usage that there are some relations between the two terms: address forms and summonses”(杨维忠13). Another kind of research on address form was to collect some real examples in the communication of daily life, and study the changes of Chinese address resulting from the social reforms. Scollon and Zhu Wanjin studied the address forms of comrade and 师傅in their paper, and the similar research was done in Chen Songqin's article. Zhu Wanjin studied the various factors that influenced the choices of address forms in different Chinese colonies. “Hu Wenzhong also analyzed such factors in different Chinese colonies, such as age, position”(杨维忠14).To sum up, many scholars in China have come to study the address system either from the different perspectives or some concrete issues in application. Such studies are generally static and descriptive. In fact, the address terms in address system are really varied with the features of region and community. In other words, different social communities or social classes from varied regions may utilize their own address system. Therefore, to study the various classifications of address systems and their characteristics in application will be surely important for us to find out the key issues, for which some appropriate explanations can be given accordingly.2. Situation of studying address forms abroad .The research about the address system of western countries was the classic work that Roger Brown and Marguerite Ford published in 1960s. In addition, Ervin-Tripp took a quite different approach to the study of the application of address forms. She presented the address form system, with the help of a flow chart developed by Geoghegan.The Ervin-Tripp's computer flow chart format of address system outlines the general rules of choice in a nearly ideal linguistic situation and it possesses the real generalization. Meanwhile, it shows that the choice and certainty of the address semantic are not as simple as expected commonly.As a matter of fact, we have noticed that Ervin-Tripp, Zhu Wanjin and other scholars in domestic and overseas had not provided in the flow chart any evidenceassociated with the thought process when speakers chose the relative forms of address, but regarded it as a logic module that could cover the application situation of all address forms.C. Some essential concepts concerning address formsAddress forms are frequently used in daily communications. People use address forms subconsciously and naturally and few ever think over it. Actually People in ancient times did not give a complete definition for address forms. Not until modern times, with the arising of sociolinguistics, address forms become a spirited topic for linguistics. People make attempts to definitely define address forms. However，to define address forms is not an easy task because they involve many aspects. There are various definitions made from different perspectives.1) “The terms used to refer to some one indirect linguistic interaction”(Crystal 19).2) “An address term is a numerically and attitudinally marked designator which(a) functions as a particle to pronominal you to form a notionally paradigmatic phrasal you; (b) consists of names, words, or a combination of both; (c)is used for the benefit of a speaker, addressee，or a third party hearer either optionally or necessarily for grammatical, practical, social, emotional or externally imposed reasons”(Dunkling 22).3) “Address term is a form used to refer to, or to name a person directly in speech or writing” (Wales 9).4) “A name or a title, especially one that is formal and descriptive”(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 245).5) “Address forms are the words speakers use to designate the person while they are talking to them” (Fasold 201).II. Classification of Address FormsAs for the classification of address forms，different researchers have different opinions.A.Classification of address forms in western countriesFasold (200) has pointed out that there are two kinds of address forms: names and second person pronouns. Names are further divided in to kin terms, terms of reference and summons for the convenience of studies.Hudson (184) divides address forms into vocatives and referring names in order to show that Power-solidarity relationship is central to the grammar.Firedirke Braun (123) has generally divide address forms into three categories, namely Pronouns of address, verb forms of address and nouns of address in most cases, when we say address forms, only nouns of address forms are intended.B.Classification of address forms in ChineseWhile classification of address forms is a bit more complicated in Chinese than that in English, they are divided into various categories by scholars from different perspectives.According to Tian Huigang(16), address system is divided into four groups that is kin term system, social address form system, names of address system, and pronouns of address system for the purpose of comparison between Chinese and other languages.Zhu Wanjing(56)has classified address forms into two parts: to address somebody face to face，and to refer to a third person.Gu Yueguo(24)has made a thorough description about address system in Chinese, including official title，the title of a technical or professional post, occupational title, honorifics, general address, and intimate address, name and kinship term.According to Cui Xiliang(112)，address forms fall into nine categories according to their communicative functions: pronouns of address, kin terms, social address form, relational address forms, occupational titles, courtesy titles, names, terms of endearment, and terms of prank.However, most of the Chinese and English researchers classify address forms into two categories: kinship terms and social address terms. This classification is the type characteristics of address generality of the majority of languages in the world(曲彦斌78). For example, Leslie Dunkling analyses “terms of address” from both the angle of family and that of society. Some Chinese researchers also tend to classify address forms into “kinship forms”and “non-kinship forms”. “Generally speaking, Chinese appellation words can be classified into two systems. One is kinship appellation system. Terms form this system are mainly used among people who are kin. The other is social appellation system. Terms from this system are chiefly used among people who are not kin, that is, used in social communication”(马宏基，常庆丰142).In both cultures, address forms can be categorized into similar types: First is thegeneral tile. The titles which can be used in most social occasions, without referring to specific identity and status are called general tiles. Such as Mr., Miss, Mrs., 同志，先生，and小姐etc. Second is the professional title. In English, there are not many professional titles, such as Professor, Doctor, etc., and there are many professional titles in Chinese, except 教授医生. and most commonly used ones are 书记，主任，经理etc. Third is the kinship term. The kinship terms are quite few in English, such as Mum, Dad, grandma, grandpa, uncle, aunt, and they are only used between family numbers. In Chinese, there are many kinship terms and they are quite complicated.In this paper, there are four address forms referred to: address of kinship, address names, addresses forms based on social relations and address of courtesy. And this paper will focus on address of kinship. Further elaboration about address of kinship will be given in part four.III.The Similarities of Address Forms in Western Countries and ChinaThe address forms of both western and eastern culture have the same functions as maintaining, enforcing and stabling the interpersonal relationships. By using the address f orms people can define one’s relationship to another and identify oneself as a part of a social group, etc. Second, T/V distinctions are quit similar. According to Brown and Gilman’s study they used T/V to denote the two kinds of pronouns: the T form is de scribed as the “familiar” form and the V form as the “polite” form. Power semantic and solidarity semantic dominate the choices between the T and V forms. That means the upper classes or the elder address the lower classes or the younger with T, while the lower classes or the younger address the upper classes or the elder with V. these principles are universal in both cultures. In modern Chinese address system we can find the equivalent second person pronouns “你” and “您” with Brown and Gilman’s “T” and “V”. Third, the categories of address forms are quite similar.IV. General Introduction of Two Address FormsA. Address namesAddress names are often used among such people, including the elder to the younger, by the senior to the junior or acquaintance.Address names, the symbol of the specific league member of the human society,include first name and family name. Address names in China are formed by first name pulsing family name, just the other way round in western countries. In China, the family name is far more important than first name. In ancient times, personal identity is firstly distinguished by his family name, which is also a part of traditional culture of China. There is never such a country in west owning integrative legal system and culture mentality attaching importance to colony. In western countries, they think much of individuality and stress the importance of personality, not collectivity. English names not only come from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, but also from Old English, Old French. The older of brother and sister is clearly distinguished in a Chinese family．It is usual to hear the third elder brother or the second younger sister. People in English speaking countries usually address sister’s or brother’s name.B. Address of courtesyHonors and titles that the addresses holds and bears to the appellations that can be considered as an embodiment of headship as well as a partial embodiment of some professions. They are usually classified into four groups: official title address form, post title address form, academic title address form and military title address form.The official title used as address form shows a phenomenon that the social hierarchical structures are embodied clearly in China. The titles that are frequently used in the official institutions include president, chairman, provincial governor, section chief (科长)，secretary, chief engineer, president (in university), head of institute (所长)，etc.The post titles include professor, associate professor, researcher, assistant researcher, senior engineer, etc.The academic title refers to the appellation derived from the academic degree that the address was awarded after his study finished. However, only the PhD degree can be used as an address form, master and bachelor are never used.The military titles refer to the appellation forms derived from the ranking titles of the military officials. The military titles in Chinese land forces include marshal, general, admiral, major general, senior colonel, colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, lieutenant, second lieutenant, staff sergeant, sergeant, corporal.In Chinese, people say “您” for courtesy, while in western countries there is only “you”. Title pulsing family name is common address to show respect in English, such as Sir, Mister.C. Address forms based on social relationsThe address forms of relations refer to the appellations between people, whose connection might not be absolutely specific. Such forms might be teacher, classmate, master (师傅)，boss, fellow countryman or fellow town man (老乡) friend, doctor, senior officer (首长)，etc.The usage of this type has to be considered from two angles: one is the address forms or appellations for specific relations, reflecting the true relationship between speakers; another is the address forms for broad relations, which only reflect the pseudo relationship but not the true one between speakers.In addition, all the above-listed address forms can also be attached with surnames, given name or full name to form compound appellations or address forms. In general, the formulas of surname + address form (SAF) and full name + address forms (FAF) are more formal, more serious and less emotional; but the formula of given name +address form (GAF) will be more emotional, more intimate, and it is usually applied to people in closer relations.V. Address of KinshipA. Definitions of address of kinshipKinship systems are a universal feature of language. They are the lexically identical terms and unique terminological systems labeled with a distinctive social and cultural nature. The kinship means the state of relatedness or connection by blood or marriage or adoption. Language is the carrier of culture. The differences of kinship indicate different culture between China and western countries.B. similarities in address of kinshipThere are also some similarities as follows. First, the distinguishing address of generations is both in Chinese and English. In Chinese, mother’s mother is called外婆. Of course that is different from 妈妈. Second, the addresses of lineal relatives and collateral relatives are very clear. We can see the similarities in the following chart.C. Differences of address of kinship between China and western countries1. The degree of definitudeIn fact, there is one specific form for each of the different kin address forms in Chinese, which is shown in table. A contrast of kin addresses form in English andNote 1:舅父=maternal uncle 姨父= maternal uncle-in-law 舅母=maternal aunt-in-law 姨母= maternal aunt伯父=paternal elder uncle 叔父= paternal younger uncle姑父=paternal elder uncle-in –law (e-uncle=elder uncle; y-uncle = younger uncle)伯母=paternal elder aunt-in law 婶母=paternal younger aunt-in-law姑母=paternal aunt侄子=paternal nephew 侄女= paternal niece外甥=maternal nephew 外甥女=maternal nieceNote 2: FF = father's family MF=mother's familyAF= address form G J =one generation juniorOne G S=one generation seniorGenerally speaking，English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address terms. In the whole kinship field, different languages bear great distinctions in address forms. There are many differences between Chinese and western languages. A most important characteristic of kinship address form in English is the fuzziness or mistiness of address forms. In this language, there is only one address form to gather up all the brothers, sisters and their offspring either from father's family origin or mother's family origin. In contrast, exactness of kinship address forms in Chinese is outstanding. Trough the comparison, we realize that the Chinese relations are more definite. This difference is not just in linguistics; it is fundamentally cultural. This kind of differences can bring out great problems to intercultural understanding.a. The differences of kinship address in ages and generationIn Chinese，address forms are oriented by generation, age. For example, there are eldest sister, little sister, and elder brother in Chinese family. The English addresses are single and not disporting ages. The male of the compeer in a family are called brother, and the female are called sister. Chinese people call the compeers who are older than father 伯伯and call the compeers who are younger than father 叔叔. However, there is only one word in English uncle.When Chinese people address compeers, they pay attention to ages. Among different generations, they pay attention to certain generations. In china, there are nine races in bloodline. The lists rank as 高祖, 曾祖, 祖, 父, 本人, 子, 孙, 曾孙, 玄孙. The corresponding core words in English addresses to Chinese address are only father and son. We have to add grand before core word, if it expresses grandfather, grandson or even low generation. If the generation contrasts too much, then one has to add great or several greats. Using aptitude kinship addresses to different people is a way to show good manners. While in western countries, the equality is more outstanding. They can names of parents, teachers and the elder of the same compeers directly.b. The differences of addresses in paternal and maternal relationshipChinese attaches importance to differences of addresses in paternal and maternal relationship. In Chinese, father’s brothers are called 叔叔or 伯伯and mother’s brothers are called舅舅. In English, whether brothers in paternal and maternal relationship, they are all called uncle. And in Chinese address，maternal relatives areless important than paternal relatives. People add “外” ahead the addresses, such as 外祖母, 外祖父.c. The diversity in the gender of addressesIf in Chinese, parents have sisters or brothers, based on gender and age, the children of them can be called as eight addresses: 表哥，表弟，表姐，表妹，堂哥，堂弟，堂姐，and 堂妹. These addresses describe the clear relations between the junior’s parents and oneself.In English, the above eight addresses can be described as one word, cousin. We cannot tell whether the cousin belong to paternal relatives or maternal relatives.d. A contrast between kinship addresses in-law relationshipThe paper has mentioned that the addresses of lineal relatives and collateral relatives are very clear both in Chinese and in English. Lineal relatives refer to relations that are consanguineous, such as father, children, brothers, sisters and grandparents. In-law relations come in to being via marriage, including one’s mate and mate’s all relatives and lineal relatives’ mate. Although Chinese and in English addresses are both differentiating lineal relatives and collateral relatives, the manners and the scope of the repartition are very different. In western countries, they add suffix in-law, such as son-in-law, parents-in-law, and sister-in-law. However, there are complete series of solitude glossary to address lineal relatives and collateral relatives in Chinese. In western countries, we find that the definition of the in-law relationship is very clear, that is in-law relationship is set up by law. If the law doesn’t certificate,2. The differences of extensivenessExtensiveness of kinship means, in informal occasion, people use kinship address forms to communicate with others, who are relatives or not relatives. InChina, people have accepted such social phenomena. Influenced by traditional culture, when Chinese people are affiliate with others, emotive harmonization is stressed. So they expand the family standard to social relations. Whether it is neighbor, friend, or stranger, Chinese people often use kinship address. Terms such as “uncle, aunt, grandpa, granny, sisters and brothers’’ are used as honorific titles for senior people or strangers in Chinese. Native speakers of English would be puzzled if they are addressed in this way by people outside the immediate family. And also the kinship terms for both the paternal and maternal sides in Chinese culture are different．However，the English kinship terms, such as uncle, cousin, aunt, grandpa and grandma have no difference between paternal and maternal sides.D. Reasons and the origin of the differences of address of kinship1. Differences of family schemaThe predilection of address of kinship predicates no more important in social life. The family in capitalism is very different from that in feudalism, reflected in language. China has long feudalism, whose cell of the society is kindred or family, which is extended family. Hierarchical system in feudalism is very clear. In order to protect the system, correlative and particular addresses appear.“In western countries, nuclear family occupies leading station. There are mother, father and children and the children will have their own life when they grow up. So they don’t think the kindred so important”(胡文仲66). Due to the family not leaving together, it’s not necessary to depart the form of the addresses in detail. Such addresses are fewer in western countries. In this kind of family, the form of addresses is free, open and self-awareness.Chinese addresses are influenced by ancestor law and ethic moral, which indicating close family relationship. While in western countries, family relationship is relaxed.2. Differences of relationship between peopleRelationship between people includes ascendency and consistency. “Relationship is extruding part of society and culture, which is used to differentiate another society and culture”(朱永涛124). Relationship between people is influenced by Confucianism. High status is superior, while low status is inferior. Various addresses of kinship are used to distinguish the position of different family members, which are also indicating the inequality relation. A typical example, men are superior to women.Mother’s parents,外祖父and外祖母are different from father’s parents 祖父and祖母. From the word “外”, men take up the leading station of the family, women are inferior. “Western culture origins from Judah religion and Greece philosophic, which both are proclaiming the idea of individual spirit”(顾嘉祖75). Western culture leans to consistence relationship. They are used to call names whether they are relatives or family numbers.3. Differences of social values system“Social values exist and are unique in different culture. They materialize from the surface layer such as language” (Samovar 60). To some extent, kinship indicates the core of the social values system: collectivism in Chinese culture and individualism in western culture. Collectivism emphasizes one’s sociality that is insisting the obligation to society and colony. Man should restrain himself and follow the ethic to have harmonious relationship with others. Chinese emphasize collectivism but English—speaking people value individualism．In China a person firstly is addressed as a member of a community or family then as an individua1. Individualism canonizes dependence and stress individual personality.VI. ConclusionThe paper discusses the differences of address forms between China and western Countries. In this paper, there are four address forms referred to: address of kinship, address names, addresses forms based on social relations and address of courtesy. And this paper will focus on address of kinship. Further elaboration about address of kinship will be given in part four. This study will be helpful for people to overcome the cultural obstacles and misunderstandings between the east and west.In the process of this contrastive study, we find that there exists a common tendency that the social structure influences the choices of address forms both in Chinese and English, that is, participants will be simultaneously restricted by many causes in their choice of address forms. The speaker will always choose the appropriate forms of address not only considering the hearer's age, occupation, status, identity and the position in the family hierarchy, but the distance of alienation, degree of emotion, speaking contexts and other factors as well. The distinctions that participants choose address forms also exist between Chinese and English. The power and solidarity that are emphasized in the choice of Chinese address forms are mostly。