GAC - the Criterion for Global Avalanche Characteristics of Cryptographic Functions

技术性贸易措施技术性贸易措施对机电产品贸易出口影响研究——基于RCEP东盟外成员发布的机电类WTO/TBT通报■ 彭 莉1* 杨 松2 范晓譞2（1. 上海海关机电产品检测技术中心；2. 海关总署国际检验检疫标准与技术法规研究中心）摘 要：RCEP（区域全面经济伙伴关系协定）的生效实施，标志着全球人口最多、经贸规模最大、最具发展潜力的自由贸易区正式落地。

为便利成员之间的货物贸易，RCEP加强了对WTO/TBT《技术性贸易壁垒协定》的履行。

机械、电子及运输设备等机电类产品是中国在RCEP域内贸易最具有竞争力、贸易量最大的产品。

了解并应对RCEP成员的技术性贸易壁垒对促进中国机电产品出口和贸易便利化有着积极影响。

本文梳理了除东盟外的RCEP成员近三年有关机电类WTO/TBT通报情况，并选取重点通报案例，对其现状进行了分析。

结果表明，产业贸易保护仍将存在，建议倡导推进成员之间合作与互认、推进我国产业标准和技术标准的升级。

关键词：区域全面经济伙伴关系协定，技术性贸易措施，机电产品出口，促进贸易便利化DOI编码：10.3969/j.issn.1002-5944.2023.21.030Research on Impact of Technical Measures to Trade on the Export ofMechanical and Electrical Products——Based on the WTO/TBT Notifications on Mechanical and Electrical Products issued by RCEP members other than ASEANPENG Li1* YANG Song2 FAN Xiao-xuan2（1. Technical Center for Mechanical and Electrical Product Inspection and Testing of Shanghai Customs District;2. Research Center of GACC for International Inspection and Quarantine Standards and Technical Regulations） Abstract:The implementation of Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) marks the official implementation of the free trade zone with the largest population, the largest economic and trade scale and the greatest development potential in the world. In order to facilitate the trade among the members, RCEP has strengthened the performance of Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade of WTO/TBT. Mechanical, electronic and transportation equipment and other electronically products are the most competitive Chinese products with the largest trade volume within RCEP region. Understanding and coping with the technical barriers to trade of RCEP members positively infl uence the export and trade facilitation of Chinese mechanical and electrical products. This paper sorts out WTO/TBT notifi cations on the mechanical and electrical products of RCEP members other than ASEAN in recent three years, and analyzes the current situation of key notifi cation cases. Based on the above analysis, the paper suggests that we should advocate promoting the cooperation and mutual recognition among the members and promoting the upgrading of China’s industrial standards and technical standards.Keywords: RCEP, technical measures to trade, export of mechanical and electrical products, promotion of trade facilitation彭莉，杨松，范晓譞：技术性贸易措施对机电产品贸易出口影响研究0 引 言RCEP是中国在谈的13个自由贸易区中参与度最大、经济规模最大、地缘政治影响最大的自贸区，是中国自贸区战略进程中的重要里程碑。

DIRECTIVE NUMBER: CPL 02-00-150 EFFECTIVE DATE: April 22, 2011 SUBJECT: Field Operations Manual (FOM)ABSTRACTPurpose: This instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148,Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009, whichreplaced the September 26, 1994 Instruction that implemented the FieldInspection Reference Manual (FIRM). The FOM is a revision of OSHA’senforcement policies and procedures manual that provides the field officesa reference document for identifying the responsibilities associated withthe majority of their inspection duties. This Instruction also cancels OSHAInstruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs,May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045,Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989.Scope: OSHA-wide.References: Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.6, Advance Notice ofInspections; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.14, Policy RegardingEmployee Rescue Activities; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.19,Abatement Verification; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1904.39,Reporting Fatalities and Multiple Hospitalizations to OSHA; and Housingfor Agricultural Workers: Final Rule, Federal Register, March 4, 1980 (45FR 14180).Cancellations: OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual, November9, 2009.OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and HealthPrograms, May 17, 1996.Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised FieldOperations Manual, June 15, 1989.State Impact: Notice of Intent and Adoption required. See paragraph VI.Action Offices: National, Regional, and Area OfficesOriginating Office: Directorate of Enforcement Programs Contact: Directorate of Enforcement ProgramsOffice of General Industry Enforcement200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N3 119Washington, DC 20210202-693-1850By and Under the Authority ofDavid Michaels, PhD, MPHAssistant SecretaryExecutive SummaryThis instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009. The one remaining part of the prior Field Operations Manual, the chapter on Disclosure, will be added at a later date. This Instruction also cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989. This Instruction constitutes OSHA’s general enforcement policies and procedures manual for use by the field offices in conducting inspections, issuing citations and proposing penalties.Significant Changes∙A new Table of Contents for the entire FOM is added.∙ A new References section for the entire FOM is added∙ A new Cancellations section for the entire FOM is added.∙Adds a Maritime Industry Sector to Section III of Chapter 10, Industry Sectors.∙Revises sections referring to the Enhanced Enforcement Program (EEP) replacing the information with the Severe Violator Enforcement Program (SVEP).∙Adds Chapter 13, Federal Agency Field Activities.∙Cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996.DisclaimerThis manual is intended to provide instruction regarding some of the internal operations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and is solely for the benefit of the Government. No duties, rights, or benefits, substantive or procedural, are created or implied by this manual. The contents of this manual are not enforceable by any person or entity against the Department of Labor or the United States. Statements which reflect current Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission or court precedents do not necessarily indicate acquiescence with those precedents.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONI.PURPOSE. ........................................................................................................... 1-1 II.SCOPE. ................................................................................................................ 1-1 III.REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 1-1 IV.CANCELLATIONS............................................................................................. 1-8 V. ACTION INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1-8A.R ESPONSIBLE O FFICE.......................................................................................................................................... 1-8B.A CTION O FFICES. .................................................................................................................... 1-8C. I NFORMATION O FFICES............................................................................................................ 1-8 VI. STATE IMPACT. ................................................................................................ 1-8 VII.SIGNIFICANT CHANGES. ............................................................................... 1-9 VIII.BACKGROUND. ................................................................................................. 1-9 IX. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. ........................................................ 1-10A.T HE A CT................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10B. C OMPLIANCE S AFETY AND H EALTH O FFICER (CSHO). ...........................................................1-10B.H E/S HE AND H IS/H ERS ..................................................................................................................................... 1-10C.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT............................................................................................................................... 1-10E. W ORKPLACE AND W ORKSITE ......................................................................................................................... 1-10CHAPTER 2PROGRAM PLANNINGI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2-1 II.AREA OFFICE RESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................. 2-1A.P ROVIDING A SSISTANCE TO S MALL E MPLOYERS. ...................................................................................... 2-1B.A REA O FFICE O UTREACH P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................................. 2-1C. R ESPONDING TO R EQUESTS FOR A SSISTANCE. ............................................................................................ 2-2 III. OSHA COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS OVERVIEW. ...................................... 2-2A.V OLUNTARY P ROTECTION P ROGRAM (VPP). ........................................................................... 2-2B.O NSITE C ONSULTATION P ROGRAM. ................................................................................................................ 2-2C.S TRATEGIC P ARTNERSHIPS................................................................................................................................. 2-3D.A LLIANCE P ROGRAM ........................................................................................................................................... 2-3 IV. ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULING. ................................................ 2-4A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-4B.I NSPECTION P RIORITY C RITERIA. ..................................................................................................................... 2-4C.E FFECT OF C ONTEST ............................................................................................................................................ 2-5D.E NFORCEMENT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATIONS. ....................................................................................... 2-6E.P REEMPTION BY A NOTHER F EDERAL A GENCY ........................................................................................... 2-6F.U NITED S TATES P OSTAL S ERVICE. .................................................................................................................. 2-7G.H OME-B ASED W ORKSITES. ................................................................................................................................ 2-8H.I NSPECTION/I NVESTIGATION T YPES. ............................................................................................................... 2-8 V.UNPROGRAMMED ACTIVITY – HAZARD EVALUATION AND INSPECTION SCHEDULING ............................................................................ 2-9 VI.PROGRAMMED INSPECTIONS. ................................................................... 2-10A.S ITE-S PECIFIC T ARGETING (SST) P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................. 2-10B.S CHEDULING FOR C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS. ..................................................................................... 2-10C.S CHEDULING FOR M ARITIME I NSPECTIONS. ............................................................................. 2-11D.S PECIAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (SEP S). ................................................................................... 2-12E.N ATIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (NEP S) ............................................................................... 2-13F.L OCAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (LEP S) AND R EGIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (REP S) ............ 2-13G.O THER S PECIAL P ROGRAMS. ............................................................................................................................ 2-13H.I NSPECTION S CHEDULING AND I NTERFACE WITH C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPANTS ....... 2-13CHAPTER 3INSPECTION PROCEDURESI.INSPECTION PREPARATION. .......................................................................... 3-1 II.INSPECTION PLANNING. .................................................................................. 3-1A.R EVIEW OF I NSPECTION H ISTORY .................................................................................................................... 3-1B.R EVIEW OF C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPATION .............................................................................. 3-1C.OSHA D ATA I NITIATIVE (ODI) D ATA R EVIEW .......................................................................................... 3-2D.S AFETY AND H EALTH I SSUES R ELATING TO CSHO S.................................................................. 3-2E.A DVANCE N OTICE. ................................................................................................................................................ 3-3F.P RE-I NSPECTION C OMPULSORY P ROCESS ...................................................................................................... 3-5G.P ERSONAL S ECURITY C LEARANCE. ................................................................................................................. 3-5H.E XPERT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................................................... 3-5 III. INSPECTION SCOPE. ......................................................................................... 3-6A.C OMPREHENSIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 3-6B.P ARTIAL. ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-6 IV. CONDUCT OF INSPECTION .............................................................................. 3-6A.T IME OF I NSPECTION............................................................................................................................................. 3-6B.P RESENTING C REDENTIALS. ............................................................................................................................... 3-6C.R EFUSAL TO P ERMIT I NSPECTION AND I NTERFERENCE ............................................................................. 3-7D.E MPLOYEE P ARTICIPATION. ............................................................................................................................... 3-9E.R ELEASE FOR E NTRY ............................................................................................................................................ 3-9F.B ANKRUPT OR O UT OF B USINESS. .................................................................................................................... 3-9G.E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES. ................................................................................................. 3-10H.S TRIKE OR L ABOR D ISPUTE ............................................................................................................................. 3-10I. V ARIANCES. .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-11 V. OPENING CONFERENCE. ................................................................................ 3-11A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-11B.R EVIEW OF A PPROPRIATION A CT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATION. ..................................................... 3-13C.R EVIEW S CREENING FOR P ROCESS S AFETY M ANAGEMENT (PSM) C OVERAGE............................. 3-13D.R EVIEW OF V OLUNTARY C OMPLIANCE P ROGRAMS. ................................................................................ 3-14E.D ISRUPTIVE C ONDUCT. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-15F.C LASSIFIED A REAS ............................................................................................................................................. 3-16VI. REVIEW OF RECORDS. ................................................................................... 3-16A.I NJURY AND I LLNESS R ECORDS...................................................................................................................... 3-16B.R ECORDING C RITERIA. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-18C. R ECORDKEEPING D EFICIENCIES. .................................................................................................................. 3-18 VII. WALKAROUND INSPECTION. ....................................................................... 3-19A.W ALKAROUND R EPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................... 3-19B.E VALUATION OF S AFETY AND H EALTH M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM. ....................................................... 3-20C.R ECORD A LL F ACTS P ERTINENT TO A V IOLATION. ................................................................................. 3-20D.T ESTIFYING IN H EARINGS ................................................................................................................................ 3-21E.T RADE S ECRETS. ................................................................................................................................................. 3-21F.C OLLECTING S AMPLES. ..................................................................................................................................... 3-22G.P HOTOGRAPHS AND V IDEOTAPES.................................................................................................................. 3-22H.V IOLATIONS OF O THER L AWS. ....................................................................................................................... 3-23I.I NTERVIEWS OF N ON-M ANAGERIAL E MPLOYEES .................................................................................... 3-23J.M ULTI-E MPLOYER W ORKSITES ..................................................................................................................... 3-27 K.A DMINISTRATIVE S UBPOENA.......................................................................................................................... 3-27 L.E MPLOYER A BATEMENT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................ 3-27 VIII. CLOSING CONFERENCE. .............................................................................. 3-28A.P ARTICIPANTS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-28B.D ISCUSSION I TEMS. ............................................................................................................................................ 3-28C.A DVICE TO A TTENDEES .................................................................................................................................... 3-29D.P ENALTIES............................................................................................................................................................. 3-30E.F EASIBLE A DMINISTRATIVE, W ORK P RACTICE AND E NGINEERING C ONTROLS. ............................ 3-30F.R EDUCING E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ................................................................................................................ 3-32G.A BATEMENT V ERIFICATION. ........................................................................................................................... 3-32H.E MPLOYEE D ISCRIMINATION .......................................................................................................................... 3-33 IX. SPECIAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES. ...................................................... 3-33A.F OLLOW-UP AND M ONITORING I NSPECTIONS............................................................................................ 3-33B.C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-34C. F EDERAL A GENCY I NSPECTIONS. ................................................................................................................. 3-35CHAPTER 4VIOLATIONSI. BASIS OF VIOLATIONS ..................................................................................... 4-1A.S TANDARDS AND R EGULATIONS. .................................................................................................................... 4-1B.E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3C.R EGULATORY R EQUIREMENTS. ........................................................................................................................ 4-6D.H AZARD C OMMUNICATION. .............................................................................................................................. 4-6E. E MPLOYER/E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................................................... 4-6 II. SERIOUS VIOLATIONS. .................................................................................... 4-8A.S ECTION 17(K). ......................................................................................................................... 4-8B.E STABLISHING S ERIOUS V IOLATIONS ............................................................................................................ 4-8C. F OUR S TEPS TO BE D OCUMENTED. ................................................................................................................... 4-8 III. GENERAL DUTY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 4-14A.E VALUATION OF G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 4-14B.E LEMENTS OF A G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENT V IOLATION.............................................................. 4-14C. U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE ........................................................................................................ 4-23D.L IMITATIONS OF U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..............................................................E.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS C ITED U NDER THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..................F. P ROCEDURES FOR I MPLEMENTATION OF S ECTION 5(A)(1) E NFORCEMENT ............................ 4-25 4-27 4-27IV.OTHER-THAN-SERIOUS VIOLATIONS ............................................... 4-28 V.WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ......................................................................... 4-28A.I NTENTIONAL D ISREGARD V IOLATIONS. ..........................................................................................4-28B.P LAIN I NDIFFERENCE V IOLATIONS. ...................................................................................................4-29 VI. CRIMINAL/WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ................................................... 4-30A.A REA D IRECTOR C OORDINATION ....................................................................................................... 4-31B.C RITERIA FOR I NVESTIGATING P OSSIBLE C RIMINAL/W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS ........................ 4-31C. W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS R ELATED TO A F ATALITY .......................................................................... 4-32 VII. REPEATED VIOLATIONS. ...................................................................... 4-32A.F EDERAL AND S TATE P LAN V IOLATIONS. ........................................................................................4-32B.I DENTICAL S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-32C.D IFFERENT S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-33D.O BTAINING I NSPECTION H ISTORY. .....................................................................................................4-33E.T IME L IMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................4-34F.R EPEATED V. F AILURE TO A BATE....................................................................................................... 4-34G. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-35 VIII. DE MINIMIS CONDITIONS. ................................................................... 4-36A.C RITERIA ................................................................................................................................................... 4-36B.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT. ..................................................................................................................4-37C. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-37 IX. CITING IN THE ALTERNATIVE ............................................................ 4-37 X. COMBINING AND GROUPING VIOLATIONS. ................................... 4-37A.C OMBINING. ..............................................................................................................................................4-37B.G ROUPING. ................................................................................................................................................4-38C. W HEN N OT TO G ROUP OR C OMBINE. ................................................................................................4-38 XI. HEALTH STANDARD VIOLATIONS ....................................................... 4-39A.C ITATION OF V ENTILATION S TANDARDS ......................................................................................... 4-39B.V IOLATIONS OF THE N OISE S TANDARD. ...........................................................................................4-40 XII. VIOLATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION STANDARD(§1910.134). ....................................................................................................... XIII. VIOLATIONS OF AIR CONTAMINANT STANDARDS (§1910.1000) ... 4-43 4-43A.R EQUIREMENTS UNDER THE STANDARD: .................................................................................................. 4-43B.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS OF A IR C ONTAMINANT S TANDARDS. ......................................... 4-43 XIV. CITING IMPROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES. ................... 4-45A.I NGESTION H AZARDS. .................................................................................................................................... 4-45B.A BSORPTION H AZARDS. ................................................................................................................................ 4-46C.W IPE S AMPLING. ............................................................................................................................................. 4-46D.C ITATION P OLICY ............................................................................................................................................ 4-46 XV. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING. ...................................................................... 4-47CHAPTER 5CASE FILE PREPARATION AND DOCUMENTATIONI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5-1 II.INSPECTION CONDUCTED, CITATIONS BEING ISSUED. .................... 5-1A.OSHA-1 ................................................................................................................................... 5-1B.OSHA-1A. ............................................................................................................................... 5-1C. OSHA-1B. ................................................................................................................................ 5-2 III.INSPECTION CONDUCTED BUT NO CITATIONS ISSUED .................... 5-5 IV.NO INSPECTION ............................................................................................... 5-5 V. HEALTH INSPECTIONS. ................................................................................. 5-6A.D OCUMENT P OTENTIAL E XPOSURE. ............................................................................................................... 5-6B.E MPLOYER’S O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH S YSTEM. ............................................................. 5-6 VI. AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES............................................................................. 5-8A.B URDEN OF P ROOF. .............................................................................................................................................. 5-8B.E XPLANATIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-8 VII. INTERVIEW STATEMENTS. ........................................................................ 5-10A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-10B.CSHO S SHALL OBTAIN WRITTEN STATEMENTS WHEN: .......................................................................... 5-10C.L ANGUAGE AND W ORDING OF S TATEMENT. ............................................................................................. 5-11D.R EFUSAL TO S IGN S TATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 5-11E.V IDEO AND A UDIOTAPED S TATEMENTS. ..................................................................................................... 5-11F.A DMINISTRATIVE D EPOSITIONS. .............................................................................................5-11 VIII. PAPERWORK AND WRITTEN PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS. .......... 5-12 IX.GUIDELINES FOR CASE FILE DOCUMENTATION FOR USE WITH VIDEOTAPES AND AUDIOTAPES .............................................................. 5-12 X.CASE FILE ACTIVITY DIARY SHEET. ..................................................... 5-12 XI. CITATIONS. ..................................................................................................... 5-12A.S TATUTE OF L IMITATIONS. .............................................................................................................................. 5-13B.I SSUING C ITATIONS. ........................................................................................................................................... 5-13C.A MENDING/W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS AND N OTIFICATION OF P ENALTIES. .................................. 5-13D.P ROCEDURES FOR A MENDING OR W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS ............................................................ 5-14 XII. INSPECTION RECORDS. ............................................................................... 5-15A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-15B.R ELEASE OF I NSPECTION I NFORMATION ..................................................................................................... 5-15C. C LASSIFIED AND T RADE S ECRET I NFORMATION ...................................................................................... 5-16。

AbstractNowadays, it’s clearly t see that China is threatened by the fresh water scarcity right now. According to this, I will try to design a best way which is suitable for China to solve this issue by comparing and contrasting different countries’ methods. I have collected some background information from the internet and extracted the main idea into a form. After analyzing it, I have reached a conclusion that reducing the factories which are creating pollutant into the rivers or lakes by establishing a special legal system is the most suitable way for China. This is a convenient and long-lasting project.1.0IntroductionTable 1.0 Solution to solve water scarcityThe purpose of the research is to find the information about water scarcity and to improve the water scarcity problem in China. I choose to increase the water supply as my original solution, and I have develped a creative solution based on the original one. As a result, the thesis of my research is to reduce the polluted water which comes from the factories is a effective way to improve the fresh water scarcity. Aquatic ecosystems cover about 70 percent of the Earth's surface. There are many kinds of animal life in the aquatic systems including microscopic zooplankton and all sizes of marine mammals. (eHow ND)2.0 MethodologyChina is now facing increasingly severe water scarcity problem, especially in the northern part of China. The character of China's water scarcity is the insufficiency of local water resources and the water quality which is decreasing because of the water pollution. (Jiang 2009) Due to the increasing population and the developing of many big cities in China, Chinese government must take action as soon as possible to improve the situation although it is a long-term task. In my opinion, the easiest way to improve this problem in a relatively short time is to establish a certain policy system so that the factories which create a lot of pollution can be reduced. This method can also save a lot of time and money. All that Chinese government has to do is just check if the local government is following the rules.There are several data sources such as the internet, textbooks of science from last semester, and I will also collect some information and experience from other countries' methods so that I can compare them in different situation to find the most effective way.The data that I have collected has helped me a lot to analyze the problem. This includes other countries’ methods to solve the issue. Then I compare them all to try to figure out which way is the most suitable for the situation in China. To sum up, the information that I got from several ways is really useful for me.3.0FindingsTable 2.0 Three main fresh water issues in ChinaHere are three main fresh water issues in China. First is about the wastewater pollution in China. For example, Tianjin is the third largest industrial city in China. However, the whole city’s drainage system and its wastewater treatment are far behind its industrial development. In order to deal with the problem, Tianjin Municipal Government has introduced a waste water improvement project, the World Bank also provide some help for them. Also, Chao Lake is one of the five largest lakes in China which locates in Shanghai, is also damaged because of the rapid development of industry and urban areas. The Shanghai government is also try to get help from the Asian Development Bank. (Min ND) Second issue is the uneven distribution of fresh water. South areas in China is facing the threaten of floods, however, there is not enough rainfall in north areas. The Chinese government has started a great project called south-to-north water diversion project since 2004. For more information about this project, see This project is still lasting until now. I believe that it will works very well to solve this problem. The third issue is about water pollution. Even in the places where the fresh water is rich, water pollution is also decreasing the fresh water supply. So the environmentalists are trying to reduce the factories which produce a lot of wastewater into the freshwater lakes. This work would be a long-lasting project for the whole country.In my opinion, globalization has both positive and negative impacts for the water scarcity in China. First, Chinese government can get a lot of help from other countries after globalization. As I said, Tianjin and Shanghai have already got financial help from some global banks. We can also absorb other countries’ experiences and methods to improve the water scarcity issues.However, there are also several disadvantages. Some international companies would start their municipal companies in other countries. Such small companies are usually factories which would create a lot of pollution into the seas or lakes. This kind of factories harms the environment a lot. Also, globalization may have bad impacts on the developing countries such as China. This is because that we are not strong enough to prevent the risks from happening.4.0 DiscussionAmerica also has water scarcity problem. For example, the Lake Mead, which supplies water for about 22 million people, will be dry by 2021. Also, the water from Colorado River may soon be compelled to cease pumping water to other places because of its water scarcity. The main reason for this is the global warming is fastening the speed of water evaporation. The American environmentalists suggest that they can dig ponds or underwater receptacles. Fortunately, this low-tech method has already helped the farmers in China. (Snyder, ND) India is also a typical country which has very drastic water scarcity problem. This issue even has a negative impact on the whole country’s food security because the farmers do not have enough water to irrigate the farmland. India is a developing country; however, the water scarcity limits the development of agriculture. The geological environment of India includes desert, plain, and tundra, so the climate changes very fast, this situation only makes the problem worse. So the Indian government starts to use a kind of special irrigation method, drip irrigation, and it is trying to improve the water management system. (Chatterjee ND) According to the findings, I have got a conclusion that the methods to solve fresh water issues depend on different situations in different countries. So, because China is a developing country, the industry and agriculture needs to be improved, reducing the factories which areproducing pollutant can not only improve the environment, but also provide more space for other companies to develop. As I have mentioned, Chinese government has already made a plan to solve those issues above. In my opinion, in spite of getting help from the big banks, the government can also hire some environmentalists who have a lot of experiences to design Whatlpful to solve the fresh water issue. I have compared and contrast several countries which are really typical for this problem. Then I find the best way that is very suitable for China. If this plan can be adopted, I i youyyy yee doordoor door dooro doooor fate wamtthat it will be really effective.As I have mentioned in the introd uction part, my original solution to solve the water scarcity problem is to increase water supply. Then I develped a creative solution according to the resesarch I have down on the internet. So I think that to reduce the factories which produce a lot of wastewater is a effective way to increase water supply. Flora Li Yi However, there are also several factors that can influence the findings. For example, the situations are different in different parts of China. Also, the geological environment is different. These are the aspects that I think may interfere with the findings.5.0 Conclusions and RecommendationsWe should then discover some key points for us to do the job successfully that is to say there is no doubt to think I am right and do for it since the portant we shoud zi ji qu faxianwen tnot just I have got after compare and contrast several different countries. It is suitable for China’s situation. Second, this method is easy to do, it will not cost a lot of money or need a lot of people to do it. These are the reasons that I think Chinese government would adopt this solution. If the solution can be adopted, the government should make some special policies orlaws to restrict the factories to prevent them from creating much pollution. Second, the government should let some people to go to all the industrial cities to check if the factories are following the rules. Then they should and so i ythe quality of water once a month so the environmentalists can know if the situatiot is the same for the thing i iken is improving. Of you, we can door me I oneThe key point of me is part I can see some part of myReferenceJiang,Y (2010), Water Scarcity –China, the encyclopedia of Earth , [online] Available at: /article/Water_scarcity_-_China [Accessed 10 March, 2013]Gast, C (ND), Definition of an aquatic ecosystem, [online] Available at: /about_6307480_definition-aquatic-ecosystem.html [Accessed 10 March, 2013]Min, K (ND), Water Pollution in China, , [online] Available at: /~sustain/suscoasts/krismin.html [Accessed 10 March, 2013]Chatterjee, S, (ND), The battle of water – India’s food insecurity compounded by water scarcity, [online] Available at: /alertnet/blogs/the-battle-for-water/indias-food-insecurity-compounded-b y-water-scarcity [Accessed 10 March, 2013]Snyder, S, (ND), Water Scarcity – The U.S. connection, the Water Project, [online] Available at: /water_scarcity_in_us.asp [Accessed 10 March, 2013]AppendicesPicture 3.0 South-to-north water diversion project in China。

天津市红桥区2023-2024学年高中学业水平合格性考试模拟考试英语试卷一、单项选择1．—He is an excellent cook.—_______. The fish he cooked makes me mouth-watering.A．I couldn’t agree more B．I don’t agree with youC．I completely disagree D．I’m not sure about you2．The _______ on her face told me that she was in a blue mood.A．appearance B．impression C．attitude D．expression 3．After the cake __________ 20 equal parts, the host took them before the guests.A．divided into B．had been divided intoC．separated into D．had been separated from4．The British people and the American people not only speak the same language but __________ a lot of special customs as well.A．share B．spare C．hold D．carry5．Some people who don’t like to talk much are not necessarily shy；they ______ just be quiet people.A．must B．may C．should D．would6．Who is ______ to be the best football player this year still dependsA．likely B．certain C．possible D．probable7．It is obvious to the students ______ they should get well prepared for their future.A．as B．which C．whether D．that8．We'll have a picnic in the park this Sunday ________ it rains or it's very cold.A．since B．if C．unless D．until9．You can never imagine what great difficulty I had __________ the solution to this problem.A．found B．to find C．finding D．for finding10．A fast food restaurant is the place __________, just as the name suggests, eating is performed quickly.A．which B．what C．there D．where二、完形填空My friend Michelle is blind, but you’d never know it. She makes such good use of her other 11 , including her “sixth sense”, 12 she rarely gives the impression she’s missed anything.Michelle looks after her children pretty much like the rest of us. She knows when to clean the house, she moves around so fast that often the 13 don’t realize she’s blind.I realized this the first time after my six-year-old daughter, Kayla, went to play there. When Kayla came home, she was very 14 about her day. She told me they had baked cookies, played games and done art projects. But she was 15 excited about her finger-painting project.“Mom, guess what?” said Kayla, all smiles. “I learned how to 16 colors today! Blue and red make purple, and yellow and blue make green! And Michelle 17 with us.”To my great 18 , my child had learnt about color from a blind friend!Then Kayla continued, “Michelle told me my 19 showed joy, pride and a sense of accomplishment. She really 20 what I was doing!” Kayla said she had never felt how good finger paints felt 21 Michelle showed her how to paint without looking at her paper.I realized Kayla didn’t know that Michelle was blind. When I told her, she was 22 for a moment. At first, she didn’t believe me. “But Mommy, Michelle knew exactly what was in my picture!” Kayla 23 . And I knew my child was right because Michelle had listened to Kayla describe her artwork. Michelle had also heard Kayla’s 24 in her work.We were silent for a minute. Then Kayla said slowly, “You know, Mommy, Michelle really did ‘see’ my picture. She just used my 25 ” Indeed, she uses a special type of “vision” that all mothers have.11．A．ways B．means C．methods D．senses 12．A．which B．when C．that D．as 13．A．guests B．family C．children D．friends 14．A．excited B．sad C．satisfied D．enjoyed 15．A．especially B．not so C．a little D．not at all16．A．paint B．draw C．create D．mix 17．A．stayed B．painted C．talked D．played 18．A．excitement B．encouragement C．delight D．surprise 19．A．attitude B．color C．picture D．paper 20．A．touched B．distinguished C．saw D．understood 21．A．after B．before C．until D．when 22．A．curious B．quiet C．puzzled D．worried 23．A．cried B．insisted C．complained D．informed 24．A．shortcomings B．difficulties C．pride D．description 25．A．paper B．eyes C．hands D．pens三、阅读理解Global Works provides international travel programs that help teens learn about the world. Costa Rica: Wild AdventureThis service program brings you into a wildlife reserve, where you will do some voluntary work to help protect local animals. After an overnight white-water rafting (漂流) trip, you get to work on sea turtle protection projects on Costa Rican beaches!GRADES: 9—12 DAYS: 21 DESTINA TION: Costa RicaFOCUS: Wildlife ProtectionA VG. GROUP SIZE:18 Students/3 StaffFiji Islands: Sunny Service and Island Immersion (沉浸)Looking for an unforgettable travel program? Join our Fijian family! Experience Fijian life firsthand and contribute to service projects that bring us to the heart of the local community. In this teen volunteer program, you will have a chance to play with the local kids and teach them English!GRADES: 9—12 DAYS: 17 DESTINA TION: Fiji IslandsFOCUS: Working with ChildrenA VG. GROUP SIZE:16 Students/2 StaffPuerto Rico: Hurricane ReliefThis is a hands-on service trip focused on hurricane (飓风) relief and disaster prevention efforts. Home repair work is the heart of this program. The projects we work on will help families and communities to deal with a future hurricane.GRADES: 9—12 DAYS: 8 DESTINA TION: Puerto Rico, United StatesFOCUS: Building ServicesA VG. GROUP SIZE:18 Students/3 StaffFrance: French ImmersionWant more than just a standard France teen travel program? This French adventure has it all! From the Palais de Versailles to the French Alps, your journey introduces you to some of France’s most attractive sites and stories.GRADES: 9—12 DAYS: 21 DESTINA TION: FranceFOCUS: French ImmersionA VG. GROUP SIZE: 18 Students/3 Staff26．What will you do if you are accepted into the travel program in Costa Rica?A．Rebuild homes for local families.B．Enter a local swimming competition.C．Help protect local animals.D．Teach local kids English.27．The students can ______ in Fiji Islands: Sunny Service and Island Immersion.A．teach kids French B．learn about disasterC．work with children D．visit attractive sites.28．Which program will you choose if you have ten days off?A．Puerto Rico: Hurricane Relief.B．Costa Rica: Wild Adventure.C．Fiji Islands: Sunny Service and Island Immersion.D．France: French Immersion.29．All four international travel programs have the same ______.A．target grades B．destination C．group size D．focus30．What is the purpose of the text?A．To encourage students to volunteer.B．To share how to spend holidays.C．To recommend four destinations.D．To introduce four travel programs.A perfectly preserved wreck (沉船) that has lain unnoticed in the icy Baltic Sea for over 500 years has finally been confirmed. The European ship was first observed in 2009, when a sonar(声呐) exploration by the Swedish Maritime Administration (SMA) indicated a large object in the area. However, it was not until early 2019 that researchers from Soton and MMT found evidence of the sunken ship using underwater robotic cameras.When the team observed the pictures of the 60-foot-long shipwreck, they were surprised to discover it was 99 percent complete. The scientists considered that the wreck's good condition is due to its place in the Baltic Seabed, where the oxygen levels are low. Oxygen is key to most ocean life's survival. Therefore, such an environment where the shipwreck stays reduces or completely removes the creatures that feed on rotting wood.So although this ship is contemporary to the times of Christopher Columbus, it shows a remarkable level of preservation after 500 years at the bottom of the sea. Dr. Pacheco-Ruiz, who led the MMT effort, said,“It's almost like it sank yesterday. It's a truly astonishing sight."The scientists are unsure what let the ship sink. However, the ship's guns, which are in their"ready to fire" positions, indicate it may have been the victim of a naval battle. Since the ship dates back to the early 16th century, historians predict it may have sunk during Sweden's three year independence war with its Danish rulers between 1521 and 1523. Alternatively, it could also have been involved in the border dispute (争端) between Russia and Sweden from 1554 to 1557.The ship is by far the best-preserved shipwreck ever found from the Age of Exploration, when Europeans explored the world by sea.What's more exciting is that the ship is similar to the Pinta and La Nina, which Comlubus famously sailed toward North America. The scientists, who continue to observe the shipwreck hope the boat's design will expose some of the technologies available to the Italian explorer during his 1492 voyage of discovery.31．What scientific achievement did Soton 's and MMT' s researchers make?A．Discovering a wreck using sonar.B．Getting the wreck out or icy water.C．Identifying the object found by SMA．D．Making the ancient wreck well preserved.32．What can we learn about the place of the sunken ship?A．It is generally unfit for creatures to live in.B．It is tough for scientists to do research.C．It contains too many harmful gases.D．It is filled with rotting wood.33．Dr. Pacheco-Ruiz's words reflected_________.A．his curiosity about the time when the ship sankB．his amazement at the ship's previous grandnessC．his surprise at the wreck's well-preserved conditionD．his shock at the sinking of the great European ship34．What's Paragraph 4 mainly about?A．The damage to the ship.B．The causes of the ship's sinking.C．The construction of the ship.D．The possible function of the ship. 35．What will the scientists' following research probably focus on?A．Recovering the ancient ships, the Pinta and La Nina.B．Finding every aspect of life in the Age of Exploration.C．Exploring the role the ship played in Columbus' exploration.D．Leaning about Columbus' voyage according to the ship's design.阅读下列短文，根据短文内容用英语回答问题。

参考答案Unit 1 People’s Livelihood ............................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

Passage A How better food safety technology can help minimize waste 错误!未定义书签。

Answers: 1.B 2.A 3.C 4.C 5.CPassage B Aging society – the global trend, its consequences, and the role of technology错误!未定义书签。

Answers: 1.[B] 2.[C] 3.[D] 4.[E] 5.[F] 6.[G] 7.[H] 8.[I] 9.[J] 10.[K]Passage C From barrenness to fruitfulness: Huamao Village's story of ending poverty错误!未定义书签。

Answers: 1. L 2. H 3. E 4. O 5. D 6. A 7. F 8. B 9. N 10. IUnit 2 Culture and Tradition ........................................................................... 错误!未定义书签。

Passage A How culture influences health beliefs .................................... 错误!未定义书签。

Answers: 1.D 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.CPassage B Chinese Medicine to Go Global ............................................. 错误!未定义书签。

特定植物油法典标准英文版CODEX STANDARD FOR NAMED VEGETABLE OILSCODEX STAN 210-1999The Appendix to this Standard is intended for voluntary application by commercial partners and not for application by governments.1. SCOPEThis Standard applies to the vegetable oils described in Section 2.1 presented in a state for human consumption.2. DESCRIPTION2.1 Product definitions(Note: synonyms are in brackets immediately following the name of the oil)2.1.1 Arachis oil (peanut oil; groundnut oil) is derived from groundnuts (seeds of Arachis hypogaea L.). 2.1.2 Babassu oil is derived from the kernel of the fruit of several varieties of the palm Orbignya spp.2.1.3 Coconut oil is derived from the kernel of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.).2.1.4 Cottonseed oil is derived from the seeds of various cultivated species of Gossypium spp.2.1.5 Grapeseed oil is derived from the seeds of the grape (Vitis vinifera L.).2.1.6 Maize oil (corn oil) is derived from maize germ (the embryos of Zea mays L.).2.1.7 Mustardseed oil is derived from the seeds of white mustard (Sinapis alba L. or Brassica hirta Moench), brown and yellow mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czernajew and Cossen) and of black mustard (Brassica nigra (L.) Koch).2.1.8 Palm kernel oil is derived from the kernel of the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).2.1.9 Palm oil is derived from the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).2.1.10Palm olein is the liquid fraction derived from the fractionation of palm oil (described above).2.1.11 Palm stearin is the high-melting fraction derived from the fractionation of palm oil (described above).2.1.12 Palm superolein is a liquid fraction derived from palm oil (described above) produced through a specially controlled crystallization process to achieve an iodine value of 60 or higher.2.1.13 Rapeseed oil (turnip rape oil; colza oil; ravison oil; sarson oil: toria oil) is produced from seeds of Brassica napus L., Brassica campestris L., Brassica juncea L. and Brassica tournefortii Gouan species.2.1.14 Rapeseed oil - low erucic acid (low erucic acid turnip rape oil; low erucic acid colza oil; canola oil) is produced from low erucic acid oil-bearing seeds of varieties derived from the Brassica napus L., Brassica campestris L. and Brassica juncea L., species.2.1.15 Rice bran oil (rice oil) is derived from the bran of rice (Oryza sativa L).2.1.16 Safflowerseed oil (safflower oil; carthamus oil; kurdee oil) is derived from safflower seeds (seeds of Carthamus tinctorious L.).2.1.17 Safflowerseed oil - high oleic acid (high oleic acid safflower oil; high oleic acid carthamus oil; high oleic acid kurdee oil) is produced from high oleic acid oil-bearing seeds of varieties derived from Carthamus tinctorious L.2.1.18 Sesameseed oil (sesame oil; gingelly oil; benne oil; benoil; till oil; tillie oil) is derived from sesame seeds (seeds of Sesamum indicum L.).2.1.19 Soya bean oil (soybean oil) is derived from soya beans (seeds of Glycine max (L.) Merr.).Adopted 1999. Revisions 2001, 2003, 2009. Amendment 2005.2.1.20 Sunflowerseed oil (sunflower oil) is derived from sunflower seeds (seeds of Helianthus annuus L.). 2.1.21 Sunflowerseed oil - high oleic acid (high oleic acid sunflower oil) is produced from high oleic acid oil-bearing seeds of varieties derived from sunflower seeds (seeds of Helianthus annuus L.).2.1.22 Sunflowerseed oil - mid oleic acid (mid-oleic acid sunflower oil) is produced from mid-oleic acid oil-bearing sunflower seeds (seeds of Helianthus annuus L.). 2.2Other definitions2.2.1 Edible vegetable oils are foodstuffs which are composed primarily of glycerides of fatty acids being obtained only from vegetable sources. They may contain small amounts of other lipids such as phosphatides, of unsaponifiable constituents and of free fatty acids naturally present in the fat or oil.2.2.2 Virgin oils are obtained, without altering the nature of the oil, by mechanical procedures, e.g. expelling or pressing, and the application of heat only. They may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.2.2.3 Cold pressed oils are obtained, without altering the oil, by mechanical procedures only, e.g. expelling or pressing, without the application of heat. They may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.3. ESSENTIAL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY FACTORS 3.1GLC ranges of fatty acid composition (expressed aspercentages)Samples falling within the appropriate ranges specified in Table 1 are in compliance with this Standard. Supplementary criteria, for example national geographical and/or climatic variations, may be considered, as necessary, to confirm that a sample is in compliance with the Standard.3.1.1 Low-erucic acid rapeseed oil must not contain more than 2% erucic acid (as % of total fatty acids). 3.1.2 High oleic acid safflower oil must contain not less than 70% oleic acid (as a % of total fatty acids). 3.1.3High oleic acid sunflower oil must contain not less than 75% oleic acid (as % of total fatty acids).3.3 Slip point Palm olein not more than 24°C Palm stearin not less than 44°C Palm superolein not more than 19.5°C4. FOOD ADDITIVES4.1 No food additives are permitted in virgin or cold pressed oils. 4.2FlavoursNatural flavours and their identical synthetic equivalents, and other synthetic flavours, except those which are known to represent a toxic hazard. 4.3AntioxidantsINS No. Additive Maximum Use Level 304 Ascorbyl palmitate 305 Ascorbyl stearate 500 mg/kg (Singly or in combination) 307a Tocopherol, d-alpha-307b Tocopherol concentrate, mixed307c Tocopherol, dl-alpha 300 mg/kg (Singly or in combination) 310 Propyl gallate 100 mg/kg 319 Tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) 120 mg/kg 320 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 175 mg/kg 321 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 75 mg/kgAny combination of gallates, BHA, BHT, or TBHQ not to exceed 200 mg/kg within individual limits 389 Dilauryl thiodiproprionate 200 mg/kg4.4 Antioxidant synergistsINS No.Additive Maximum Use Levelacid GMP330 Citric331(i) Sodium dihydrogen citrate GMPcitrate GMP331(iii) Trisodium384 Isopropylcitrates100 mg/kg (Singly or in combination) 472c Citric and fatty acid esters of glycerol4.5 Anti-foaming agents (oils for deepfrying)INS No.Additive Maximum Use Levelmg/kg900a Polydimethylsiloxane 105. CONTAMINANTS5.1The products covered by this Standard shall comply with the maximum levels of the Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Foods (CODEX STAN 193-1995).5.2The products covered by this Standard shall comply with the maximum residue limits for pesticides established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.6. HYGIENE6.1 It is recommended that the products covered by the provisions of this Standard be prepared and handled in accordance with the appropriate sections of the Recommended International Code of Practice - General Principles of FoodHygiene (CAC/RCP 1-1969), and other relevant Codex texts such as Codes of Hygienic Practice and Codes of Practice.6.2 The products should comply with any microbiological criteria established in accordance with the Principles for the Establishment and Application of Microbiological Criteria for Foods (CAC/GL 21-1997).7. LABELLING7.1 Name of the foodThe product shall be labelled in accordance with the Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985). The name of the oil shall conform to the descriptions given in Section 2 of this Standard.Where more than one name is given for a product in Section 2.1, the labelling of that product must include one of those names acceptable in the country of use.7.2 Labelling of non-retail containersInformation on the above labelling requirements shall be given either on the container or in accompanying documents, except that the name of the food, lot identification and the name and address of the manufacturer or packer shall appear on the container.However, lot identification and the name and address of the manufacturer or packer may be replaced by an identification mark, provided that such a mark is clearly identifiable with the accompanying documents.8. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND SAMPLING8.1 Determination of GLC ranges of fatty acid compositionAccording to ISO 5508: 1990 and 5509: 2000; or AOCS Ce 2-66 (97), Ce 1e-91 (01) or Ce 1f-96 (02).8.2 Determination of slip pointAccording to ISO 6321: 2002 for all oils; AOCS Cc 3b-92 (02) for all oils except for palm oils; AOCS Cc 3-25 (97) for palm oils only.8.3 Determination of arsenicAccording to AOAC 952.13; AOAC 942.17; or AOAC 986.15.8.4 Determination of leadAccording to; AOAC 994.02; or ISO 12193: 2004; or AOCS Ca 18c-91 (03).fatty acids) (see Section 3.1 of the Standard)Fatty acid Arachisoil BabassuoilCoconutoilCotton-seed oilGrape-seed oilMaize oil Mustard-seed oilPalm oil Palmkernel oilPalmolein2PalmstearinPalmsuperoleinC6:0 ND ND ND-0.7ND ND ND ND ND ND-0.8ND ND NDC8:0 ND 2.6-7.34.6-10.0ND ND ND ND ND 2.4-6.2ND ND NDC10:0ND 1.2-7.65.0-8.0ND ND ND ND ND 2.6-5.0ND ND NDC12:0 ND-0.1 40.0-55.0 45.1-53.2 ND-0.2 ND ND-0.3 ND ND-0.5 45.0-55.0 0.1-0.50.1-0.50.1-0.5 C14:0 ND-0.1 11.0-27.0 16.8-21.0 0.6-1.0 ND-0.3 ND-0.3 ND-1.0 0.5-2.0 14.0-18.0 0.5-1.5 1.0-2.00.5-1.5 C16:0 8.0-14.0 5.2-11.0 7.5-10.2 21.4-26.4 5.5-11.0 8.6-16.5 0.5-4.5 39.3-47.5 6.5-10.0 38.0-43.548.0-74.030.0-39.0 C16:1 ND-0.2 ND ND ND-1.2 ND-1.2 ND-0.5 ND-0.5 ND-0.6 ND-0.2 ND-0.6ND-0.2ND-0.5 C17:0 ND-0.1 ND ND ND-0.1 ND-0.2 ND-0.1 ND ND-0.2 ND ND-0.2ND-0.2ND-0.1 C17:1ND-0.1ND ND ND-0.1ND-0.1ND-0.1ND ND ND ND-0.1ND-0.1NDC18:0 1.0-4.5 1.8-7.4 2.0-4.0 2.1-3.3 3.0-6.5 ND-3.3 0.5-2.0 3.5-6.0 1.0-3.0 3.5-.5.0 3.9-6.0 2.8-4.5 C18:1 35.0-69 9.0-20.0 5.0-10.0 14.7-21.7 12.0-28.0 20.0-42.2 8.0-23.0 36.0-44.0 12.0-19.0 39.8-46.015.5-36.043.0-49.5 C18:2 12.0-43.0 1.4-6.6 1.0-2.5 46.7-58.2 58.0-78.0 34.0-65.6 10.0-24.0 9.0-12.0 1.0-3.5 10.0-13.5 3.0-10.010.5-15.0 C18:3 ND-0.3 ND ND-0.2 ND-0.4 ND-1.0 ND-2.06.0-18.0 ND-0.5 ND-0.2 ND-0.6ND-0.50.2-1.0 C20:0 1.0-2.0 ND ND-0.2 0.2-0.5 ND-1.0 0.3-1.0 ND-1.5 ND-1.0 ND-0.2 ND-0.6ND-1.0ND-0.4 C20:1 0.7-1.7 ND ND-0.2 ND-0.1 ND-0.3 0.2-0.6 5.0-13.0 ND-0.4 ND-0.2 ND-0.4ND-0.4ND-0.2 C20:2ND ND ND ND-0.1ND ND-0.1ND-1.0ND ND ND ND NDC22:0 1.5-4.5 ND ND ND-0.6 ND-0.5 ND-0.5 0.2-2.5 ND-0.2 ND-0.2 ND-0.2ND-0.2ND-0.2 C22:1 ND-0.3 ND ND ND-0.3 ND-0.3 ND-0.3 22.0-50.0 ND ND ND ND NDC22:2ND ND ND ND-0.1ND ND ND-1.0ND ND ND ND NDC24:0 0.5-2.5 ND ND ND-0.1 ND-0.4 ND-0.5 ND-0.5 ND ND ND ND NDC24:1ND-0.3ND ND ND ND ND 0.5-2.5ND ND ND ND NDND - non detectable, defined as ≤ 0.05%1 Data taken from species as listed in Section 2.2 Fractionated product from palm oil.fatty acids) (see Section 3.1 of the Standard) (continued)Fatty acid Rapeseedoil Rapeseedoil (lowerucic acid)Rice branoilSafflower-seed oilSafflowerseedoil (high oleicacid)Sesame-seed oilSoyabeanoilSunflower-seed oilSunflowerseed oil (higholeic acid)Sunflowerseed oil (mid-oleic acid)C6:0 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDC8:0 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDC10:0 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDC12:0 ND ND ND-0.2 ND ND-0.2 ND ND-0.1ND-0.1ND ND C14:0 ND-0.2ND-0.20.1-0.7 ND-0.2ND-0.2 ND-0.1ND-0.2ND-0.2ND-0.1 ND-1C16:0 1.5-6.0 2.5-7.014-23 5.3-8.0 3.6-6.0 7.9-12.08.0-13.5 5.0-7.6 2.6-5.0 4.0-5.5 C16:1 ND-3.0ND-0.6ND-0.5 ND-0.2ND-0.2 ND- 0.2ND-0.2 ND-0.3ND-0.1 ND-0.05 C17:0 ND-0.1ND-0.3ND ND-0.1ND-0.1 ND-0.2ND-0.1ND-0.2ND-0.1 ND-0.05 C17:1 ND-0.1ND-0.3ND ND-0.1ND-0.1 ND-0.1ND-0.1ND-0.1ND-0.1 ND-0.06 C18:0 0.5-3.10.8-3.00.9-4.0 1.9-2.9 1.5-2.4 4.5-6.7 2.0-5.42.7-6.5 2.9-6.2 2.1-5.0 C18:1 8.0-60.051.0-70.038-48 8.4-21.370.0-83.7 34.4-45.517-3014.0-39.475-90.7 43.1-71.8 C18:2 11.0-23.015.0-30.029-40 67.8-83.29.0-19.9 36.9-47.948.0 -59.048.3-74.0 2.1-17 18.7-45.3 C18:3 5.0-13.0 5.0-14.00.1-2.9 ND-0.1ND-1.2 0.2-1.0 4.5-11.0ND-0.3ND-0.3 ND-0.5 C20:0 ND-3.00.2-1.2ND-0.9 0.2- 0.40.3-0.6 0.3-0.70.1-0.60.1-0.50.2-0.5 0.2-0.4 C20:1 3.0-15.00.1-4.3ND-0.8 0.1- 0.30.1-0.5 ND-0.3ND-0.5ND-0.30.1-0.5 0.2-0.3 C20:2 ND-1.0ND-0.1ND ND ND ND ND-0.1ND ND NDC22:0 ND-2.0ND-0.6ND-0.5 ND-1.0ND-0.4 NN-1.1ND-0.70.3-1.50.5-1.6 0.6-1.1 C22:1 > 2.0-60.0ND-2.0ND ND-1.8ND-0.3 ND ND-0.3ND-0.3ND-0.3 NDC22:2 ND-2.0ND-0.1ND ND ND ND ND ND-0.3ND ND-0.09 C24: 0ND-2.0ND-0.3ND-0.6 ND-0.2ND-0.3 ND-0.3ND-0.5ND-0.5ND-0.5 0.3-0.4 C24:1ND-3.0ND-0.4ND ND-0.2ND-0.3 ND ND ND ND NDND - non detectable, defined as ≤ 0.05%1 Data taken from species as listed in Section 2.2 Fractionated product from palm oil.APPENDIX OTHER QUALITY AND COMPOSITION FACTORS This text is intended for voluntary application by commercial partners and not for application by governments. 1. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS1.1The colour, odour and taste of each product shall be characteristic of the designated product. It shall be free from foreign and rancid odour and taste.Maximum level1.2 Matter volatile at 105°C 0.2 % m/m1.3 Insoluble impurities 0.05 % m/m1.4 Soap content 0.005 % m/m1.5 Iron (Fe):Refined oils 1.5 mg/kgVirgin oils 5.0 mg/kg1.6 Copper (Cu)Refined oils 0.1 mg/kgVirgin oils 0.4 mg/kg1.7 Acid valueRefined oils 0.6 mg KOH/g OilCold pressed and virgin oils 4.0 mg KOH/g OilVirgin palm oils 10.0 mg KOH/g Oil1.8 Peroxide value:Refined oils up to 10 milliequivalents of active oxygen/kg oil Cold pressed and virgin oils up to 15 milliequivalents of active oxygen/kg oil2. COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS2.1 The arachidic and higher fatty acid content of arachis oil should not exceed 48g/kg.2.2 The Reichert values for coconut, palm kernel and babassu oils should be in the ranges 6-8.5, 4-7 and 4.5-6.5, respectively.2.3 The Polenske values for coconut, palm kernel and babassu oils should be in the ranges 13-18, 8-12 and 8-10, respectively.2.4 The Halphen test for cottonseed oil should be positive.2.5 The erythrodiol content of grapeseed oil should be more than 2% of the total sterols.2.6 The total carotenoids (as beta-carotene) for unbleached palm oil, unbleached palm olein and unbleached palm stearin should be in the range 500-2000, 550-2500 and 300-1500 mg/kg, respectively.2.7 The Crismer value for low erucic acid rapeseed oil shouldbe in the range 67-70.2.8 The concentration of brassicasterol in low erucic acid rapeseed oil should be greater than 5% of total sterols.2.9 The Baudouin test should be positive for sesameseed oil.gamma oryzanols in crude rice bran oil should be in the range of 0.9-2.1 %.2.10 The3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICSChemical and Physical Characteristics are given in Table 2.4. IDENTITY CHARACTERISTICS4.1 Levels of desmethylsterols in vegetable oils as a percentage of total sterols are given in Table 3.4.2 Levels of tocopherols and tocotrienols in vegetable oils are given in Table 4.5. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND SAMPLING5.1 Determination of moisture and volatile matter at 105°CAccording to ISO 662: 1998.5.2 Determination of insoluble impuritiesAccording to ISO 663: 2000.5.3 Determination of soap contentAccording to BS 684 Section 2.5; or AOCS Cc 17-95 (97).5.4 Determination of copper and ironAccording to ISO 8294: 1994; or AOAC 990.05; or AOCS Ca 18b-91 (03)5.5 Determination of relative densityAccording to IUPAC 2.101, with the appropriate conversion factor.5.6 Determination of apparent densityAccording to ISO 6883: 2000, with the appropriate conversion factor; or AOCS Cc 10c-95 (02)5.7 Determination of refractive indexAccording to ISO 6320: 2000; or AOCS Cc 7-25 (02)5.8 Determination of saponification value (SV)According to ISO 3657: 2002; or AOCS Cd 3-25 (03)5.9 Determination of iodine value (IV)Wijs - ISO 3961: 1996; or AOAC 993.20; or AOCS Cd 1d-1992 (97); or NMKL 39(2003)The method to be used for specific named vegetable oils is stipulated in the Standard5.10 Determination of unsaponifiable matterAccording to ISO 3596: 2000; or ISO 18609: 2000; or AOCS Ca 6b-53 (01)5.11 Determination of peroxide value (PV)According to AOCS Cd 8b-90 (03); or ISO 3960: 20015.12 Determination of total carotenoidsAccording to BS 684 Section 2.20.5.13 Determination of acidityAccording to ISO 660: 1996, amended 2003; or AOCS Cd 3d-63 (03)5.14 Determination of sterol contentAccording to ISO 12228: 1999; or AOCS Ch 6-91 (97)5.15 Determination of tocopherol contentAccording to ISO 9936: 1997; or AOCS Ce 8-89 (97)5.16 Halphen testAccording to AOCS Cb 1-25 (97).5.17 Crismer valueAccording to AOCS Cb 4-35 (97) and AOCS Ca 5a-40 (97).5.18 Baudouin test (modified Villavecchia test or sesameseed oil test)According to AOCS Cb 2-40 (97).5.19 Reichert value and Polenske valueAccording to AOCS Cd 5-40 (97)5.20 Determination of gamma oryzanol contentDefinitionThis method is used to determine gamma oryzanol content (%) in oils from spectrophotometer absorption measurements at the wavelength of maximum absorption near 315nm.ScopeApplicable to crude rice bran oil.Apparatus-Spectrophotometer - for measuring extinction in the ultraviolet between 310 and 320 nm.-Rectangular quartz cuvettes - having an optical light path of 1 cm.-Volumetric flask - 25mL.-Filter paper - Whatman no.2, or equivalent.Reagents-n-Heptane - Spectrophotometrically pure.Procedure(i)Before using, the spectrophotometer should be properly adjusted to a zero reading filling boththe sample cuvette and the reference cuvette with n-Heptane.(ii)Filter the oil sample through filter paper at ambient temperature.(iii)Weigh accurately approximately 0.02g of the sample so prepared into a 25mL volumetric flask, make up to the mark with n-Heptane.(iv)Fill a cuvette with the solution obtained and measure the extinction at the wavelength of maximum absorption near315nm, using the same solvent as a reference.(v)The extinction values recorded must lie within the range 0.3-0.6. If not, the measurements must be repeated using more concentrated or more diluted solutions as appropriate.CalculationCalculate gamma oryzanol content as follows:Gamma oryzanol content, % = 25 × ( 1 / W ) × A × ( 1 / E)Where W = mass of sample, gA = extinction (absorbance) of the solutionE = specific extinction E1%1cm = 359Table 2: Chemical and physical characteristics of crude vegetable oils (see Appendix of the Standard)Arachis oil Babassu oil Coconut oil Cottonseedoil GrapeseedoilMaize oil Mustard-seed oilPalm oil Palmkernel oilPalm olein PalmstearinRelative density (xoC/water at 20oC) 0.912-0.920x=20oC0.914-0.917x=25oC0.908-0.921x=40oC0.918-0.926x=20oC0.920-0.926x=20oC0.917-0.925x=20oC0.910-0.921x=20oC0.891-0.899x=50oC0.899-0.914x=40oC0.899-0.920x=40oC0.881-0.891x=60oCApparent density (g/ml) 0.889-0.895(50oC)0896-0.898at 40oC0.881-0.885at 60oCRefractive index (ND 40oC) 1.460-1.465 1.448-1.451 1.448-1.450 1.458-1.466 1.467-1.477 1.465-1.468 1.461-1.469 1.454- 1.456at 50oC1.448-1.452 1.458-1.460 1.447-1.452at 60oCSaponification value(mg KOH/g oil)187-196 245-256 248-265 189-198 188-194 187-195 168-184 190-209 230-254 194-202 193-205 Iodine value 86-107 10-18 6.3-10.6 100-123 128-150 103-135 92-125 50.0-55.0 14.1-21.0≥ 56 ≤ 48Unsaponifiablematter (g/kg)≤ 10 ≤ 12 ≤ 15 ≤ 15 ≤ 20 ≤ 28 ≤ 15 ≤ 12 ≤ 10 ≤ 13 ≤ 9Stable carbon isotope ratio * -13.71to-16.36* See the following publications:Woodbury SP, Evershed RP and Rossell JB (1998). Purity assessments of major vegetable oils based on gamma 13C values of individual fatty acids. JAOCS,75 (3), 371-379.Woodbury SP, Evershed RP and Rossell JB (1998). Gamma 13C analysis of vegetable oil, fatty acid components, determined by gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry, after saponification or regiospecific hydrolysis. Journal of Chromatography A, 805, 249-257.Woodbury SP, Evershed RP, Rossell JB, Griffith R and Farnell P (1995). Detection of vegetable oil adulteration using gas chromatography combustion / isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry67 (15), 2685-2690.Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1996). Authenticity of single seed vegetable oils. Working Party on Food Authenticity, MAFF, UK.2 Fractionated product from palm oil.2Fractionated product from palm oil.Table 2: Chemical and physical characteristics of crude vegetable oils (see Appendix of the Standard) (continued) Palm superolein Rapeseed oil Rapeseedoil (lowerucic acid)Rice bran oilSafflower-seed oilSafflower-seed oil (high oleic acid)Sesameseed oilSoyabean oil Sunflower-seed oil Sunflower-seed oil (high oleic acid) Sunflower-seed oil (mid-oleic acid) Relative density (xo C/water at 20oC)0.900-0.925 x=40oC 0.910-0.920 x=20oC 0.914-0.920 x=20oC 0.910–0.929 0.922-0.927 x=20oC 0.913-0.919 x=20o C; 0.910-0.916 x=25o C0.915- 0.924x=20oC0.919-0.925 x=20oC0.918-0.923 x=20oC0.909-0.915 x=25o C0.914-0.916 x=20oCApparent density (g/ml)0.897-0.920 0.912-0.914 at 20°CRefractive index (ND 40oC)1.463-1.465 1.465-1.469 1.465-1.467 1.460 –1.473 1.467-1.470 1.460-1.464 at 40o C; 1.466-1.470 at 25o C1.465-1.469 1.466-1.470 1.461- 1.468 1.467- 1.471 at 25oC 1.461- 1.471at 25oCSaponification value (mg KOH/g oil)180-205 168-181 182-193 180 – 199 186-198 186-194 186-195 189-195 188-194 182-194 190-191Iodine value≥ 60 94-120 105-126 90-115 136-148 80-100 104-120 124-139 118-141 78-90 94-122 Unsaponifiable matter (g/kg) ≤ 13≤ 20≤ 20≤ 65≤ 15≤ 10≤ 20≤ 15≤ 15≤ 15<151 Data taken from species as listed in Section 2.2Fractionated product from palm oil.Table 3: Levels of desmethylsterols in crude vegetable oils from authentic samples 1 as a percentage of total sterols (see Appendix 1 of the Standard)Arachis oil Babassu oil Coconutoil Cotton-seed oilGrapeseed oilMaize oilPalm oilPalm oleinPalm kernel oilPalm stearinPalm superoleinCholesterol ND-3.8 1.2-1.7ND-3.0 0.7-2.3 ND-0.5 0.2-0.6 2.6-6.7 2.6-7.0 0.6-3.7 2.5-5.02.0-3.5Brassicasterol ND-0.2 ND-0.3 ND-0.3 0.1- 0.3 ND-0.2 ND-0.2 NDNDND-0.8 NDNDCampesterol 12.0-19.8 17.7-18.7 6.0-11.2 6.4-14.5 7.5-14.0 16.0-24.1 18.7-27.5 12.5-39.0 8.4-12.7 15.0-26.0 22.0-26.0 Stigmasterol 5.4-13.2 8.7-9.2 11.4-15.6 2.1-6.8 7.5-12.0 4.3-8.0 8.5-13.9 7.0-18.9 12.0-16.6 9.0-15.0 18.2-20.0 Beta-sitosterol 47.4-69.0 48.2-53.9 32.6-50.7 76.0-87.1 64.0-70.0 54.8-66.6 50.2-62.1 45.0-71.0 62.6-73.1 50.0-60.0 55.0-70.0 Delta-5-avenasterol 5.0-18.8 16.9-20.4 20.0-40.7 1.8-7.3 1.0-3.51.5-8.2 ND-2.8 ND-3.0 1.4-9.0 ND-3.0 0-1.0Delta-7-stigmastenol ND-5.1 ND ND-3.0 ND-1.4 0.5-3.5 0.2-4.2 0.2-2.4 ND-3.0 ND-2.1 ND-3.0 0-0.3 Delta-7-avenasterol ND-5.5 0.4-1.0 ND-3.0 0.8-3.3 0.5-1.5 0.3-2.7 ND-5.1 ND-6.0 ND-1.4 ND-3.0 0-0.3 OthersND-1.4 NDND-3.6 ND-1.5 ND-5.1 ND-2.4 NDND-10.4 ND-2.7 ND-5.0 0-2.0Total sterols (mg/kg)900-2900 500-800 400-1200 2700-6400 2000-7000 7000-22100 300-700 270-800 700-1400 250-500 100Rapeseed oil (low erucic acid)Rice bran oil Safflowerseed oilSafflowerseed oil (high oleic acid)Sesameseed oilSoyabean oilSunflowerseed oilSunflowerseed oil (high oleic acid)Sunflowerseed oil (mid-oleic acid)Cholesterol ND-1.3 ND - 0.5 ND- 0.7 ND-0.5 0.1-0.5 0.2-1.4 ND-0.7 ND-0.5 0.1-0.2 Brassicasterol 5.0-13.0 ND ND-0.4 ND-2.2 0.1-0.2 ND-0.3 ND-0.2 ND-0.3 ND-0.1 Campesterol 24.7-38.6 11.0 – 35.0 9.2-13.3 8.9-19.9 10.1-20.0 15.8-24.2 6.5-13.0 5.0-13.0 9.1-9.6 Stigmasterol 0.2-1.0 6.0 –40.0 4.5-9.6 2.9-8.9 3.4-12.0 14.9-19.1 6.0-13.0 4.5-13.0 9.0-9.3 Beta-sitosterol 45.1-57.9 25.0 – 67.0 40.2-50.6 40.1-66.9 57.7-61.9 47.0-60 50-7042.0-70 56-58Delta-5-avenasterol 2.5-6.6 ND – 9.9 0.8-4.8 0.2-8.9 6.2-7.8 1.5-3.7 ND-6.9 1.5- 6.9 4.8-5.3 Delta-7-stigmastenol ND-1.3 ND – 14.1 13.7-24.6 3.4-16.4 0.5-7.6 1.4-5.2 6.5-24.0 6.5-24.0 7.7-7.9 Delta-7-avenasterol ND-0.8 ND – 4.4 2.2-6.3 ND-8.3 1.2-5.6 1.0-4.6 3.0-7.5 ND-9.0 4.3-4.4 OthersND-4.2 ND 0.5-6.4 4.4-11.9 0.7-9.2 ND-1.8 ND-5.3 3.5-9.5 5.4-5.8 Total sterols (mg/kg)4500-1130010500-310002100-4600 2000-4100 4500-19000 1800-4500 2400-5000 1700-5200ND - Non-detectable, defined as ≤ 0.05%1 Data taken from species as listed in Section 2. 2Fractionated product from palm oil.Table 4: Levels of tocopherols and tocotrienols in crude vegetable oils from authentic samples (mg/kg) (see Appendix 1 of the Standard)Arachis oil Babassu oil Coconutoil Cotton-seed oilGrapeseed oilMaize oilPalm oilPalm oleinPalm kernel oilPalm stearinPalm superoleinAlpha-tocopherol 49-373 ND ND-17 136-674 16-38 23-573 4-193 30-280 ND-44 ND-100 130-240 Beta-tocopherol ND-41 ND ND-11 ND-29 ND-89 ND-356 ND-234 ND-250 ND-248 ND-50 ND-40 Gamma-tocopherol 88-389 NDND-14 138-746 ND-73 268-2468 ND-526 ND-100 ND-257 ND-50 ND-40Delta-tocopherol ND-22 ND ND ND-21 ND-4 23-75 ND-123 ND-100 ND ND-50 ND-30 Alpha-tocotrienol ND 25-46 ND-44 ND 18-107 ND-239 4-336 50-500 ND 20-150 170-300 Gamma-tocotrienol ND32-80 ND-1 ND115-205 ND-450 14-710 20-700 ND-60 10-500 230-420Delta-tocotrienol ND 9-10 ND ND ND-3.2 ND-20 ND-377 40-120 ND 5-150 60-120 Total (mg/kg)170-1300 60-130ND-50380-1200 240-410 330-3720 150-1500 300-1800 ND-260 100-700 400-1400Rapeseed oil (low erucicacid)Rice bran oil Safflowerseed oil Safflowerseed oil (high oleic acid) Sesameseed oil Soyabean oilSunflowerseed oilSunflower-seed oil (high oleic acid)Sunflower-seed oil (mid-oleic acid)Alpha-tocopherol 100-386 49-583 234-660 234-660 ND-3.3 9-352 403-935 400-1090 488-668Beta-tocopherol ND-140 ND – 47 ND-17 ND-13 ND ND-36 ND-45 10-35 19-52Gamma-tocopherol 189-753 ND – 212 ND-12 ND-44 521-983 89-2307 ND-34 3-302.3-19.0Delta-tocopherol ND-22 ND-31 NDND-6 4-21 154-932 ND-7.0 ND-17 ND-1.6 Alpha-tocotrienol ND ND – 627 ND ND ND ND-69 ND ND ND Gamma-tocotrienol ND142 – 790ND-12ND-10ND-20ND-103NDNDNDDelta-tocotrienol ND ND –59 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Total (mg/kg)430-2680 191 - 2349 240-670 250-700 330-1010 600-3370 440-1520 450-1120 509-741ND - Non-detectable.Note: Maize oil also contains ND-52 mg/kg beta tocotrienol.。

milankovitch cycles and glaciation托福阅读解析Milankovitch cycles are geological phenomena that have significant impacts on Earth"s climate, particularly in relation toglaciation.Understanding these cycles is crucial for students preparing for the TOEFL reading section.In this document, we will delve into the details of Milankovitch cycles and glaciation, providing a comprehensive analysis that will help you excel in your TOEFL reading comprehension.Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation: TOEFL Reading Analysis1.Introduction to Milankovitch CyclesMilankovitch cycles refer to the long-term variations in Earth"s orbit and axial tilt.These cycles are named after Serbian geophysicist Milutin Milankovitch, who proposed the theory in the early 20th century.The three main components of Milankovitch cycles are:a.Eccentricity: This cycle describes the changes in the shape of Earth"s orbit around the Sun, which occurs over a period of about 100,000 years.b.Obliquity: Obliquity refers to the tilt of Earth"s axis, which varies between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees over a period of approximately 41,000 years.c.Precession: Precession is the wobbling motion of Earth"s axis, which completes a cycle every 26,000 years.2.Impact on GlaciationMilankovitch cycles play a crucial role in the formation and retreat of ice sheets, which are major contributors to glaciation.The cycles affect the distribution and intensity of solar radiation received by Earth, leading to changes in climate.a.Eccentricity and Glaciation: Higher eccentricity results in greater differences in the distance between Earth and the Sun during different seasons.This can lead to more extreme climate conditions, favoring the growth of ice sheets during certain phases of the cycle.b.Obliquity and Glaciation: A higher tilt (obliquity) increases the seasonal contrast in solar radiation, affecting the distribution of ice sheets.A higher tilt favors glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere, while a lower tilt has the opposite effect.c.Precession and Glaciation: The precession cycle influences the timing of Earth"s seasons.When the Northern Hemisphere experiences summer during perihelion (the point in Earth"s orbit closest to the Sun), it receives more solar radiation, leading to increased glaciation.3.TOEFL Reading StrategiesTo effectively answer questions related to Milankovitch cycles and glaciation on the TOEFL reading section, consider the following strategies:a.Focus on cause-and-effect relationships: Understanding how the different components of Milankovitch cycles influence glaciation is key to comprehending the passage.b.Pay attention to detail: Look for specific examples and data that support the relationship between Milankovitch cycles and glaciation.c.Skim and scan: Skim the passage to get a general idea, then scan for specific information to answer the questions.4.Practice QuestionsTo reinforce your understanding, practice answering the following sample TOEFL reading questions:a.According to the passage, which component of Milankovitch cycles has the shortest cycle period?b.How does obliquity affect the distribution of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere?ConclusionMilankovitch cycles and glaciation are complex topics that require careful attention to detail.By understanding the key concepts and applying effective reading strategies, you can improve your comprehension and perform well on TOEFL reading questions related to this subject.Remember to practice with sample questions and continue studying to enhance your knowledge of Earth"s fascinating geological processes.。