第三章 英语词汇学

Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ‟不一致。

大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。

第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology – technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky 第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph——A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。

大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。

第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。

词汇学3Chapter 3. Word StructureWe have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that fa-cilitate the development of the English vocabulary. Though borrowing has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary as indicated, in modern times, however, vocabulary is largely enriched on an internal basis. That is, we use existing material available in English, whether native or foreign, to create new words. Before we actually deal with the means of word-formation, we need to analyze the morphological structures of words and gain a working knowledge of the different word-forming elements which are to be used to create new words.3.1 MorphemesIt seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take denatu-ralization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, nature, -al, -ize, -ation, each having meaning of its own. These fragments cannot be further divided; otherwise, they would not make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function. These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’ (Crystal 1985). Another example:one morpheme __________fruittwo morphemes _________fruit+fulthree morphemes ________un+fruit+fulfour morphemes_________ un+fruit+ful+ness3.2. Morphemes and phonemesA morpheme is different from a phoneme, for the former possesses both sound and meaning, whereas the latter only implies sound.Take k/k/ and u/ju/ for example. They are only phonemes ,because they have no meaning. However, the cases are different with a/ei/ and i/ai/. When they exist in tame and time respectively, they are phonemes, because they possess only sound, not meaning. But when i stands for the first person singular, and ais used as an indefinite article, they become morphemes,for they possess both sound and meaning.3.3 AllomorphsMorphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. ‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’ (Bolinger and Sears 1981). The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed morphs.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire, etc. These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality -s has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/ in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable. The plural morpheme /s/ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ as in packs, cheats, shapes; by /z/ after /d, b, g, 1/ as in beds, bottles, fads and by /iz/ after /s, z, ?,З,t?,d3/ as in classes, dishes, garages, damages, etc. There are caseswhere the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are unusual. It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morph as in deer-deer, fish-fish (Bolinger & Sears 1981). The same is true of the past tense marker {-ed}which is realized by /t/ after a verb ending with /p, k/ as in work ed, helped; by /d/ after vowels and sounds like /m, n, , 1/ as in tried, warm ed, lived, enabled, and by /id/ after /t, d/ as in wanted, landed, etc. This is also applicable toaffixational morphemes. The prefix { in-} has allomorphs such as /im, ir, il/depending on the first sound of the base to which the prefix is added. If the first sound is /p, b, m/, the realization is Iiml as in improper, im-movable, im balance, but IirI with the sound IrI as in ir reconcilable, and /il/ with the sound Ill as in illegible, and so on.3.4 Types of MorphemesThere are different ways of classifying morphemes. The popular method is to group them into free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.4.1 Free MorphemesMorphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, aseach of them consists of a single free root, for example, man, earth, wind, car, anger. Therefore, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.*Free rootsIn English, many roots are free morphemes. Morphemes are said to be “free” if they can stand alone as words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. Morphemes of this type are unlimited in number in English and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words.3.4.2 Bound MorphemesMorphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes, recollection (re + collect + ion), idealistic (ideal + ist + ic), ex-prisoner (ex + prison + er). There are altogether nine morphemes, of which only collect, ideal and prison can exist by themselves. These are free morphemes. All the rest re-, - ion, -ist, -ic, ex and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units. The English language possesses a multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which canbe broken down into ante-, -ced-, -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning ‘approach, go to’, ante-, a prefix meaning ‘before’and -ent, a noun suffix meaning ‘a person, a thing’, thus the whole word antecedent meaning ‘something that goes before’.These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.1. Bound root. As illustrated by the example antecedent, a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take-dict- for example. It is a Latin root which conveys the meaning of ‘say or speak’, but it is not a word in its own right. Yet with affixes, it can form quite a number of words. For example, with the prefixes contra - ( against) and pre - ( before) we obtain the verbs contradict meaning ‘speak against’ and predict meaning ‘tell be-forehand’; with the suffix -ion, we form contradiction and prediction; with the suffix -or, we have contradictor and predictor. Apart from these, dictum, dictate, dictation, dictator, diction, dictionary are all derived from the root -dict-.In English, bound roots are either Latin orGreek.Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. They give birth to thousands and thousands of derived words in modern English.Latin roots:according to their alphabetical order.1)acu- (acr-)----- sharp.Acute----- working very well, sharp.Dogs have an acute sense of smell.2) ag- (act-)----- to do, to drive. agent—a person who does something.3) am-----to love.Amateur---- a person who does something for the love of it rather than for money.4) anim------------life or mind.animal a living creature.5) annu- (ennu-) —year.annual—of one year.6) aud- (audit)------ to hear.audience—the people listening toor watching a performance, speech,television, show, etc.7) bene- (benign-) well, good.benefit ----------good effect. 8) cad- (cid-cas-) —to fall, tohappen by chance.Accident------something thathappens by chance.9) cap- (capt-) —--to take.capture-------- something that has been taken, caught or won by force.10) ced- (cede-)---- to go.antecedent ------a thing, event, etc. coming or being before another.11) cent------------ one hundred.century ------a period of 100years.12) cern- (cret-)------ to separate.secret—something separated or apart from others, something kept hidden or known only to a few. 13) clam- (claim-) to cry out.declaim—to say something loud and clear, with pauses and usually hand movements to Increase the effect of the words.14) dud- (clus) —to shut, to close.conclude to come to an end. 15) cord—heart.Cordial----- warm and hearty. 16) corpor-. (corp-)------- body.Corpuscle----- any of the red or white cells in the blood.17) cre- (cresc-) —to grow.Increase------- to become larger in amount or number.18) cred-------to believe.Discredit------ to stop people believing.19) cumb- (cub--) to lie down.Cubicle-------- a very small enclosed room division of a larger room, as for dressing or undressing at a swimming pool. 20) cur- (curs-, cours-) ---to run orto go.current -------a continuouslymoving mass of liquid or gas,especially one flowing throughslower-moving liquid or gas. 21) de- (div-)------- a god.divine—of, related to, or beingGod or a god.22) dict----- to say or to speak.dictate--------to say (words) for someone else to write down.23) doc- (doct-)------- to teach.doctor—It originally meant ‘a teacher’ , now it means ‘a person holding one of the highest degrees given by a university (such as a PhD,)24) duc- (duct-) —to lead.introduce----- t o make known forthe first time to each other orsomeone else, especially bytelling two people each other’snames.25)fac- (fic-fact-)----------- to do or to make.Manufacture---- to make or produce by machinery, especially in large quantities.26) fer------- to carry, to bring.c onfer —to give (a gift, title, honor, favor ,etc. ).27) firm-—firm, strong.Confirm---- to support, make certain, give proof of.28) flect- (flex-) -------to bend.Flexible------ that can bend or be bent easily.29) flu- (flux-)-------- a flow or toflow.Fluent------ speaking, writing, playing a musical instrument in an easily smooth manner.30) fus- (fund-)--------- to pour,to melt.confuse—to mix up, to make less clear.31) gam-------- marriage.bigamy ----the state of being married to two people at the same time.32) gen- (genit-)------ to produce,to give birth to.genesis—-the beginning ororigin.33) ger- (gest-)------- to carry.digest—---to change or to be changed into a form that the body can uses34) grad- (gress-)------ a step or to step or go.Gradual---- happening slowly and by degrees; not sudden.35) grat----------- pleasing.Congratulate------ to speak to a person with praise and admiration for a happy event or something successfully.36) gray-—heavy.gravity ------attractive force by which bodies tend to go to the center of earth, etc.37) her- (hes-)------- to stick.adhere.--------to stick firmly (to another or each other. )38) jac- (ject-) —to throw.project -----to cause (heat, sound,light, or shadow) to be directedinto space or onto a surface. 39) junct- (join (t) -)-----------to join.conjunction ------the act or result of joining together, association.40) lect- (leg-, lig-)------- to choose.collect----- (to cause) to gather together.41) loqu- (lacut-)-------- to speak.Colloquial------ suitable for, related to ordinary informal, or familiar conversation.42) mit- (miss-) —to send, to letgo.Admit----- to permit (a person or thing) to enter.Missile--- a) an object or a weaponthrown by hand or shot from a gunor other instruments. b) anexplosive weapon which can flyunder its own power.43) mon- (monit-) —to warn, toadvise.Monitor---- a pupil chosen to help the teacher in various ways.44) nasc- (nat-) —to be born.Nation------ the place of one’s birth ,a large group of peopleliving in one area and usuallyhaving an independent govern-ment.45) pel- (pell-) —to drive.compel -------to make (a person or thing) do something by or as if by force.46) pend- (pens-) —to hang.depend ----to rely on.47) pet- (petit-) —to seek, tostrive.Competition----- a test of strength, skill, ability, etc.48) plex- (plic-, plicit—) —totwist, to connect. complexconsisting of many closelyrelated or connected parts. 49) pound- (pond- pose, posit-)——to put.compound -----consisting of two ormore separate parts, substances , etc.compose --------to make or form (something) by putting parts together. 50) port-—to carry.Export---- to send (goods) out ofa country for a sale.51) quir- (quisit-) —to seek or ask.inquire—to ask.52) rupt------to break or to burst.interrupt ----to break the flow of (something continuous).53) scrib- (script-)------- to write.describe——- to give a picture (of someone or something) in words. 54) sed- (sid-)------- to sit or to settle.preside -----to be in charge of, to lead.55) spect- (spec-, spic-) —to look,to look at.inspect ------to examine (the details of something).56) tact- (tang-, ting-)----- totouch.Contact--- to get in touch with (someone).57) ten- (tin-, tam-)-------- to hold.Continent---main unbroken masses of land on the earth.58) tract------ to drag or to pull.contract -----a formal agreement, having the force of law.59) ven- (vent-)------ t o move toward, to come.event ----a happening, usually an important one.60) vert- (vers-)------- to turn.reverse—to turn something, over, so as to show the back.61) vid- (vis-) ——--to see.Vision---- the ability to see.62) voc- (vok-)-------- v oice or to call.Provoke----- to make (a person or animal) angry or bad tempered.63) volv (volut-) —to roll.Revolve----- to spin round (on a central point).Greek roots:1) anthrop-(anthropo-)--------- man or human.Anthropology----- the science ofman or the scientific study ofthe nature of man, including thedevelopment of his body, mind andsociety.2) archeo- (archi-)-------ancient.archeology—the study of theburied remains of ancient times,such as houses, pots, tools andweapons.3) aut- (auto-) ----self.Automatic----- able to work ormove by itselfwithout needing theoperation of men. -2. Affixes. Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost all affixes are bound morphemes because few can be used as independent words. According to the functions ofaffixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixe s. Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. Modern English is an analytic language. Most endings are lost, leaving us only a few inflectional affixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios, potatoes. The same forms -s (-es) can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular, e. g. like —likes,work —works, go—goes. The form -‘s is another one used to indicate the possessive case of nouns such as the children ‘s library, the man ‘s role, a waitress’s voice, the mother-in-law’s complaints. We have also the suffixes -er, -est which are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees, e. g. happy —happier —happiest, hard —harder —hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed as mentioned above, and the -ing form added to verbs to form present participles or gerunds. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable, which makes English one of the easiest languages to learn.2) Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational affixes areaffixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes . Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes after the word, for instance, pre + war, sub + sea, north + ward, blood + y. Of these word-building morphemes, pre- and sub- are prefixes as they each appear before the base word whereas -ward and -y are suffixes as they are fixed at the end of each word.3.5 Distinction among root, stem, and base.Before we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes there are some related concepts which need clarifying as these concepts may frequently be referred to in due course. The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements affixes and root or stem. Indeed, some people use root or stem inter-changeably.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity(Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter-, -al, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as an /tion / or an/ion , though-tion and-ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate. Look at interna-tionalists again. In this word, nation is a root and a stem as well. All the rest national, international, internationalist are stems.Bauer (1983) makes a distinction among root, stem, and base. To him,a root is that part of a word formthat remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem is that part of a word when allinflectional (not derivational) affixes is removed.A base is that part of the word whenaffixes of any kind, both inflectional and derivational,can be added.For example, in the word touches, removing -es, touch is a root, stemand base. However, removing -able in touchable, touch is considered a root and a base but not a stem because what is removed is not inflectional. So Bauer’s base is an all-purpose term. It can refer to a root or to a stem as well. But in the word impracticality, impractical is only considered to be a base.Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions:a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with atleast one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a stem orroot ( )f.an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. Analyse the words in terms ofroot,base and stem.individualistic u ndesirables3.Write out the common bound roots ofthe words in each of thefollowing groups and state theirmeanings.1) acoustic, acoustical, acoumeter,acoustician, acoustics,acouphone: _ acou- (tohear)_______2) amateur, amatory, amiable,amicable, amorous, enamoured,unamiable: _am-, amor-(love)________3) ample, ampleness, amply,amplidyne, amplification,amplifier, amplify, amplitude,radioamplifier: ampi- (enough) 4) annals , annual , perennial , centennial, annuity, biennial:ann- (year)。