Empirical Evaluation of Distributed Mutual Exclusion Algorithms

外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：Tax treatment of dividends and capital gains and the dividenddecision under dual income taxThe paper analyses efficiency aspects of a dual income tax system with a higher tax on capital gains than dividends. It argues that apart from the distortions to investments claimed in earlier literature, the system puts even more emphasis in creating incentives for entrepreneurs to participate in tax planning. The paper suggests that the owner of a closely held company can avoid all personal taxes on entrepreneurial income by two tax-planning strategies. The first is the avoidance of distributions, which would be taxed at the tax rate on labour income. These funds would instead be invested in the financial markets. The second strategy is a distribute and call-back policy, converting retained profits into new equity capital. Interestingly, the outcome is that investment in real capital is not distorted in the long-run equilibrium. Empirical evidence using micro data is also provided.The taxation of dividends has attracted renewed attention in public economics literature in recent years, partly because of the US 2003 tax reform which introduced considerable cuts to the tax rates on dividend income. Several studies have used the reform as a “natural”experiment to bring new understanding on the effects of dividend taxation on corporate behaviour. One of the issues is how the change in the relative tax burden between dividends and capital gains affected dividend pay-out behaviour (Poterba 2004; Chetty and Saez 2005; Gordon and Dietz 2006).Another topical theme in public economics is income shifting between different tax bases. While the US literature has mainly focused on shifting between corporate and individual income tax bases (Gordon and Slemrod 2000), the European debate also pays attention to the incentives generated by the tax rate differentialsbetween individual labour and capital income (Sørensen 2005b). On the background is the recent trend towards low nominal tax rates on capital income.The Nordic dual income taxation (DIT), which combines progressive taxation of labour income with proportional tax on capital income, has received growing attention in the international debate.1 As the literature explains, there are several theoretical and practical arguments in favour of DIT. However, since there is a large tax-rate gap between the proportional rates on capital income and the top marginal rates levied on labour income, the system is likely to provide incentives for tax-minimising behaviour. Another problem, when implementing DIT, is how to deal with the fact that entrepreneurial income is a result of a combined contribution of capital and labour inputs. To tackle these issues, the Nordic countries have set up tax rules, among them the so-called splitting rules, for the taxation of owners of closely held corporations (CHC) and unincorporated firms. These splitting rules calculate the capital income part as an imputed return on the firm’s assets and treat the residual as labour income.The question of whether the tax rules of income-splitting have behavioural implications has attracted some attention among Nordic tax economists. Hagen and Sørensen (1998) provide a verbal analysis of the problem and Kari (1999), Lindhe etal. (2002, 2004) and Hietala and Kari (2006) report on the effects on investment decisions using standard corporate tax models. Kanniainen (2007) discusses the effects on entrepreneurship. Some studies have also dealt with the issue of income-shifting. Alstadsæter (2003) examines the effects of the previous Norwegian DIT rules on tax planning, especially the choice of the organizational form. Fjærli and Lund (2001) provide empirical evidence on income-shifting between labour income and capital income bases.This paper analyses the taxation of closely held companies (CHC) under the variant of DIT applied in Finland since 1993. It centres on tax-planning, especially on how dividends and financial investments should be arranged to maximise after-tax income in the long run. Evidence using a large set of micro data is also provided.The Finnish DIT combines a broad-based flat tax on capital income with a progressive tax on labour income (Table 1). The tax rate difference between the topmarginal tax rate (MTR) and the proportional capital income tax rate was close to 26% in 2004 and even larger before the gradual MTR cuts implemented in the last decade. There is relief on owner-level taxation of dividends so that in practice owners receive normal dividends tax-free.3 Realised capital gains from the sale of shares are taxed at the normal tax rate on capital income. Dividends received from a CHC are split into capital income and earned income by considering an imputed return on the firm’s net assets as capital income (normal dividend) and categorising the residual as earned income (excess dividend). The presumptive rate used to calculate the capita income portion of dividends was 9.6% and the capital base was defined as the assets in the firm’s tax accounts.The Nordic countries have adopted differing definitions of the capital base (Hagen and Sørensen 1998; Lindhe et al. 2002). Under the Norwegian gross method, the base is measured as the firm’s non-financial gross assets.4 Sweden’s approach is to define the base as the acquisition cost of the shares. Finland chose a third alternative and defines the base as the firm’s net business assets. The Finnish base thus includes all types of business assets, including financial assets, and deducts liabilities. As is shown in this paper, this definition has interesting implications for firm behaviour and also for the efficiency of the tax system.Besides the splitting system, another unconventional feature of the Finnish tax system is that it has combined single taxation of dividends with non-relieved taxation of capital gains, the latter implying double taxation of retained profits. Sweden and Norway took a different approach in their DIT reforms in the early 1990s: both countries aimed at neutrality. While Norway’s strategy was to implement single taxation of both distributed and retained profits, Sweden chose the other extreme: double taxation of both.Tax literature suggests that the relative tax burden on distributed and retained profits may induce higher dividend distributions (e.g. Poterba 2004; Gordon and Dietz 2006). Furthermore, Sinn (1987) shows it to establish incentives for what he calls a distribute-and-call-back policy, where profits are converted into new equity capital by distributing them and then collecting them back through new share issues. This paperpresents a formal analysis of the financial behaviour of a CHC under the Finnish dual income tax. It argues that the non-neutralities of the tax system encourage entrepreneurs to undertake two specific tax-planning strategies by which these agents may avoid personal taxation entirely. Capital gains taxation is shown to be important in understanding the observed dividend behaviour. In the theoretical part, a standard deterministic corporate tax model is used (Auerbach 1979; Sinn 1987) augmented here by financial capital. The modelling of the Finnish dual income tax closely follows Kari (1999) and Lindhe et al. (2002).Observe the non-standard features of the entire dynamic solution to the firm’s problem. Dividends are paid during the (second) real investment growth phase, and not only in the steady state. In this respect, the outcome differs from Sinn (1991), who shows that under a linear dividend tax profits are only distributed in the steady state. We also observe an unambiguous incentive to invest excess profits in financial assets. The firm is not indifferent in respect of the use of funds, but strictly prefers investment in financial assets. Furthermore, no personal taxes are paid on distributed profits. This is because the imputation credit eliminates taxes on normal dividends and because excess dividends, subject to a high tax burden, are never paid out.Our theoretical model adds financial investments to the standard investment model for CHCs. The model predicts that under the Finnish DIT, which splits dividends from a CHC using the firm’s net assets as the capital base, the owner avoids taxes on earned income using firm-level financial investments as the tax-planning vehicle. This is shown to eliminate the tax distortion to real investment decisions reported in earlier literature.The firm’s growth path contains several non-standard features. Unlike in the standard dividend-tax model by Sinn (1991), here the firm pays out dividends not only in the steady-state but also during its growth path. The CHCs dividend policy is determined by the rule that the maximum amount of normal dividends is distributed. This occurs both in the second real investment regime and the financial investment regime. Moreover, the CHC faces an incentive to collect new equity at the same time as it pays out dividends (distribute-and-call-back policy). This incentive is induced bythe higher tax on retained profits (capital gains) than distributions in the Finnish tax system.The opposite holds when considering financial holdings; The probability of distributing maximum normal dividends increases when the corporation’s financial holdings increase. This is evident also when we are considering only dividend-paying corporations. This finding gives strong support to our theoretical result of the investment behaviour in CHCs. We argued that firms have an incentive to increase net assets by investing in financial assets and simultaneously pay dividend the maximum amount taxable as capital income. These conclusions provide support for the findings of investment behaviour and dividend policy of the firm presented in the theoretical part of the article.The owner dummies are contained in the two last estimations. Because of the data restrictions we are now only considering dividend-paying corporations. When the owner of the corporation is another firm or foreign, the probability of dividends being distributed to the maximum amount of normal dividends decreases. This is exactly what can be expected for tax reasons. The results are consistent with the intuitive presentation in Fig.In the first estimations, the entire data set is considered. As can be expected, profit has a very significant influence on dividend distribution. It can also be seen that the more the firm invests in real assets, the less it pays dividends; real investments and dividends are more or less alternative uses of funds. They also take in all likelihood places in different growth stages. The influence of financial investments on dividends is positive and significant. This is very much in line with expectations.In the second estimations, we consider corporations that have distributed dividends the maximum amount of normal dividends. In this case we require that dividends correspond 7–12% return on the fir m’s net assets. There are few differences comparing to the results in the previous case; the significance of financial holdings variable increases, whilst the significance of profit and real investments decreases. Compared to the previous case, this reflects that there are also other factors than profitability aspects behind the dividend decision of these corporations.We conclude by noticing that the fixed-effects model seems to fit the data well:the results of the Hausman specification tests reject the null hypothesis of random effects. This is consistent with our expectation of the importance of effects that vary across corporations but are constant over time.Source: Seppo Kari · Hanna Karikallio,2007.“Tax treatment of dividends and capital gains and the dividend decision under dual income tax” . Int Tax Public Finance. October.pp. 427-1431.二、翻译文章译文：红利和资本收益的税收策略和在双重税收标准下的分红决策这篇论文有效分析了在高额赋税的情况下，资本收益于红利相比更有效的部分。

Sweeping over the Management | 管理纵横MODERN BUSINESS现代商业120研发投入对企业绩效的影响文献综述赵洁 张玲河北农业大学经济管理学院 河北保定 071000一、引言研发投入是企业获取竞争优势的关键，因此我国各企业都十分重视研发投入活动，我国统计局数据显示近五年来我国的研发投入强度(研发经费投入与GDP之比)持续增加，截至2018年研发支出已达19678亿元，与2014年相比增长了51.18%，与2017年相比增长了11.77%，但是研发投入活动具有高投入、回收期长、收益不确定的特点，因此研究研发投入对企业绩效是否会产生影响以及产生何种影响成为国内外学者关注的问题。

经过长时间的研究，学者们取得了一定的研究成果，丰富了相关领域的文献。

二、文献综述(一)研发投入与企业绩效的相关性研究关于研发投入与企业绩效的关系最早是从国外开始研究的，可追溯到上世纪70年代，大部分学者得出了两者之间具有显著的正相关关系。

Branch(1974)通过联立方程筛选出美国的111家上市公司，通过对他们的研发费用、无形资产等财务数据进行分析，可以得出这些公司的研发费用与企业生产力是正相关的[1]。

Brown和Petersen(2011)通过研究发现，企业的研发投入可以加大企业的研发密度，使企业的知识储备量增加，为企业获取超额利润奠定基础，因此企业的研发投入与企业绩效正相关[2]。

Ballot(2012)把研发投入分为人力投入和资本投入两类，对瑞典和法国的企业进行了相关研究，结果为研发投入有利于企业回报率的增长[3]。

Rodrigo(2012)选取高新技术企业为研究对象，以资源整合为视角，探究企业绩效的影响因素，表明研发投入能够显著提高企业的经营业绩，对企业绩效能够产生有利影响[4]。

Mudambi和Swift(2013)选取美国上市公司的数据，分析得出加大研发投入能够提升企业的创新绩效，进一步显示出研发投入能够正向促进企业绩效的提升[5]。

计量经济学英汉术语名词对照及解释A校正R2（Adjusted R-Squared）：多元回归分析中拟合优度的量度，在估计误差的方差时对添加的解释变量用一个自由度来调整。

对立假设（Alternative Hypothesis）：检验虚拟假设时的相对假设。

AR（1）序列相关（AR(1) Serial Correlation）：时间序列回归模型中的误差遵循AR （1）模型。

渐近置信区间（Asymptotic Confidence Interval）：大样本容量下近似成立的置信区间。

渐近正态性（Asymptotic Normality）：适当正态化后样本分布收敛到标准正态分布的估计量。

渐近性质（Asymptotic Properties）：当样本容量无限增长时适用的估计量和检验统计量性质。

渐近标准误（Asymptotic Standard Error）：大样本下生效的标准误。

渐近t 统计量（Asymptotic t Statistic）：大样本下近似服从标准正态分布的t统计量。

渐近方差（Asymptotic Variance）：为了获得渐近标准正态分布，我们必须用以除估计量的平方值。

渐近有效（Asymptotically Effcient）：对于服从渐近正态分布的一致性估计量，有最小渐近方差的估计量。

渐近不相关（Asymptotically Uncorrelated）：时间序列过程中，随着两个时点上的随机变量的时间间隔增加，它们之间的相关趋于零。

衰减偏误（Attenuation Bias）：总是朝向零的估计量偏误，因而有衰减偏误的估计量的期望值小于参数的绝对值。

自回归条件异方差性（Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity, ARCH）：动态异方差性模型，即给定过去信息，误差项的方差线性依赖于过去的误差的平方。

一阶自回归过程[AR（1）]（Autoregressive Process of Order One [AR(1)]）：一个时间序列模型，其当前值线性依赖于最近的值加上一个无法预测的扰动。

Telecom Power Technology运营探讨基于经验模态分解的分布式网络可篡改信息数据加密系统设计赵迪，刘晨（国网天津市电力公司，天津300010针对当前分布式网络可篡改信息数据加密系统面对数据实时变化时资源处理异常的问题，提出了基于经验模态分解的分布式网络可篡改信息数据加密系统设计。

硬件设计上，使用芯片，实现可篡改信息数据的读写和擦除。

软件设计上，利用经验模态分解技术号噪声，采用非并行的密钥扩展模式和内部流水线结构设计加密算法，并在系统硬件上执行加密算法完成数据加密。

测试结果表明，该系统的效率和吞吐量高且所用逻辑单元少，能够有效提高资源利用能力。

经验模态分解；分布式网络；可篡改信息；数据加密；Design of Data Encryption System for Tamperable Information in Distributed NetworkBased on Empirical Mode DecompositionZHAO Di，LIU ChenTianjin State Grid Electric Power Company，Tianjinabnormal processing of 2020年9月25日第37卷第18期Telecom Power TechnologyＳｅｐ．　２５，２０２０，Ｖｏｌ．　３７　Ｎｏ．　１８　赵 迪，等：基于经验模态分解的分布式网络可篡改信息数据加密系统设计2 基于经验模态分解的分布式网络可篡改信息数据加密系统软件设计2.1 加密信号分解去噪处理由于加密数据实时变化是不稳定的，产生的原始加密信号内部有不同的振荡成分和波动特征，并含有一定的噪声，因此需要采用经验模态分解技术分解原始加密信号去除噪声[4]。

原始加密信号由有限个参与分量和一个趋势项组成。

在经验模态分解过程中，先搜索原始加密信号x (t )的极大值点和极小值点，然后从中减掉第一阶固有模态分量v i (t )，从而得到残余项A (t )。

自动化专业英语词汇大全accelerationtransducer加速度传感器basecoordinatesystem基座坐标系acceptancetesting验收测试Bayesclassifier贝叶斯分类器accessibility可及性bearingalignment方位对准accumulatederror累积误差bellowspressuregauge波纹管压力表AC-DC-ACfrequencyconverter交-直-交变频器benefit-costanalysis收益本钱分析AC(alternatingcurrent)electricdrive交流电子传bilinearsystem双线性系统动biocybernetics生物控制论activeattitudestabilization主动姿态稳定biologicalfeedbacksystem生物反响系统actuator驱动器，执行机构blackboxtestingapproach黑箱测试法adaline线性适应元blindsearch盲目搜索adaptationlayer适应层blockdiagonalization块对角化adaptivetelemetersystem适应遥测系统Boltzmanmachine玻耳兹曼机adjointoperator伴随算子bottom-updevelopment自下而上开发admissibleerror容许误差boundaryvalueanalysis边界值分析aggregationmatrix集结矩阵brainstormingmethod头脑风暴法AHP(analytichierarchyprocess)层次分析法breadth-firstsearch广度优先搜索amplifyingelement放大环节butterflyvalve蝶阀analog-digitalconversion模数转换CAE(computeraidedengineering)计算机辅助工annunciator信号器程antennapointingcontrol天线指向控制CAM(computeraidedmanufacturing)计算机辅助anti-integralwindup抗积分饱卷制造aperiodicdecomposition非周期分解Camflexvalve偏心旋转阀aposterioriestimate后验估计canonicalstatevariable标准化状态变量approximatereasoning近似推理capacitivedisplacementtransducer电容式位移传aprioriestimate先验估计感器articulatedrobot关节型机器人capsulepressuregauge膜盒压力表assignmentproblem配置问题，分配问题CARD计算机辅助研究开发associativememorymodel联想记忆模型Cartesianrobot直角坐标型机器人associatron联想机cascadecompensation串联补偿asymptoticstability渐进稳定性catastrophetheory突变论attainedposedrift实际位姿漂移centrality集中性attitudeacquisition姿态捕获chainedaggregation链式集结AOCS(attritudeandorbitcontrolsystem)姿态轨chaos混沌道控制系统characteristiclocus特征轨迹attitudeangularvelocity姿态角速度chemicalpropulsion化学推进attitudedisturbance姿态扰动calrity清晰性attitudemaneuver姿态机动classicalinformationpattern经典信息模式attractor吸引子classifier分类器augmentability可扩大性clinicalcontrolsystem临床控制系统augmentedsystem增广系统closedlooppole闭环极点automaticmanualstation自动-手动操作器closedlooptransferfunction闭环传递函数automaton自动机clusteranalysis聚类分析autonomoussystem自治系统coarse-finecontrol粗-精控制backlashcharacteristics间隙特性cobwebmodel蛛网模型coefficientmatrix系数矩阵costatevariable共态变量cognitivescience认知科学cost-effectivenessanalysis费用效益分析cognitron认知机couplingoforbitandattitude轨道和姿态耦合coherentsystem单调关联系统criticaldamping临界阻尼combinationdecision组合决策criticalstability临界稳定性combinatorialexplosion组合爆炸cross-overfrequency穿越频率，交越频率combinedpressureandvacuumgauge压力真空currentsourceinverter电流[源]型逆变器表cut-offfrequency截止频率commandpose指令位姿cybernetics控制论companionmatrix相伴矩阵cyclicremotecontrol循环遥控compartmentalmodel房室模型cylindricalrobot圆柱坐标型机器人compatibility相容性，兼容性dampedoscillation阻尼振荡compensatingnetwork补偿网络damper阻尼器compensation补偿，矫正dampingratio阻尼比compliance柔顺，顺应dataacquisition数据采集compositecontrol组合控制dataencryption数据加密computablegeneralequilibriummodel可计算一datapreprocessing数据预处理般均衡模型dataprocessor数据处理器conditionallyinstability条件不稳定性DCgenerator-motorsetdrive直流发电机-电动机configuration组态组传动connectionism连接机制Dcontroller微分控制器connectivity连接性decentrality分散性conservativesystem守恒系统decentralizedstochasticcontrol分散随机控制consistency一致性decisionspace决策空间constraintcondition约束条件decisionsupportsystem决策支持系统consumptionfunction消费函数decomposition-aggregationapproach分解集结法context-freegrammar上下文无关语法decouplingparameter解耦参数continuousdiscreteeventhybridsystemdeductive-inductivehybridmodelingmethod演simulation连续离散事件混合系统仿真绎与归纳混合建模法continuousduty连续工作制delayedtelemetry延时遥测controlaccuracy控制精度derivationtree导出树controlcabinet控制柜derivativefeedback微分反响controllabilityindex可控指数describingfunction描述函数controllablecanonicalform可控标准型desiredvalue希望值[control]plant控制对象,被控对象despinner消旋体controllinginstrument控制仪表destination目的站controlmomentgyro控制力矩陀螺detector检出器controlpanel控制屏，控制盘deterministicautomaton确定性自动机controlsynchro控制[式]自整角机deviation偏差controlsystemsynthesis控制系统综合deviationalarm偏差报警器controltimehorizon控制时程DFD数据流图cooperativegame合作对策diagnosticmodel诊断模型coordinabilitycondition可协调条件diagonallydominantmatrix对角主导矩阵coordinationstrategy协调策略diaphragmpressuregauge膜片压力表coordinator协调器differenceequationmodel差分方程模型cornerfrequency转折频率differentialdynamicalsystem微分动力学系统----differentialgame微分对策economicindicator经济指标differentialpressurelevelmeter差压液位计eddycurrentthicknessmeter电涡流厚度计differentialpressuretransmitter差压变送器effectiveness有效性differentialtransformerdisplacementtransducereffectivenesstheory效益理论差动变压器式位移传感器elasticityofdemand需求弹性differentiationelement微分环节electricactuator电动执行机构digitalfiler数字滤波器electricconductancelevelmeter电导液位计digitalsignalprocessing数字信号处理electricdrivecontrolgear电动传动控制设备digitization数字化electrichydraulicconverter电-液转换器digitizer数字化仪electricpneumaticconverter电-气转换器dimensiontransducer尺度传感器electrohydraulicservovale电液伺服阀directcoordination直接协调electromagneticflowtransducer电磁流量传感器disaggregation解裂electronicbatchingscale电子配料秤discoordination失协调electronicbeltconveyorscale电子皮带秤discreteeventdynamicsystem离散事件动态系统electronichopperscale电子料斗秤discretesystemsimulationlanguage离散系统仿elevation仰角真语言emergencystop异常停顿discriminantfunction判别函数empiricaldistribution经历分布displacementvibrationamplitudetransducer位endogenousvariable内生变量移振幅传感器equilibriumgrowth均衡增长dissipativestructure耗散构造equilibriumpoint平衡点distributedparametercontrolsystem分布参数控equivalencepartitioning等价类划分制系统ergonomics工效学distrubance扰动error误差disturbancecompensation扰动补偿error-correctionparsing纠错剖析diversity多样性estimate估计量divisibility可分性estimationtheory估计理论domainknowledge领域知识evaluationtechnique评价技术dominantpole主导极点eventchain事件链dose-responsemodel剂量反响模型evolutionarysystem进化系统dualmodulationtelemeteringsystem双重调制遥exogenousvariable外生变量测系统expectedcharacteristics希望特性dualprinciple对偶原理externaldisturbance外扰dualspinstabilization双自旋稳定factbase事实dutyratio负载比failurediagnosis故障诊断dynamicbraking能耗制动fastmode快变模态dynamiccharacteristics动态特性feasibilitystudy可行性研究dynamicdeviation动态偏差feasiblecoordination可行协调dynamicerrorcoefficient动态误差系数feasibleregion可行域dynamicexactness动它吻合性featuredetection特征检测dynamicinput-outputmodel动态投入产出模型featureextraction特征抽取econometricmodel计量经济模型feedbackcompensation反响补偿economiccybernetics经济控制论feedforwardpath前馈通路economiceffectiveness经济效益fieldbus现场总线economicevaluation经济评价finiteautomaton有限自动机economicindex经济指数FIP(factoryinformationprotocol)工厂信息协议firstorderpredicatelogic一阶谓词逻辑harmoniousstrategy和谐策略fixedsequencemanipulator固定顺序机械手heuristicinference启发式推理fixedsetpointcontrol定值控制hiddenoscillation隐蔽振荡FMS(flexiblemanufacturingsystem)柔性制造系hierarchicalchart层次构造图统hierarchicalplanning递阶规划flowsensor/transducer流量传感器hierarchicalcontrol递阶控制flowtransmitter流量变送器homeostasis内稳态fluctuation涨落homomorphicmodel同态系统forcedoscillation强迫振荡horizontaldecomposition横向分解formallanguagetheory形式语言理论hormonalcontrol内分泌控制formalneuron形式神经元hydraulicstepmotor液压步进马达forwardpath正向通路hypercycletheory超循环理论forwardreasoning正向推理Icontroller积分控制器fractal分形体，分维体identifiability可辨识性frequencyconverter变频器IDSS(intelligentdecisionsupportsystem)智能frequencydomainmodelreductionmethod频域决策支持系统模型降阶法imagerecognition图像识别frequencyresponse频域响应impulse冲量fullorderobserver全阶观测器impulsefunction冲击函数，脉冲函数functionaldecomposition功能分解inching点动FES(functionalelectricalstimulation)功能电刺激incompatibilityprinciple不相容原理functionalsimularity功能相似incrementalmotioncontrol增量运动控制fuzzylogic模糊逻辑indexofmerit品质因数gametree对策树inductiveforcetransducer电感式位移传感器gatevalve闸阀inductivemodelingmethod归纳建模法generalequilibriumtheory一般均衡理论industrialautomation工业自动化generalizedleastsquaresestimation广义最小二inertialattitudesensor惯性姿态敏感器乘估计inertialcoordinatesystem惯性坐标系generationfunction生成函数inertialwheel惯性轮geomagnetictorque地磁力矩inferenceengine推理机geometricsimilarity几何相似infinitedimensionalsystem无穷维系统gimbaledwheel框架轮informationacquisition信息采集globalasymptoticstability全局渐进稳定性infraredgasanalyzer红外线气体分析器globaloptimum全局最优inherentnonlinearity固有非线性globevalve球形阀inherentregulation固有调节goalcoordinationmethod目标协调法initialdeviation初始偏差grammaticalinference文法推断initiator发起站graphicsearch图搜索injectionattitude入轨姿势gravitygradienttorque重力梯度力矩input-outputmodel投入产出模型grouptechnology成组技术instability不稳定性guidancesystem制导系统instructionlevellanguage指令级语言gyrodriftrate陀螺漂移率integralofabsolutevalueoferrorcriterion绝对gyrostat陀螺体误差积分准那么Halldisplacementtransducer霍尔式位移传感器integralofsquarederrorcriterion平方误差积分准hardware-in-the-loopsimulation半实物仿真那么harmoniousdeviation和谐偏差integralperformancecriterion积分性能准那么integrationinstrument积算仪器localasymptoticstability局部渐近稳定性integrity整体性localoptimum局部最优intelligentterminal智能终端logmagnitude-phasediagram对数幅相图interactedsystem互联系统，关联系统longtermmemory长期记忆interactivepredictionapproach互联预估法，关联lumpedparametermodel集总参数模型预估法Lyapunovtheoremofasymptoticstability李雅普interconnection互联诺夫渐近稳定性定理intermittentduty断续工作制macro-economicsystem宏观经济系统internaldisturbance内扰magneticdumping磁卸载ISM(interpretivestructuremodeling)解释构造建magnetoelasticweighingcell磁致弹性称重传感器模法magnitude-frequencycharacteristic幅频特性invariantembeddingprinciple不变嵌入原理magnitudemargin幅值裕度inventorytheory库伦论magnitudescalefactor幅值比例尺inverseNyquistdiagram逆奈奎斯特图manipulator机械手inverter逆变器man-machinecoordination人机协调investmentdecision投资决策manualstation手动操作器isomorphicmodel同构模型MAP(manufacturingautomationprotocol)制造iterativecoordination迭代协调自动化协议jetpropulsion喷气推进marginaleffectiveness边际效益job-lotcontrol分批控制Mason'sgainformula梅森增益公式joint关节masterstation主站Kalman-Bucyfiler卡尔曼-布西滤波器matchingcriterion匹配准那么knowledgeaccomodation知识顺应maximumlikelihoodestimation最大似然估计knowledgeacquisition知识获取maximumovershoot最大超调量knowledgeassimilation知识同化maximumprinciple极大值原理KBMS(knowledgebasemanagementsystem)知mean-squareerrorcriterion均方误差准那么识库管理系统mechanismmodel机理模型knowledgerepresentation知识表达meta-knowledge元知识ladderdiagram梯形图metallurgicalautomation冶金自动化lag-leadcompensation滞后超前补偿minimalrealization最小实现Lagrangeduality拉格朗日对偶性minimumphasesystem最小相位系统Laplacetransform拉普拉斯变换minimumvarianceestimation最小方差估计largescalesystem大系统minorloop副回路lateralinhibitionnetwork侧抑制网络missile-targetrelativemovementsimulator弹体leastcostinput最小本钱投入-目标相对运动仿真器leastsquarescriterion最小二乘准那么modalaggregation模态集结levelswitch物位开关modaltransformation模态变换librationdamping天平动阻尼MB(modelbase)模型库limitcycle极限环modelconfidence模型置信度linearizationtechnique线性化方法modelfidelity模型逼真度linearmotionelectricdrive直线运动电气传动modelreferenceadaptivecontrolsystem模型参linearmotionvalve直行程阀考适应控制系统linearprogramming线性规划modelverification模型验证LQR(linearquadraticregulatorproblem)线性二modularization模块化次调节器问题MEC(mosteconomiccontrol)最经济控制loadcell称重传感器motionspace可动空间MTBF(meantimebetweenfailures)平均故障间隔orderparameter序参数时间orientationcontrol定向控制MTTF(meantimetofailures)平均无故障时间originator始发站multi-attributiveutilityfunction多属性效用函数oscillatingperiod振荡周期multicriteria多重判据outputpredictionmethod输出预估法multilevelhierarchicalstructure多级递阶构造ovalwheelflowmeter椭圆齿轮流量计multiloopcontrol多回路控制overalldesign总体设计multi-objectivedecision多目标决策overdamping过阻尼multistatelogic多态逻辑overlappingdecomposition交叠分解multistratumhierarchicalcontrol多段递阶控制Padeapproximation帕德近似multivariablecontrolsystem多变量控制系统Paretooptimality帕雷托最优性myoelectriccontrol肌电控制passiveattitudestabilization被动姿态稳定Nashoptimality纳什最优性pathrepeatability路径可重复性naturallanguagegeneration自然语言生成patternprimitive模式基元nearest-neighbor最近邻PR(patternrecognition)模式识别necessitymeasure必然性侧度Pcontrol比例控制器negativefeedback负反响peaktime峰值时间neuralassembly神经集合penaltyfunctionmethod罚函数法neuralnetworkcomputer神经网络计算机perceptron感知器Nicholschart尼科尔斯图periodicduty周期工作制noeticscience思维科学perturbationtheory摄动理论noncoherentsystem非单调关联系统pessimisticvalue悲观值noncooperativegame非合作博弈phaselocus相轨迹nonequilibriumstate非平衡态phasetrajectory相轨迹nonlinearelement非线性环节phaselead相位超前nonmonotoniclogic非单调逻辑photoelectrictachometrictransducer光电式转速nonparametrictraining非参数训练传感器nonreversibleelectricdrive不可逆电气传动phrase-structuregrammar短句构造文法nonsingularperturbation非奇异摄动physicalsymbolsystem物理符号系统non-stationaryrandomprocess非平稳随机过程piezoelectricforcetransducer压电式力传感器nuclearradiationlevelmeter核辐射物位计playbackrobot示教再现式机器人nutationsensor章动敏感器PLC(programmablelogiccontroller)可编程序逻Nyquiststabilitycriterion奈奎斯特稳定判据辑控制器objectivefunction目标函数plugbraking反接制动observabilityindex可观测指数plugvalve旋塞阀observablecanonicalform可观测标准型pneumaticactuator气动执行机构on-lineassistance在线帮助point-to-pointcontrol点位控制on-offcontrol通断控制polarrobot极坐标型机器人openlooppole开环极点poleassignment极点配置operationalresearchmodel运筹学模型pole-zerocancellation零极点相消opticfibertachometer光纤式转速表polynomialinput多项式输入optimaltrajectory最优轨迹portfoliotheory投资搭配理论optimizationtechnique最优化技术poseovershoot位姿过调量orbitalrendezvous轨道交会positionmeasuringinstrument位置测量仪orbitgyrocompass轨道陀螺罗盘posentiometricdisplacementtransducer电位器orbitperturbation轨道摄动式位移传感器positivefeedback正反响realizability可实现性,能实现性powersystemautomation电力系统自动化realtimetelemetry实时遥测predicatelogic谓词逻辑receptivefield感受野pressuregaugewithelectriccontact电接点压力表rectangularrobot直角坐标型机器人pressuretransmitter压力变送器rectifier整流器pricecoordination价格协调recursiveestimation递推估计primalcoordination主协调reducedorderobserver降阶观测器primaryfrequencyzone主频区redundantinformation冗余信息PCA(principalcomponentanalysis)主成分分析法reentrycontrol再入控制principleofturnpike大道原理regenerativebraking回馈制动，再生制动priority优先级regionalplanningmodel区域规划模型process-orientedsimulation面向过程的仿真regulatingdevice调节装载productionbudget生产预算regulation调节productionrule产生式规那么relationalalgebra关系代数profitforecast利润预测relaycharacteristic继电器特性remotemanipulator遥控操作器PERT(programevaluationandreviewtechnique)方案评审技术remoteregulating遥调programsetstation程序设定操作器remotesetpointadjuster远程设定点调整器proportionalcontrol比例控制rendezvousanddocking交会和对接proportionalplusderivativecontroller比例微分控reproducibility再现性制器resistancethermometersensor热电阻protocolengineering协议工程resolutionprinciple归结原理prototype原型resourceallocation资源分配pseudorandomsequence伪随机序列responsecurve响应曲线pseudo-rate-incrementcontrol伪速率增量控制returndifferencematrix回差矩阵pulseduration脉冲持续时间returnratiomatrix回比矩阵pulsefrequencymodulationcontrolsystem脉冲reverberation回响调频控制系统reversibleelectricdrive可逆电气传动pulsewidthmodulationcontrolsystem脉冲调宽revoluterobot关节型机器人控制系统revolutionspeedtransducer转速传感器PWMinverter脉宽调制逆变器rewritingrule重写规那么pushdownautomaton下推自动机rigidspacecraftdynamics刚性航天动力学QC(qualitycontrol)质量管理riskdecision风险分析quadraticperformanceindex二次型性能指标robotics机器人学qualitativephysicalmodel定性物理模型robotprogramminglanguage机器人编程语言quantizednoise量化噪声robustcontrol鲁棒控制quasilinearcharacteristics准线性特性robustness鲁棒性queuingtheory排队论rollgapmeasuringinstrument辊缝测量仪radiofrequencysensor射频敏感器rootlocus根轨迹rampfunction斜坡函数rootsflowmeter腰轮流量计randomdisturbance随机扰动rotameter浮子流量计，转子流量计randomprocess随机过程rotaryeccentricplugvalve偏心旋转阀rateintegratinggyro速率积分陀螺rotarymotionvalve角行程阀ratiostation比值操作器rotatingtransformer旋转变压器reachability可达性Routhapproximationmethod劳思近似判据reactionwheelcontrol反作用轮控制routingproblem路径问题sampled-datacontrolsystem采样控制系统socioeconomicsystem社会经济系统samplingcontrolsystem采样控制系统softwarepsychology软件心理学saturationcharacteristics饱和特性solararraypointingcontrol太阳帆板指向控制scalarLyapunovfunction标量李雅普诺夫函数solenoidvalve电磁阀SCARA(selectivecomplianceassemblyrobotsource源点arm)平面关节型机器人specificimpulse比冲scenarioanalysismethod情景分析法speedcontrolsystem调速系统sceneanalysis物景分析spinaxis自旋轴s-domains域spinner自旋体self-operatedcontroller自力式控制器stabilitycriterion稳定性判据self-organizingsystem自组织系统stabilitylimit稳定极限self-reproducingsystem自繁殖系统stabilization镇定，稳定self-tuningcontrol自校正控制Stackelbergdecisiontheory施塔克尔贝格决策理论semanticnetwork语义网络stateequationmodel状态方程模型semi-physicalsimulation半实物仿真statespacedescription状态空间描述sensingelement敏感元件staticcharacteristicscurve静态特性曲线sensitivityanalysis灵敏度分析stationaccuracy定点精度sensorycontrol感觉控制stationaryrandomprocess平稳随机过程sequentialdecomposition顺序分解statisticalanalysis统计分析sequentialleastsquaresestimation序贯最小二乘statisticpatternrecognition统计模式识别估计steadystatedeviation稳态偏差servocontrol伺服控制，随动控制steadystateerrorcoefficient稳态误差系数servomotor伺服马达step-by-stepcontrol步进控制settlingtime过渡时间stepfunction阶跃函数sextant六分仪stepwiserefinement逐步精化shorttermplanning短期方案stochasticfiniteautomaton随机有限自动机shorttimehorizoncoordination短时程协调straingaugeloadcell应变式称重传感器signaldetectionandestimation信号检测和估计strategicfunction策略函数signalreconstruction信号重构stronglycoupledsystem强耦合系统similarity相似性subjectiveprobability主观频率simulatedinterrupt仿真中断suboptimality次优性simulationblockdiagram仿真框图supervisedtraining监视学习simulationexperiment仿真实验supervisorycomputercontrolsystem计算机监控simulationvelocity仿真速度系统simulator仿真器sustainedoscillation自持振荡singleaxletable单轴转台swirlmeter旋进流量计singledegreeoffreedomgyro单自由度陀螺switchingpoint切换点singlelevelprocess单级过程symbolicprocessing符号处理singlevaluenonlinearity单值非线性synapticplasticity突触可塑性singularattractor奇异吸引子synergetics协同学singularperturbation奇异摄动syntacticanalysis句法分析sink汇点systemassessment系统评价slavedsystem受役系统systematology系统学slower-than-real-timesimulation欠实时仿真systemhomomorphism系统同态slowsubsystem慢变子系统systemisomorphism系统同构socio-cybernetics社会控制论systemengineering系统工程----tachometer转速表turbineflowmeter涡轮流量计targetflowtransmitter靶式流量变送器Turingmachine图灵机taskcycle作业周期two-timescalesystem双时标系统teachingprogramming示教编程ultrasoniclevelmeter超声物位计telemechanics远动学unadjustablespeedelectricdrive非调速电气传动telemeteringsystemoffrequencydivisiontypeunbiasedestimation无偏估计频分遥测系统underdamping欠阻尼telemetry遥测uniformlyasymptoticstability一致渐近稳定性teleologicalsystem目的系统uninterruptedduty不连续工作制，长期工作制teleology目的论unitcircle单位圆temperaturetransducer温度传感器unittesting单元测试templatebase模版库unsupervisedlearing非监视学习tensiometer X力计upperlevelproblem上级问题texture纹理urbanplanning城市规划theoremproving定理证明utilityfunction效用函数therapymodel治疗模型valueengineering价值工程thermocouple热电偶variablegain可变增益，可变放大系数thermometer温度计variablestructurecontrolsystem变构造控制thicknessmeter厚度计vectorLyapunovfunction向量李雅普诺夫函数three-axisattitudestabilization三轴姿态稳定velocityerrorcoefficient速度误差系数threestatecontroller三位控制器velocitytransducer速度传感器thrustvectorcontrolsystem推力矢量控制系统verticaldecomposition纵向分解thruster推力器vibratingwireforcetransducer振弦式力传感器timeconstant时间常数vibrometer振动计time-invariantsystem定常系统，非时变系统viscousdamping粘性阻尼timeschedulecontroller时序控制器voltagesourceinverter电压源型逆变器time-sharingcontrol分时控制vortexprecessionflowmeter旋进流量计time-varyingparameter时变参数vortexsheddingflowmeter涡街流量计top-downtesting自上而下测试WB(waybase)方法库topologicalstructure拓扑构造weighingcell称重传感器TQC(totalqualitycontrol)全面质量管理weightingfactor权因子trackingerror跟踪误差weightingmethod加权法trade-offanalysis权衡分析Whittaker-Shannonsamplingtheorem惠特克-香transferfunctionmatrix传递函数矩阵农采样定理transformationgrammar转换文法Wienerfiltering维纳滤波transientdeviation瞬态偏差workstationforcomputeraideddesign计算机辅助设计工作站transientprocess过渡过程transitiondiagram转移图w-planew平面transmissiblepressuregauge电远传压力表zero-basedbudget零基预算transmitter变送器zero-inputresponse零输入响应trendanalysis趋势分析zero-stateresponse零状态响应triplemodulationtelemeteringsystem三重调制zerosumgamemodel零和对策模型遥测系统z-transformz变换。

acceleration transducer加速度传感器acceptance testing验收测试accessibility可及性accumulated error累积误差AC-DC-AC frequency converter交-直-交变频器AC (alternating current) electric drive交流电子传动active attitude stabilization主动姿态稳定actuator驱动器，执行机构adaline线性适应元adaptation layer适应层adaptive telemeter system适应遥测系统adjoint operator伴随算子admissible error容许误差aggregation matrix集结矩阵AHP (analytic hierarchy process)层次分析法amplifying element放大环节analog-digital conversion模数转换annunciator信号器antenna pointing control天线指向控制anti-integral windup抗积分饱卷aperiodic decomposition非周期分解a posteriori estimate后验估计approximate reasoning近似推理a priori estimate先验估计articulated robot关节型机器人assignment problem配置问题，分配问题associative memory model联想记忆模型associatron联想机asymptotic stability渐进稳定性attained pose drift实际位姿漂移attitude acquisition姿态捕获AOCS (attritude and orbit control system)姿态轨道控制系统attitude angular velocity姿态角速度attitude disturbance姿态扰动attitude maneuver姿态机动attractor吸引子augment ability可扩充性augmented system增广系统automatic manual station自动-手动操作器automaton自动机autonomous system自治系统backlash characteristics间隙特性base coordinate system基座坐标系Bayes classifier贝叶斯分类器bearing alignment方位对准bellows pressure gauge波纹管压力表benefit-cost analysis收益成本分析bilinear system双线性系统biocybernetics生物控制论biological feedback system生物反馈系统black box testing approach黑箱测试法blind search盲目搜索block diagonalization块对角化Boltzman machine玻耳兹曼机bottom-up development自下而上开发boundary value analysis边界值分析brainstorming method头脑风暴法breadth-first search广度优先搜索butterfly valve蝶阀CAE (computer aided engineering)计算机辅助工程CAM (computer aided manufacturing)计算机辅助制造Camflex valve偏心旋转阀canonical state variable规范化状态变量capacitive displacement transducer电容式位移传感器capsule pressure gauge膜盒压力表CARD计算机辅助研究开发Cartesian robot直角坐标型机器人cascade compensation串联补偿catastrophe theory突变论centrality集中性chained aggregation链式集结chaos混沌characteristic locus特征轨迹chemical propulsion化学推进calrity清晰性classical information pattern经典信息模式classifier分类器clinical control system临床控制系统closed loop pole闭环极点closed loop transfer function闭环传递函数cluster analysis聚类分析coarse-fine control粗-精控制cobweb model蛛网模型coefficient matrix系数矩阵cognitive science认知科学cognitron认知机coherent system单调关联系统combination decision组合决策combinatorial explosion组合爆炸combined pressure and vacuum gauge压力真空表command pose指令位姿companion matrix相伴矩阵compartmental model房室模型compatibility相容性，兼容性compensating network补偿网络compensation补偿，矫正compliance柔顺，顺应composite control组合控制computable general equilibrium model可计算一般均衡模型conditionally instability条件不稳定性configuration组态connectionism连接机制connectivity连接性conservative system守恒系统consistency一致性constraint condition约束条件consumption function消费函数context-free grammar上下文无关语法continuous discrete event hybrid system simulation连续离散事件混合系统仿真continuous duty连续工作制control accuracy控制精度control cabinet控制柜controllability index可控指数controllable canonical form可控规范型[control] plant控制对象,被控对象controlling instrument控制仪表control moment gyro控制力矩陀螺control panel控制屏，控制盘control synchro控制[式]自整角机control system synthesis控制系统综合control time horizon控制时程cooperative game合作对策coordinability condition可协调条件coordination strategy协调策略coordinator协调器corner frequency转折频率costate variable共态变量cost-effectiveness analysis费用效益分析coupling of orbit and attitude轨道和姿态耦合critical damping临界阻尼critical stability临界稳定性cross-over frequency穿越频率，交越频率current source inverter电流[源]型逆变器cut-off frequency截止频率cybernetics控制论cyclic remote control循环遥控cylindrical robot圆柱坐标型机器人damped oscillation阻尼振荡damper阻尼器damping ratio阻尼比data acquisition数据采集data encryption数据加密data preprocessing数据预处理data processor数据处理器DC generator-motor set drive直流发电机-电动机组传动D controller微分控制器decentrality分散性decentralized stochastic control分散随机控制decision space决策空间decision support system决策支持系统decomposition-aggregation approach分解集结法decoupling parameter解耦参数deductive-inductive hybrid modeling method演绎与归纳混合建模法delayed telemetry延时遥测derivation tree导出树derivative feedback微分反馈describing function描述函数desired value希望值despinner消旋体destination目的站detector检出器deterministic automaton确定性自动机deviation偏差deviation alarm偏差报警器DFD数据流图diagnostic model诊断模型diagonally dominant matrix对角主导矩阵diaphragm pressure gauge膜片压力表difference equation model差分方程模型differential dynamical system微分动力学系统differential game微分对策differential pressure level meter差压液位计differential pressure transmitter差压变送器differential transformer displacement transducer差动变压器式位移传感器differentiation element微分环节digital filer数字滤波器digital signal processing数字信号处理digitization数字化digitizer数字化仪dimension transducer尺度传感器direct coordination直接协调disaggregation解裂discoordination失协调discrete event dynamic system离散事件动态系统discrete system simulation language离散系统仿真语言discriminant function判别函数displacement vibration amplitude transducer位移振幅传感器dissipative structure耗散结构distributed parameter control system分布参数控制系统distrubance扰动disturbance compensation扰动补偿diversity多样性divisibility可分性domain knowledge领域知识dominant pole主导极点dose-response model剂量反应模型dual modulation telemetering system双重调制遥测系统dual principle对偶原理dual spin stabilization双自旋稳定duty ratio负载比dynamic braking能耗制动dynamic characteristics动态特性dynamic deviation动态偏差dynamic error coefficient动态误差系数dynamic exactness动它吻合性dynamic input-output model动态投入产出模型econometric model计量经济模型economic cybernetics经济控制论economic effectiveness经济效益economic evaluation经济评价economic index经济指数economic indicator经济指标eddy current thickness meter电涡流厚度计effectiveness有效性effectiveness theory效益理论elasticity of demand需求弹性electric actuator电动执行机构electric conductance levelmeter电导液位计electric drive control gear电动传动控制设备electric hydraulic converter电-液转换器electric pneumatic converter电-气转换器electrohydraulic servo vale电液伺服阀electromagnetic flow transducer电磁流量传感器electronic batching scale电子配料秤electronic belt conveyor scale电子皮带秤electronic hopper scale电子料斗秤elevation仰角emergency stop异常停止empirical distribution经验分布endogenous variable内生变量equilibrium growth均衡增长equilibrium point平衡点equivalence partitioning等价类划分ergonomics工效学error误差error-correction parsing纠错剖析estimate估计量estimation theory估计理论evaluation technique评价技术event chain事件链evolutionary system进化系统exogenous variable外生变量expected characteristics希望特性external disturbance外扰[next]fact base事实failure diagnosis故障诊断fast mode快变模态feasibility study可行性研究feasible coordination可行协调feasible region可行域feature detection特征检测feature extraction特征抽取feedback compensation反馈补偿feedforward path前馈通路field bus现场总线finite automaton有限自动机FIP (factory information protocol)工厂信息协议first order predicate logic一阶谓词逻辑fixed sequence manipulator固定顺序机械手fixed set point control定值控制FMS (flexible manufacturing system)柔性制造系统flow sensor/transducer流量传感器flow transmitter流量变送器fluctuation涨落forced oscillation强迫振荡formal language theory形式语言理论formal neuron形式神经元forward path正向通路forward reasoning正向推理fractal分形体，分维体frequency converter变频器frequency domain model reduction method频域模型降阶法frequency response频域响应full order observer全阶观测器functional decomposition功能分解FES (functional electrical stimulation)功能电刺激functional simularity功能相似fuzzy logic模糊逻辑game tree对策树gate valve闸阀general equilibrium theory一般均衡理论generalized least squares estimation广义最小二乘估计generation function生成函数geomagnetic torque地磁力矩geometric similarity几何相似gimbaled wheel框架轮global asymptotic stability全局渐进稳定性global optimum全局最优globe valve球形阀goal coordination method目标协调法grammatical inference文法推断graphic search图搜索gravity gradient torque重力梯度力矩group technology成组技术guidance system制导系统gyro drift rate陀螺漂移率gyrostat陀螺体Hall displacement transducer霍尔式位移传感器hardware-in-the-loop simulation半实物仿真harmonious deviation和谐偏差harmonious strategy和谐策略heuristic inference启发式推理hidden oscillation隐蔽振荡hierarchical chart层次结构图hierarchical planning递阶规划hierarchical control递阶控制homeostasis内稳态homomorphic model同态系统horizontal decomposition横向分解hormonal control内分泌控制hydraulic step motor液压步进马达hypercycle theory超循环理论I controller积分控制器identifiability可辨识性IDSS (intelligent decision support system)智能决策支持系统image recognition图像识别impulse冲量impulse function冲击函数，脉冲函数inching点动incompatibility principle不相容原理incremental motion control增量运动控制index of merit品质因数inductive force transducer电感式位移传感器inductive modeling method归纳建模法industrial automation工业自动化inertial attitude sensor惯性姿态敏感器inertial coordinate system惯性坐标系inertial wheel惯性轮inference engine推理机infinite dimensional system无穷维系统information acquisition信息采集infrared gas analyzer红外线气体分析器inherent nonlinearity固有非线性inherent regulation固有调节initial deviation初始偏差initiator发起站injection attitude入轨姿势input-output model投入产出模型instability不稳定性instruction level language指令级语言integral of absolute value of error criterion绝对误差积分准则integral of squared error criterion平方误差积分准则integral performance criterion积分性能准则integration instrument积算仪器integrity整体性intelligent terminal智能终端interacted system互联系统，关联系统interactive prediction approach互联预估法，关联预估法interconnection互联intermittent duty断续工作制internal disturbance内扰ISM (interpretive structure modeling)解释结构建模法invariant embedding principle不变嵌入原理inventory theory库伦论inverse Nyquist diagram逆奈奎斯特图inverter逆变器investment decision投资决策isomorphic model同构模型iterative coordination迭代协调jet propulsion喷气推进job-lot control分批控制joint关节Kalman-Bucy filer卡尔曼-布西滤波器knowledge accomodation知识顺应knowledge acquisition知识获取knowledge assimilation知识同化KBMS (knowledge base management system)知识库管理系统knowledge representation知识表达ladder diagram梯形图lag-lead compensation滞后超前补偿Lagrange duality拉格朗日对偶性Laplace transform拉普拉斯变换large scale system大系统lateral inhibition network侧抑制网络least cost input最小成本投入least squares criterion最小二乘准则level switch物位开关libration damping天平动阻尼limit cycle极限环linearization technique线性化方法linear motion electric drive直线运动电气传动linear motion valve直行程阀linear programming线性规划LQR (linear quadratic regulator problem)线性二次调节器问题load cell称重传感器local asymptotic stability局部渐近稳定性local optimum局部最优log magnitude-phase diagram对数幅相图long term memory长期记忆lumped parameter model集总参数模型Lyapunov theorem of asymptotic stability李雅普诺夫渐近稳定性定理macro-economic system宏观经济系统magnetic dumping磁卸载magnetoelastic weighing cell磁致弹性称重传感器magnitude-frequency characteristic幅频特性magnitude margin幅值裕度magnitude scale factor幅值比例尺manipulator机械手man-machine coordination人机协调manual station手动操作器MAP (manufacturing automation protocol)制造自动化协议marginal effectiveness边际效益Mason's gain formula梅森增益公式master station主站matching criterion匹配准则maximum likelihood estimation最大似然估计maximum overshoot最大超调量maximum principle极大值原理mean-square error criterion均方误差准则mechanism model机理模型meta-knowledge元知识metallurgical automation冶金自动化minimal realization最小实现minimum phase system最小相位系统minimum variance estimation最小方差估计minor loop副回路missile-target relative movement simulator弹体-目标相对运动仿真器modal aggregation模态集结modal transformation模态变换MB (model base)模型库model confidence模型置信度model fidelity模型逼真度model reference adaptive control system模型参考适应控制系统model verification模型验证modularization模块化MEC (most economic control)最经济控制motion space可动空间MTBF (mean time between failures)平均故障间隔时间MTTF (mean time to failures)平均无故障时间multi-attributive utility function多属性效用函数multicriteria多重判据multilevel hierarchical structure多级递阶结构multiloop control多回路控制multi-objective decision多目标决策multistate logic多态逻辑multistratum hierarchical control多段递阶控制multivariable control system多变量控制系统myoelectric control肌电控制Nash optimality纳什最优性natural language generation自然语言生成nearest-neighbor最近邻necessity measure必然性侧度negative feedback负反馈neural assembly神经集合neural network computer神经网络计算机Nichols chart尼科尔斯图noetic science思维科学noncoherent system非单调关联系统noncooperative game非合作博弈nonequilibrium state非平衡态nonlinear element非线性环节nonmonotonic logic非单调逻辑nonparametric training非参数训练nonreversible electric drive不可逆电气传动nonsingular perturbation非奇异摄动non-stationary random process非平稳随机过程nuclear radiation levelmeter核辐射物位计nutation sensor章动敏感器Nyquist stability criterion奈奎斯特稳定判据[next]objective function目标函数observability index可观测指数observable canonical form可观测规范型on-line assistance在线帮助on-off control通断控制open loop pole开环极点operational research model运筹学模型optic fiber tachometer光纤式转速表optimal trajectory最优轨迹optimization technique最优化技术orbital rendezvous轨道交会orbit gyrocompass轨道陀螺罗盘orbit perturbation轨道摄动order parameter序参数orientation control定向控制originator始发站oscillating period振荡周期output prediction method输出预估法oval wheel flowmeter椭圆齿轮流量计overall design总体设计overdamping过阻尼overlapping decomposition交叠分解Pade approximation帕德近似Pareto optimality帕雷托最优性passive attitude stabilization被动姿态稳定path repeatability路径可重复性pattern primitive模式基元PR (pattern recognition)模式识别P control比例控制器peak time峰值时间penalty function method罚函数法perceptron感知器periodic duty周期工作制perturbation theory摄动理论pessimistic value悲观值phase locus相轨迹phase trajectory相轨迹phase lead相位超前photoelectric tachometric transducer光电式转速传感器phrase-structure grammar短句结构文法physical symbol system物理符号系统piezoelectric force transducer压电式力传感器playback robot示教再现式机器人PLC (programmable logic controller)可编程序逻辑控制器plug braking反接制动plug valve旋塞阀pneumatic actuator气动执行机构point-to-point control点位控制polar robot极坐标型机器人pole assignment极点配置pole-zero cancellation零极点相消polynomial input多项式输入portfolio theory投资搭配理论pose overshoot位姿过调量position measuring instrument位置测量仪posentiometric displacement transducer电位器式位移传感器positive feedback正反馈power system automation电力系统自动化predicate logic谓词逻辑pressure gauge with electric contact电接点压力表pressure transmitter压力变送器price coordination价格协调primal coordination主协调primary frequency zone主频区PCA (principal component analysis)主成分分析法principle of turnpike大道原理priority优先级process-oriented simulation面向过程的仿真production budget生产预算production rule产生式规则profit forecast利润预测PERT (program evaluation and review technique)计划评审技术program set station程序设定操作器proportional control比例控制proportional plus derivative controller比例微分控制器protocol engineering协议工程prototype原型pseudo random sequence伪随机序列pseudo-rate-increment control伪速率增量控制pulse duration脉冲持续时间pulse frequency modulation control system脉冲调频控制系统pulse width modulation control system脉冲调宽控制系统PWM inverter脉宽调制逆变器pushdown automaton下推自动机QC (quality control)质量管理quadratic performance index二次型性能指标qualitative physical model定性物理模型quantized noise量化噪声quasilinear characteristics准线性特性queuing theory排队论radio frequency sensor射频敏感器ramp function斜坡函数random disturbance随机扰动random process随机过程rate integrating gyro速率积分陀螺ratio station比值操作器reachability可达性reaction wheel control反作用轮控制realizability可实现性,能实现性real time telemetry实时遥测receptive field感受野rectangular robot直角坐标型机器人rectifier整流器recursive estimation递推估计reduced order observer降阶观测器redundant information冗余信息reentry control再入控制regenerative braking回馈制动，再生制动regional planning model区域规划模型regulating device调节装载regulation调节relational algebra关系代数relay characteristic继电器特性remote manipulator遥控操作器remote regulating遥调remote set point adjuster远程设定点调整器rendezvous and docking交会和对接reproducibility再现性resistance thermometer sensor热电阻resolution principle归结原理resource allocation资源分配response curve响应曲线return difference matrix回差矩阵return ratio matrix回比矩阵reverberation回响reversible electric drive可逆电气传动revolute robot关节型机器人revolution speed transducer转速传感器rewriting rule重写规则rigid spacecraft dynamics刚性航天动力学risk decision风险分析robotics机器人学robot programming language机器人编程语言robust control鲁棒控制robustness鲁棒性roll gap measuring instrument辊缝测量仪root locus根轨迹roots flowmeter腰轮流量计rotameter浮子流量计，转子流量计rotary eccentric plug valve偏心旋转阀rotary motion valve角行程阀rotating transformer旋转变压器Routh approximation method劳思近似判据routing problem路径问题sampled-data control system采样控制系统sampling control system采样控制系统saturation characteristics饱和特性scalar Lyapunov function标量李雅普诺夫函数SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm)平面关节型机器人scenario analysis method情景分析法scene analysis物景分析s-domain s域self-operated controller自力式控制器self-organizing system自组织系统self-reproducing system自繁殖系统self-tuning control自校正控制semantic network语义网络semi-physical simulation半实物仿真sensing element敏感元件sensitivity analysis灵敏度分析sensory control感觉控制sequential decomposition顺序分解sequential least squares estimation序贯最小二乘估计servo control伺服控制，随动控制servomotor伺服马达settling time过渡时间sextant六分仪short term planning短期计划short time horizon coordination短时程协调signal detection and estimation信号检测和估计signal reconstruction信号重构similarity相似性simulated interrupt仿真中断simulation block diagram仿真框图simulation experiment仿真实验simulation velocity仿真速度simulator仿真器single axle table单轴转台single degree of freedom gyro单自由度陀螺single level process单级过程single value nonlinearity单值非线性singular attractor奇异吸引子singular perturbation奇异摄动sink汇点slaved system受役系统slower-than-real-time simulation欠实时仿真slow subsystem慢变子系统socio-cybernetics社会控制论socioeconomic system社会经济系统software psychology软件心理学solar array pointing control太阳帆板指向控制solenoid valve电磁阀source源点specific impulse比冲speed control system调速系统spin axis自旋轴spinner自旋体stability criterion稳定性判据stability limit稳定极限stabilization镇定，稳定Stackelberg decision theory施塔克尔贝格决策理论state equation model状态方程模型state space description状态空间描述static characteristics curve静态特性曲线station accuracy定点精度stationary random process平稳随机过程statistical analysis统计分析statistic pattern recognition统计模式识别steady state deviation稳态偏差steady state error coefficient稳态误差系数step-by-step control步进控制step function阶跃函数stepwise refinement逐步精化stochastic finite automaton随机有限自动机strain gauge load cell应变式称重传感器strategic function策略函数strongly coupled system强耦合系统subjective probability主观频率suboptimality次优性supervised training监督学习supervisory computer control system计算机监控系统sustained oscillation自持振荡swirlmeter旋进流量计switching point切换点symbolic processing符号处理synaptic plasticity突触可塑性synergetics协同学syntactic analysis句法分析system assessment系统评价systematology系统学system homomorphism系统同态system isomorphism系统同构system engineering系统工程tachometer转速表target flow transmitter靶式流量变送器task cycle作业周期teaching programming示教编程telemechanics远动学telemetering system of frequency division type频分遥测系统telemetry遥测teleological system目的系统teleology目的论temperature transducer温度传感器template base模版库tensiometer张力计texture纹理theorem proving定理证明therapy model治疗模型thermocouple热电偶thermometer温度计thickness meter厚度计three-axis attitude stabilization三轴姿态稳定three state controller三位控制器thrust vector control system推力矢量控制系统thruster推力器time constant时间常数time-invariant system定常系统，非时变系统time schedule controller时序控制器time-sharing control分时控制time-varying parameter时变参数top-down testing自上而下测试topological structure拓扑结构TQC (total quality control)全面质量管理tracking error跟踪误差trade-off analysis权衡分析transfer function matrix传递函数矩阵transformation grammar转换文法transient deviation瞬态偏差transient process过渡过程transition diagram转移图transmissible pressure gauge电远传压力表transmitter变送器trend analysis趋势分析triple modulation telemetering system三重调制遥测系统turbine flowmeter涡轮流量计Turing machine图灵机two-time scale system双时标系统ultrasonic levelmeter超声物位计unadjustable speed electric drive非调速电气传动unbiased estimation无偏估计underdamping欠阻尼uniformly asymptotic stability一致渐近稳定性uninterrupted duty不间断工作制，长期工作制unit circle单位圆unit testing单元测试unsupervised learing非监督学习upper level problem上级问题urban planning城市规划utility function效用函数value engineering价值工程variable gain可变增益，可变放大系数variable structure control system变结构控制vector Lyapunov function向量李雅普诺夫函数velocity error coefficient速度误差系数velocity transducer速度传感器vertical decomposition纵向分解vibrating wire force transducer振弦式力传感器vibrometer振动计viscous damping粘性阻尼voltage source inverter电压源型逆变器vortex precession flowmeter旋进流量计vortex shedding flowmeter涡街流量计WB (way base)方法库weighing cell称重传感器weighting factor权因子weighting method加权法Whittaker-Shannon sampling theorem惠特克-香农采样定理Wiener filtering维纳滤波work station for computer aided design计算机辅助设计工作站w-plane w平面zero-based budget零基预算zero-input response零输入响应zero-state response零状态响应zero sum game model零和对策模型z-transform z变换。

对本草纲目的评价作文英语Title: Evaluation of "Compendium of Materia Medica""Compendium of Materia Medica," known as "Ben Cao Gang Mu" in Chinese, is a monumental work in the history of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Compiled during the Ming dynasty by Li Shizhen, this comprehensive medical encyclopedia is widely regarded as one of the most influential and authoritative texts in the field of TCM. In this evaluation, we will delve into the significance, structure, content, and enduring legacy of the "Compendium of Materia Medica."First and foremost, the significance of the "Compendium of Materia Medica" cannot be overstated. It represents a culmination of centuries of medical knowledge and herbal lore in China. Li Shizhen's meticulous compilation and classification of medicinal substances, along with detailed descriptions of their properties, therapeutic uses, and dosage, provided a systematic framework for understandingand practicing TCM. Moreover, the "Compendium" played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating traditional medical knowledge, ensuring its transmission to future generations.The structure of the "Compendium" is both comprehensive and systematic. It is organized into 52 volumes, with each volume focusing on a specific category of medicinal substances. These categories include herbs, minerals, animals, and other materials used in TCM. Within each volume, substances are further classified based on their properties, tastes, meridian affiliations, and therapeutic actions. This hierarchical structure facilitates easy reference and retrieval of information, making the "Compendium" a practical guide for medical practitioners and scholars alike.In terms of content, the "Compendium" covers a vast array of medicinal substances, ranging from common herbs to rare minerals and exotic animal parts. Each entry provides detailed information on the substance's botanical or mineralogical characteristics, as well as itspharmacological properties and therapeutic indications. Moreover, Li Shizhen's inclusion of empirical observations, clinical experiences, and historical anecdotes enriches the text and adds depth to our understanding of traditional medical practices.The enduring legacy of the "Compendium of Materia Medica" extends far beyond the Ming dynasty. It has exerted a profound influence on the development of TCM theory and practice, serving as a cornerstone of traditional medical education and research in China and beyond. Even in the modern era, the "Compendium" continues to be studied, referenced, and revered by practitioners and scholars seeking to deepen their knowledge of TCM and explore its potential applications in contemporary healthcare.In conclusion, the "Compendium of Materia Medica" stands as a monumental achievement in the history of traditional Chinese medicine. Its significance, comprehensive structure, rich content, and enduring legacy attest to its enduring value as a vital resource for understanding and practicing TCM. As we continue to explorethe intersections of traditional and modern medicine, the wisdom contained within the pages of the "Compendium" remains a source of inspiration and insight.。

Buckingham Shum, S. (1996). Analyzing the Usability of a Design Rationale Notation. In T. P. Moran and J. M. Carroll, (Eds.) Design Rationale: Concepts, Techniques, and Use, 185-215. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Analysing the Usability of a Design Rationale NotationSimon Buckingham ShumABSTRACTSemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). However, our understanding of the demands on designers of using such representations has to date been drawn largely from informal and anecdotal evidence. One way to tackle the fundamental challenge of reducing DR’s representational overheads, is to understand the relationship between designing, and the idea structuring tasks introduced by a semiformal DR notation. Empirically based analyses of DR in use can therefore inform the design of the notations in order to turn the structuring effort to the designers’ advantage. This is the approach taken in this chapter, which examines how designers use a DR notation during design problem solving.Two empirical studies of DR-use are reported, in which designers used the QOC notation (MacLean et al., this volume) to express rationale for their designs. In the first study, a substantial and consistent body of evidence was gathered, describing the demands of the core representational tasks in using QOC, and the variety of strategies which designers adopt in externalising ideas. The second study suggests that an argumentation-based design model based around laying out discrete, competing Options is inappropriate during a depth-first,‘evolutionary’ mode of working, centered around developing a single, complex Option. In addition, the data provide motivation for several extensions to the basic QOC notation. The chapter concludes by comparing the account of the QOC–design relationship which emerges from these studies, with reports of other DR approaches in use.Simon Buckingham Shum is a Research Fellow at the Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, UK, studying the implications and applications of the internet and interactive media for learning anddesign.Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, U.K.Email: S.Buckingham.Shum@CONTENTS1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DR IN USE2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKS3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORING3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activity3.2.Classifying ideas3.3.Naming and renaming3.4.Structuring and restructuring3.5.Summary4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?4.1.Difficulties encountered with QOC constructsQuestionsOptionsCriteria4.2.Characterising the relationship between QOCand the two modes of designing5.QOC’S EXPRESSIVENESS5.1.Representing evolution within QOC structures5.2.Expressing constraints and dependencies5.3.The subtleties of expressing Options, Criteria, and Assessments6.RELATIONSHIP TO REPORTS OF OTHER DR APPROACHES IN USE7.CONCLUSIONS8.REFERENCES1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DESIGN RATIONALE IN USESemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). Whilst from a notational perspective, graphical formalisms are well suited for recording design arguments as they arise, doing so also introduces representational overheads for the designer. This chapter is concerned with understanding the nature of the extra cognitive work introduced by argumentation-based DR. This is obviously important in the context of a fast-flowing, time-pressured activity such as software design, in which ‘documentation’ is already a bad word.Usable, effective DR tools can only be developed once we have an understanding of the cognitive, group, and organizational factors implicated in the introduction of explicit DR to the design process. The present work focusses on the cognitive factors which determine the usability of argumentation-based DR notations, taking as an example the QOC notation and Design Space Analysis perspective (MacLean, Young, Bellotti, & Moran, this volume, Section 2). Whilst MacLean et al. focus on the properties of QOC as a representation for DR, and its relationship to other approaches, attention in this chapter shifts to the process of authoring QOC, and its relationship to different modes of software design activity. The analyses of the data gathered in these studies address issues relating to QOC’s usability and scope, with broader implications for other DR approaches and their associated representational schemes.2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKSAnalyses of two empirical studies are presented in this chapter. All of the data reported are drawn from video-based observational analyses of design problem solving. In Study A, 12 pairs of software designers (16 professionals/8 students) spent an hour using QOC to redesign and rationalize the user interface to a bank’s automated teller machine (ATM). The task was based on that employed by MacLean et al. (this volume, Figure 4).1 In Study B, in which different modes of design are considered, an electronics research student engaged in doctoral research described his work (designing Smalltalk-80 data structures) and use of QOC over three 141hour sessions.In Studies A and B, the designers underwent a training procedure which introduced DR as a general concept, and QOC specifically. Emphasis was placed on the importance of developing coherent rationales which would communicate clearly to an outsider the key reasons behind the designs, reflecting the more retrospective Design Space Analysis approach. The QOC tutorial-tasks were intended to give the designers practice in structuring natural discourse semiformally. Designers were required to translate into QOC the key aspects of several fictional design discussions, such that a third party could understand what had been discussed. By varying the length of these design discussions, and the medium in which they were presented (as transcripts plus sketches, or as a video-recording of a discussion) the representational task became steadily more demanding. Details can be found in Shum (1991).1Two tasks were in fact used, in a between-subjects experimental design. The first described user-steps fora Standard-ATM (SATM) interface, and requested a new design and DR. The second additionallydescribed the Fast-ATM interface, and several SATM usability problems. Designers were required to evaluate the FATM, and if necessary, devise and rationalize changes. The data from both tasks are combined for the analysis presented here.1In all of the studies, designers used pens and large sheets of paper as opposed to a software tool. Under these conditions, the authoring process could be studied with minimal interference from extraneous factors, whilst preserving or even enhancing properties of the online medium such as display space, resolution, and ease of local editing. Whilst computational tools can alleviate some of the mechanical overheads of the task, the core tasks of deciding how to express reasoning as structured argumentation remain essentially unchanged.Throughout this paper, extracts from the design transcripts are used to illustrate points. In longer transcript extracts, the key points are shown in bold, and ideas recorded as QOC are shown like this. Most of the examples in this section are from Study A’s ATM design problem, which centered around reducing customer queues without sacrificing the number of services offered. Other extracts are from Study A tutorial exercises: one task was to design the remote control for a video-recorder intended for the elderly, and the other was to design an airport public information symbol to indicate a “one hour left-luggage office.”3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORINGIn order to translate ideas into QOC, the designer is faced with three basic cognitive tasks: deciding what kind of an idea one has (classification), how to label it meaningfully (naming), and how it relates to other ideas (structuring). Before these tasks are illustrated, however, it is necessary to emphasize their non-linear relationship, that is, the exploratory, opportunistic nature of the process.3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activityWhen studying designers using QOC, it soon becomes clear that externalising ideas as structured argumentation is not a smooth, top-down process. Continual revision and switching from one task to another characterize QOC authoring as an opportunistic mode of working (Guindon, 1990). The QOC evolves through multiple, sometimes embedded, represent-and-evaluate cycles, switching between different parts of the structure.Various approaches to representing QOC were adopted, demonstrating that the process of developing QOC analyses is quite different from the orderly structure of the final product. For instance, in the following extract in which the designers discuss how the ATM should dispense different kinds of output, it was most natural to generate Options, then Criteria, and the Question last of all.[Study A: Pair 2]P:Halifax machines drop everything into a little drawer... the Question here is... wellthe ideas [i.e. Options] are as is, and everything from one place. The Criteriaare...D:what are you going to call the Question though?P:Hmm, I get caught on the Questions....the Criteria are natural feel to it - getting itfrom different holes doesn’t feel naturalD:actually, it’s more like a teller, more humanP:what? If you get it all from the same hole?D:the same kind of thing like when you go the counter, and the guy gives you itthrough the little slotP:[writes] security in mind (everything from a draw – feels secure). [LinkingOptions to Criteria] - as is – it doesn’t have a natural feel to it, everything fromdifferent slots.2What’s the Question here? (frustrated tone).D:erm... I suppose physical layout of...P:layout of holes [starts to write]D:physical layout of input/output stuff [P. writes layout of I/O for cash/card/receipt]Figure 1 shows the order in which QOC was constructed in another situation, illustrating switching between Questions to capture new ideas as they suggest themselves.2prog. info?minimise keys on controlno. of keystrokes1510Figure 1: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 2] Moving opportunistically to a new Question and Options as they arise, and then back to complete the original (numbers added to show sequence of ideas). In QOC, boxed Options indicate a decision, or at least a working commitment.In some cases, subjects explicitly adopted ‘strategies’ to representing the QOC, as ways of imposing some structure on their task. For example, in order to control the tendency to pursue new ideas as they arose opportunistically, one pair declared:[Pair 12: Study A]G:let’s try to write down some of the Questions of concern here, and then someCriteria, and then I think some of the Options will come from that - possibly... ’cosQuestions and Criteria are related a lot aren’t theyJ:so if we have one heading Questions and another here for Criteria, which might notbe relatedG:right - I’m going to concentrate in terms of Questions, and then the Criteria mightcome from the Questions. length of queue is a Question...About a minute later, they started to discuss the details of a possible Option but stopped themselves intentionally, aware that at this early stage it might be a tangent:A:so could you have a machine that behaves like a regular ATM or a fast ATMdepending on where you put the card in?2Apart from ‘cleaned-up’ graphic appearance, all QOC examples used in this chapter are copied directly from designers' QOC representations, unless otherwise stated.3A:you could... but would that be...? – right, soG:yeah - so (writes) variety of machines ... (no further discussion on that Option untillater)It is important to note, however, that strategies of this sort seemed to be short-term, flexible modes of working, that is, they did not govern the structure of the whole session, and within them there was flexibility to attend to different parts of the QOC and to switch strategies, such as:• listing Questions in advance, before elaborating them;• generating Options and Criteria, and then the Question;• generating Questions and Options first, and then evaluating with Criteria.QOC authoring is not only opportunistic when used during conceptual problem solving of the sort required by the ATM task. Even when the decisions have been made and all the arguments are known (i.e. retrospective DR), working out how best to represent them is a separate task. Having recognized that the authoring process is far from a tidily sequenced activity, let us now turn to its constituent tasks.3.2.Classifying ideasThis section focusses on the normal process of classifying ideas. When QOC is being used, the vocabulary and orientation of discussion inevitably changes, with regular references to the new constructs, e.g. that’s an Option; could that be a Question?; this Criterion keeps coming up, and so forth. As with any language, fluency increases with use, such that arguments are more smoothly and accurately translated over time. In Study A, it was found that normally subjects classified ideas without spending much time discussing what type they should be. However, as the examples of restructuring QOC show [Section 3.4], the first translation which springs to mind is not necessarily the optimal representation. Even relative ‘experts’with QOC (e.g. QOC’s developers) still engage in restructuring, reclassification, and renaming, revision activities which are dealt with below. The following examples illustrate classification difficulties characteristic of early use of QOC.(i) Figure 2 shows a typical error in classifying an idea (natural order is initially recorded as an Option, but then corrected to be a Criterion):fast atm-order of eventsfastFigure 2: [Study A: Pair 2] A typical error in classifying an idea (a Criterion as an Option).(ii) In the following extract, an Option is first represented as a Question: [Study A: Pair 2]4D:what does this do then? – the Fast ATM do, if you press the cash amount and not(put in) the card?P:I guess it just goes ‘Ha Ha,’ and clears itself. It’ll have a time out, or clear key.D: yeah, but that’s an Option though – a Clear key.P:on where?D:well on the normal ATM. You could change the order of the events, but you have aclear key and a timeoutP:fast ATM order of events [writes this as a new Question]... that’s an Option?D:yeah that’s an OptionP:oh, it’s an Option which addresses this security issue isn’t it [deletes Question:clear key and timeout on ATM, and writes clear key + timeout as an Option].What’s the Question? It’s sort of a vandalism issue...(iii) This extract shows the pair generating ideas in discussion, and then striving to represent those ideas as QOC:[Study A: Pair 5]R:that’s a design decision [pointing to the keypad sketch]. Deciding that Cancel isgoing to be the emergency get-out, and that we should stick with that as its mode -the mode of that key is ‘get out of this, now’.J:well it certainly is... it goes back to this question of buttons - is that what theCancel... I mean we’ve added the Cancel key, and consider that to be a designconclusion – I like that because it’s intuitive. I suppose that could be a Criterion –in fact it’s a very important user-Criterion. [sigh] How do we record that?(...)J:We’ve not got much time left. We could do with identifying this Cancel key morespecifically. But I don’t know what the Question is.R:in fact the Question is ‘How does the card get returned?’J:you can put it under the question of buttons......I think the Enter key and Cancel key are part of the question of buttons. That’sthe Question [indicates Q. of buttons] – now there are probably other Questionswhich feed into this, and I don’t know that you can actually... Hah! [laughs] Whenis something a Question, and when is it a Criterion?In the above extract, the decisions and arguments are clear in J.’s mind, but neither he nor his partner are sufficiently fluent with QOC to translate them. J. notes in particular the informality inherent in QOC (e.g. how to classify ideas).3.3.Naming and renamingNaming entities is often a process of renaming. The renaming of nodes was a prevalent activity for every pair of designers in Study A. Renaming reflects the problem solving process of developing ideas; if a QOC is constructed as the problem is explored, it is inevitable that node-names which do not reflect current understanding of the problem must be updated.Naming in QOC takes up a significant amount of time for several reasons. Firstly, a node’s name must be succinct, and convey the idea it represents. Secondly, to aid interpretation, a further constraint on Criteria is that they be expressed positively, e.g. easy to learn,low error5rate,low cost,high speed.3 Thirdly, a particularly important characteristic of names is focus. Focus refers to the level of generality at which the idea is expressed: a Question may address several issues; an Option may embody several key features which differentiate it from others, but not along the dimension which is addressed by the Question; a Criterion might be expressed so generally (e.g. intuitive; simple) that it is hard to see how it relates to an Option.A fourth property of a name is its relationship to others of its type: it should be distinctive. An Option may really be an example of another, or two Criteria might really be re-expressions of each other (e.g. each side of a trade-off—depending on the context, this might be useful or redundant). Both distinctiveness and focus in naming are characteristics of ‘well-formed’ QOC.4Although these requirements were not made explicit to designers in Study A, they still appreciated the importance of finding good names for ideas. The extracts below illustrate the cooperative process of refining names.[Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 5]R:so how are we going to...T:“keys to what kind of functions...”R:that’s not a very good way of putting it...T:it’s like the “classes of functions...”R:classes! That’s the way to put it.T:What classes of function keys?R:...you see teletext is the only thing you read – you don’t read other things – youdon’t read the picture.T:what we have are two negative reasonsR:we have to make them positive though...ok, so, “easy to read?”T:well, that wasn’t the point was it? um... it was like that they couldn’t actually...R: they can’t see it, so they don’t need it.T:[laughs] yeah -- it’s like the Criterion is that you’re providing a function which theycan actually make use of, and they can’t make use of the teletext because it’s toosmall to read.R:ok – useful function?T:yeah, ok.The following comment summarizes the experience of many subjects in having to name Criteria positively:[Study A: Pair 5]R:... I mean, I really struggled on that first exercise, and found that very awkward andvery difficult. In fact the thing I found most difficult was negating everything, sothat the attribute was a positive attributeJ:yesR:I just couldn’t get my brain to pick out the right word to describe that attribute.3With this constraint, supports Assessment links to Options can always be interpreted as ‘pros’, and objects-to links as ‘cons’; because Criteria have different weights [Section 5.3], decisions clearly cannot be made on the basis of how many supports links Options have, but they provide an initial visual indication.4Principles for well-formed structures were collated as a ‘QOC styleguide.’63.4.Structuring and restructuringThe primary organization which presents itself to someone browsing a QOC diagram is the Question structure, and it is under Questions which design ideas must be eventually placed. For this reason, the problems which designers choose to address through the Questions are important: the Questions addressed define the space which the team sees their design occupying, and guides the direction of future deliberation. Many examples of Question structuring and restructuring were collated in this and other studies, three of which are reproduced below. Note that renaming of Questions is covered here (rather than in the previous section) because of their importance in shaping the macro-structure of the QOC. (i) Working out the Question together:[Study A: Pair 12]G:(new sheet) Our first Question - do you want different kinds of ATMs for thedifferent – you know, a fast ATM and a fully functional one – or do you want to doit all at once?J:ok, so what’s the Question - ’cos those are the Options aren’t they?G:do you want..um.. well the Question is...em...J:single machineG:yeah, kinds of... do you want to have just one machine or do you want to have...J:well those are OptionsG:yeah, well I know those are Options [laughs], but the Question can kind of beg thequestionJ:well it could be a Question – “do you want a variety of machines?” Yes or NoG:well [Question] number of ATM designs: one and more than one - typically two:[Options] fast and fully functional(ii) The subjects return to their first Question, and realize that it no longer expresses what they have now identified as the real problem (the design of the first screen):[Study A: Pair 10]T:oh no. [pause - returns to Question] Except that this isn’t really how to developuser interface - it’s [really to do with] the first screen isn’t it?A:what do we show initially?T:yeahA:[changes first Question] what do we display on 1st screen?(iii) Similar to the last example, Figure 3 shows how a Question is refocussed to express the problem which the generated Options now seem to be addressing (user interface education).reduces queueseffectivetake noticeFigure 3: [Study A: Pair 2] Refocussing a general Question to capture the issue actually addressed by the Options.7As Bellotti, MacLean and Moran (1991) emphasize, asking the right Questions is critical to developing a useful design space representation, and avoiding particular mental sets or design fixations (Jansson & Smith, 1991). The data collected in these studies in fact demonstrate that Question revision is the natural process which designers follow when using QOC, even though the Study A designers (from whom all of the above examples are taken) were not explicitly told to work on refining Questions. Design Space Analysis, with its particular emphasis on asking good Questions, attempts to build on and support this activity.The above examples showed that the reformulation of Questions often takes place in response to the Options generated. The relationship is reciprocal, however, since an insight into the nature of a Question can lead to restructuring of those Options, by moving them to new or existing Questions; another example would be making an implicit criterion embedded in a Question explicit as a Criterion. Whilst this distinction is useful for analytic purposes, the two are often tightly interwoven during authoring. Several examples of restructuring are presented below.(i) In Figure 4, Options to a Question are moved when it is realized that the Question breaks down into two separate Questions (the Options are separated to indicate that stopwatch and subsequent Options now respond to a second Question).how to represent only for one hour hourglassunderstandability stopwatchhow to showtime passingFigure 4: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 8] Dividing a Question into two as it is realized that the Options serve two different roles.(ii) In Figure 5, the designers make the Criterion increased queueing explicit, rather than leaving it embedded in the Question. It can then be used to differentiate between the two Options.how to increase no. of services available, but not increase queueingreduce no. of screensneed extra'complete key' increased queueingFigure 5: [Study A: Pair 8] Extracting an important, but implicit requirement in a Question, and making it explicit as a Criterion to evaluate the Options.8(iii) In another incident [Study A: Pair 10], two designers initially recorded several ideas as Options (reduce response time, minimize key depressions, minimize no. screens) in response to a high level Question, How to reduce queues?They then realized that they really wanted to choose all of them, which was a clue that they could serve as Criteria. The Question was restructured accordingly, and the Criteria reused in subsequent Questions. This pattern has been observed on other occasions, and reflects the process of defining goals (or requirements) as the first step to formulating and evaluating solutions. Recognizing regularities such as these is valuable to user communities as they seek to build and share knowledge and expertise in a particular formalism.(iv) In Study B, a design session involved the gradual identification of hierarchical relationships between Options. The designer redrew his QOC structure in order to make this explicit and went on to develop the hierarchy further, as shown schematically in Figure 6.910low memory requirementslow data transfer rate requiredlow processorcalculation requiredlow data throughput requirement during playlow memory requirementwhen to download data to new instrument allocation?decide whether there is time to downloadlow (high level) computation timecompute time to loadpreload data patterns if Option 1allocate instruments1. one inst. inst. for each eventQuestion Option 1.2.1Option 1.1Option 1.2Figure 6: [Study B] Structural overview of QOC structures to show how they were restructured in order to workon the Option hierarchy (Option numbers added to show the transition). Note that the process of making the Option-structure explicit prompted the designer to change Option 1.3 to Option 1.2.3, and to decompose Option 1.2.2 one level further. (As the designer was using pen and paper and renamed and restructured extensively, the original QOC was littered with changes which have been omitted for clarity). Reproduced from Buckingham Shum and Hammond (1994), with permission, Academic Press, Ltd.3.5.Study A: ConclusionsOpen-ended, ill-structured, ‘wicked’ problems (Rittel & Webber, 1973) are rendered manageable only through the exploratory process of framing and reframing views in order to better understand constraints on the solution space. For the designers studied, designing the ATM user interface engendered such a mode of working, which led to extensive revision of QOC names and structure as ideas developed.Whilst the amount of effort devoted to classifying, naming, and structuring was not documented quantitatively, it is likely that relative amounts would depend at least in part on the users, task and familiarity of domain. Ongoing experiences in using QOC does, however, suggest that these tasks persist as features of ‘expert’ QOC-use, although experts are able to draw on strategies for advancing the QOC in situations which might ‘stall’ a less experienced user (cf. Section 3.4, example (iii), and MacLean et al.’s heuristics (this volume, Appendix)). One would not in fact expect such features of the task to disappear since a claim made explicitly by proponents of semiformal notations is that the discipline of expressing ideas within a constrained vocabulary encourages a dialogue with the representation, which can ‘talk back’ to the designer and expose weaknesses in thinking.The above analysis of authoring behaviour was based on data from a task intentionally selected to allow QOC to be studied—the problem domain was novel, with many issues left open, and the competing ATM designs (presented to half the designers) focussed attention on tradeoffs between Options. In contrast, the evidence described next, from Study B, points to a possible boundary to QOC’s scope of application. Specifically, the study suggests that QOC’s focus on arguing about design spaces defined by multiple Options is poorly suited to work dominated by the evolution of a single Option.4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?Three sessions were spent with a designer who was working on developing a music composition system in the Smalltalk environment. In session 1, it became clear that many of his ideas were already quite well developed, as a lot of thinking had been invested in the problem beforehand; the main task to which QOC was put was therefore rationalization and decision making. The designer was very positive about QOC’s role in this context, and it was clear from the data (Shum, 1991, Case Study 1) that QOC had assisted in drawing out existing but vague ideas, and clarified relationships between Options and Criteria which would have otherwise remained unarticulated (see Figure 6 for an extract from session 1). In sessions 2 and 3, however, serious difficulties were encountered in using QOC, and no explicit DR was constructed.Let us begin by characterising what will be termed the ‘evolutionary’ mode of working, that is, the iterative development of what the designer conceptualized as one, complex design Option. The designer spent sessions 2 and 3 developing two representations of two Smalltalk data structures, respectively, a hierarchy of data types, and a table of data types such that each column progressively refined the previous one.The designer described the method of developing the hierarchy in session 2 as follows: [Study B]what I’m doing is a sort of consistency check – thinking through the implications of whatI’m doing – this draft suggestion here. And I’ll incrementally alter things [i.e. the datastructure] – I mean I’ve already done that many times to get to this stage...11。

基于高阶变异的多错误定位实证研究①娄　琨, 尚　颖, 王海峰(北京化工大学 信息科学与技术学院, 北京 100029)通讯作者: 尚　颖摘　要: 错误定位是软件调试中最昂贵的活动之一. 基于变异的错误定位(MBFL)技术假定被大多数失败测试用例杀死的变异体能够很好地定位错误的位置. 之前的研究表明MBFL 在单错误定位上有很好的定位效果, 但关于MBFL 在多错误定位上的表现没有被深入研究过. 近年来, 高阶变异体被提出用于构造难以被杀死的复杂错误, 但高阶变异体是否能提升MBFL 的错误定位精度是未知的. 本文中, 我们研究了一阶变异体和高阶变异体在多错误定位场景下的表现. 进一步, 我们依据不同的变异位置将高阶变异体划分成3类: 准确高阶变异体、部分准确高阶变异体和不准确高阶变异体. 探索哪类变异体在错误定位上更有效. 基于5个程序上的实证研究, 我们发现在多错误定位场景下, 高阶变异体比一阶变异体有更好的定位效果. 更进一步, 我们发现不同种类的高阶变异体的影响是不容忽视的. 具体而言, 准确高阶变异体比不准确高阶变异体有更高的贡献. 因此研究人员应提出更有效的方法生成这类变异体用于未来的MBFL 研究.关键词: 错误定位; 基于变异的错误定位; 一阶变异体; 高阶变异体引用格式: 娄琨,尚颖,王海峰.基于高阶变异的多错误定位实证研究.计算机系统应用,2021,30(5):47–58. /1003-3254/7942.htmlEmpirical Study on Higher Order Mutation-Based Multiple Fault LocalizationLOU Kun, SHANG Ying, WANG Hai-Feng(College of Information Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China)Abstract : Fault localization is one of the most expensive activities in software debugging.The Mutation-Based Fault Localization (MBFL) assumes that the mutants killed by most of the failed test cases can provide a good indication about the location of a fault. Previous studies showed MBFL could achieve desired results in a Single Fault Localization Scenario (SFL-Scenario), but its performance in a Multiple Fault Localization Scenario (MFL-Scenario) has not been thoroughly evaluated. Recently, Higher Order Mutants (HOMs) have been proposed to model complex faults that are hard to kill, but whether HOMs can improve the performance of MBFL is still unknown. In this study, we investigate the impact of First Order Mutants (FOMs) and HOMs on MBFL in an MFL-Scenario. Moreover, we divide HOMs into three groups, i.e., accurate, partially accurate, and inaccurate HOMs, considering the mutation location in the program, to find which type of HOMs is more efficient in fault localization. Based on the empirical results on five real-world projects, we find that in an MFL-Scenario, HOMs can behave better than FOMs. The influence of the types of HOMs on the effectiveness of MBFL cannot be ignored. In particular, accurate HOMs can contribute more than inaccurate ones.Therefore, researchers should propose effective methods to generate this type of HOMs for future MBFL studies.Key words : Mutantion Based Fault Localization (MBFL); mutation testing; First-Order-Mutants (FOMs); Higher-Order-Mutants (HOMs)计算机系统应用 ISSN 1003-3254, CODEN CSAOBNE-mail: Computer Systems & Applications,2021,30(5):47−58 [doi: 10.15888/ki.csa.007942] ©中国科学院软件研究所版权所有.Tel: +86-10-62661041① 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金(62077003, 61902015)Foundation item: National Natural Science Foundation of China (62077003, 61902015)收稿时间: 2020-09-26; 修改时间: 2020-10-21, 2020-11-03; 采用时间: 2020-11-12; csa 在线出版时间: 2021-04-281 引言错误定位是识别程序执行过程中导致程序失败的元素的过程[1]. 在软件调试的众多活动中, 错误定位是其中最复杂耗时的活动之一, 尤其在大规模复杂程序中. 为了减小定位错误位置的人工成本, 研究人员提出了众多错误定位方法, 例如基于切片的方法[2], 基于频谱的方法[3,4], 基于变异的方法等[5].在众多自动化错误定位方法中, 基于频谱的错误定位(Spectrum-Based Fault Localization, SBFL)方法[3,4,6]是一种被广泛应用的方法. SBFL考虑到程序元素的二元覆盖矩阵, 但局限于其错误定位精度不高. 目前的研究显示基于变异的错误定位方法比最新的基于频谱的方法有更高的错误定位精度[7,8]. MBFL是一种基于变异测试[7]的方法[9]. 截止目前, MBFL分为两种技术: Metallaxis-FL[5]和MUSE[9]. 研究表明[10,11], Metallaxis-FL的错误定位效率和效果都要优于MUSE, 因此本文选择Metallaxis-FL作为MBFL原始方法.在MBFL中, 将一个程序p通过简单的语法变化生成一系列错误程序p'(也就是变异体), 生成变异体的规则被称为变异算子. 根据变异算子使用的次数, 变异体可以分成两类: 一阶变异体(First-Order-Mutants, FOMs)和高阶变异体(Higher-Order-Mutants, HOMs),其中FOMs是只使用一次变异算子生成, HOMs则是通过多次使用变异算子生成[12].在之前的MBFL研究中, 只有FOMs用于定位单错误程序[5,13]. 但Xue等[14]发现定位多错误更有困难,耗时且成本巨大, 同时多错误之间存在错误干扰现象,导致现有错误定位技术的定位效果较差. 另一方面, Offutt等[15]发现杀死HOMs是否能检测出复杂错误是不确定的. 为填补这项研究内容, 我们进行了一项大规模的实证研究, 研究HOMs是否能提升错误定位的精度, 同时分析不同类别的HOMs与多错误之间的关系.本文中, 我们着力研究FOMs和HOMs在多错误上的表现. 然后我们将HOMs分成三类研究不同HOMs 分类的错误定位效果. 在我们的实验设置中, 首先应用Agrawal等[16]提出的变异算子生成FOMs, 然后根据FOMs构建HOMs. 特别地, 针对多错误定位场景, 我们组合63个单错误程序生成100个多错误程序, 错误个数从2个至5个. 最后, 我们将HOMs分成3类用于比较不同类别HOMs的表现.2 背景与动机2.1 基于变异的错误定位技术基于变异的错误定位技术是一种基于变异分析[8]的错误定位方法. 变异分析通过对被测程序进行简单的语义改变, 生成与原始程序不同的版本. 这些人为植入错误的程序被称为变异体. 生成变异体的规则被称为变异算子. 本文采用Agrawal等[16]提出的C语言的变异算子.在变异分析中, 依据变异体和原始程序不同的输出, 使用变异体来评估测试用例的质量. 如果一个测试用例的执行结果不同于原始程序的结果, 那么这个变异体就被杀死, 记为killed或detected, 反之称这些变异体没有被杀死, 即not killed或live.传统基于变异的错误定位技术主要包含以下4个步骤:(1)获得失败测试用例覆盖的语句: 将测试用例T执行被测程序P, 获得覆盖信息和执行结果(pass或fail). 然后测试用例就可以区分为通过测试用例集合T p和失败测试用例集合T f. 被失败测试用例覆盖的语句集合记为cov f.(2)生成和执行变异体: 采用不同变异算子, 对失败测试用例覆盖的语句植入错误生成变异体. 对某一条语句s生成的变异体集合记为M(s). 然后将所有测试用例执行某一个变异体m, 依据执行结果, T k(m)为杀死变异体m的测试用例集合, T n(m)为未杀死变异体m的测试用例集合.(3)计算程序语句怀疑度: 变异体的怀疑度可以用不同的MBFL公式计算得到, 这些公式都基于以下4个参数: a n p=|T n∩T p|, a k p=|T k∩T p|, a n f=|T n∩T f|, a kf =|T k∩T f|. 其中, a np表示通过测试用例中未杀死变异体的数量, a kp表示通过测试用例中杀死变异体的数量, a nf表示失败测试用例中未杀死变异体的数量, a kf表示失败测试用例中杀死变异体的数量. 表1列举了3个研究人员常用的怀疑度计算公式(Ochiai[17], Tarantula[18], Dstar [19]). 本文的实验中使用Ochiai作为MBFL公式,因为其在MBFL研究中被广泛使用[5,9], 且效果好于其他公式[13]. 计算完变异体的怀疑度, 将某条语句对应的变异体集合的怀疑度最大值赋值为该条语句的怀疑度.(4)生成错误定位报告: 依据程序语句的怀疑度大小, 降序排列生成程序语句排名表. 开发人员可以根据排名表从上至下查找并修正程序错误.计算机系统应用2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期表1 常用怀疑度公式名称表达式Ochiai[17]S us(m)=a k f√(a k f+a n f)(a k f+a kp)Tarantula[18]S us(m)=a k fa k f+a kpa k fa k f+a n f+a kpa kp+a npDstar[19]S us(m)=a∗k fa kp+a n f基于上述过程的描述, 我们可以发现MBFL是基于“大部分失败测试用例杀死的变异体与程序错误有关”假设的研究工作, 其理论基础是基于以下两类假设[20]:(1)将变异体视为是原被测程序的一种潜在修复;(2)将变异体视为原被测错误程序的近似版本. 变异体执行测试用例后的状态有两种: 杀死(killed)和未杀死(not killed). 其中, 杀死状态分为: 被失败测试用例杀死(a kf)和被通过测试用例杀死(a kp). 在被失败测试用例杀死的变异体, 存在两种情况: (1)变异体的状态从失败变成通过, 即程序被修复; (2)变异体仍然为失败, 但输出与原始程序不同. 这两种情况都有助于揭示错误位置, 第一种程序修复的情况, 可以依据变异的位置来确定程序错误的位置. 第二种情况, 变异体的输出与原始程序不同, 其有可能是对错误位置变异而造成的输出不同, 此变异体的行为特征与错误程序更加相似. 另一方面, 被通过测试用例杀死的变异体, 其更可能是对正确语句进行变异, 造成输出与原始程序不同. 并且, Moon等[9]的研究发现, 错误语句生成的变异体在失败测试用例下更容易通过, 而正确语句生成的变异体在通过测试用例下更容易失败.同时, 从表1变异体怀疑度公式中可以看出, 变异体的怀疑度值与a kf呈正相关关系, 与a kp呈负相关关系. 本文通过计算变异体m在测试用例上a kf与a kp的差值来度量该变异体对错误定位的影响程度, 即贡献度C (Contribution):其中, T表示测试用例集, P表示被测程序. C(T, P, m)越高表示该变异体的贡献度越高.同理, 对变异体集合M的平均贡献度AC (Average Contribution)的计算公式为:其中, |M|表示集合中变异体的数量.目前研究人员对FOMs和HOMs之间的关系进行了研究. 如Gopinath等[21]的研究表明许多HOMs与它们组成的FOMs在语义上是不同的. 然而, Langdon 等[22]的研究表明被测试用例杀死的HOMs数量高于杀死FOMs的数量, 因此HOMs相对于FOMs, 更容易被测试用例检出.在早期的研究中, Offutt等[15]指出: 杀死n阶变异体是否意味着我们可以检出复杂错误还有待确定. 为了回答这个问题, 我们是第一个进行关于比较FOMs 和HOMs在定位程序错误上的控制实验的.2.2 研究动机在先前的研究中, 大部分MBFL技术基于单错误假设[5,9,13,23]. 然而, 实证研究表明[24], 单个程序失败往往是由系统中的多个故障触发的. Digiuseppe和Jones发现, 多个错误对错误定位的精度有负面影响[25].此外, Offutt的研究结果认为, 杀死n阶变异体是否可以检测到复杂的错误还有待确定[15]. 在Debory和Wong的研究中[26], 他们发现他们所提出的策略不能修复同一个程序中的多个错误, 是因为他们只考虑了FOMs.换句话说, 采用HOMs来定位或修复程序中的多个缺陷是一种潜在可行的方法. 因此, 本文主要通过实证研究HOMs在单错误和多错误程序上的定位效果, 并分析多错误与HOMs之间的关系.(1) HOMs分类依据变异体在程序中的不同变异位置, 我们将HOMs 分成3类. 为便于理解这3类变异体, 我们采用带有两个错误(f1和f2)的程序p作为例子. 首先, 我们HOM f1为变异了错误语句f1的HOMs集合且HOM f1∈HOMs; HOM f2变异了错误语句f2的HOMs集合且HOM f2∈HOMs.其次, 如图1所示, 我们将HOMs分为以下3类:类A: 准确高阶变异体(Accurate HOMs). 即, 同时在错误语句f1和f2上变异生成的HOMs. (HOM f1∩HOM f2).类B: 部分准确高阶变异体(Partially accurate HOMs).即, 只在错误语句f1或f2上变异生成的HOMs. (HOM f1\ HOM f2)∪(HOM f2\HOM f1)类C: 不准确高阶变异体(Inaccurate HOMs). 即, 在其他语句上变异生成的HOMs. (HOMs\(HOM f1∪HOM f2)上述3种HOMs反映出不同HOMs的生成方法.我们推测这3类HOMs在错误定位上有不同的表现.2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期计算机系统应用基于这种推测, 我们进行了一次大规模的实证研究来分析3类HOMs 的特性.(2) MBFL 例子为进一步说明我们的研究动机, 我们使用图2中的例子来说明FOMs 和HOMs 如何在MBFL 上使用.在图 2中, 从左到右, 第1列为被测程序的源代码,其中语句s 4和s 11为错误语句. 第2列为对应语句生成的变异体集合, 第3列划分为6部分, 分别是6个测试用例在变异体上的执行信息, 其中“1”表示测试用例杀死对应的变异体, “0”表示测试用例没有杀死对应的变异体, 第4和第5列表示计算得到的变异体怀疑度和语句怀疑度, 最后一列表示对应语句的排名. 在这个例子中, 每一个变异体的怀疑度都是用Ochiai 公式计算的. 在图2中有两个给出的结果, 一个是FOMs 的结果, 另一个是HOMs 的结果.HOM f 1HOMs HOM f 2B BA C图1 HOMs 分类图2 MBFL 例子使用FOMs 进行错误定位. 假设MBFL 技术在失败测试用例覆盖的每条语句只生成两个变异体, 该程序下共生成14个FOMs(列“FOMs”所示). MBFL 首先利用测试用例的杀死信息计算FOMs 的怀疑度(列“FOMs 怀疑度”所示). 接下来, 同一语句生成的变异体中, 取最大的怀疑度记为该语句的怀疑度. 最后, 在“排名”列中, MBFL 将错误语句s 4和s 11都排在第3位.使用HOMs 进行错误定位. 我们首先利用来自不同语句的两个FOMs 构造HOMs, 最后生成3类共14条HOMs(列“HOMs”所示). 计算得到的HOMs 怀疑度如列“HOMs 怀疑度”所示. 接着, 为保证公平性, 我们通过计算语句相关HOMs 怀疑度的均值作为该语句的怀疑度. 以语句s 1为例子, 与s 1相关的HOMs 有3个(HOM 6, HOM 11和HOM 13), 其对应的怀疑度分别为1.00, 0.41, 和1.00.因此, 计算得到的语句s 1的怀疑度为Sus (s 1)=(1.00+0.41+1.00)/3=0.80.最终, 使用HOMs 计算得到的语句怀疑度如列“语句怀疑度”所示. 最终,HOMs 将错误语句s 4和s 11分别排在第3名和第2名.基于上述的例子, 我们可以发现FOMs 将两条错误语句排在前五名, 然而HOMs 将错误语句排在前三计算机系统应用2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期名, 表明HOMs在这个例子中有更好的错误定位效果.更进一步, 在高阶变异错误定位中, 三类变异体对错误定位有不同的贡献, 结合式(2), 准确HOMs的平均贡献度为:部分准确HOMs的平均贡献度为:不准确HOMs的平均贡献度为：从以上结果可以看出, 准确HOMs的平均贡献度等于部分准确HOMs, 不准确HOMs的平均贡献度最低. 据我们所知, 本文首次研究FOMs和HOMs在多错误程序上的定位效果. 更进一步, 我们研究了三类HOMs 的错误定位效果并分析其差异.3 实验设计本章讨论实验中使用的程序和实验设计流程, 用以解决提出的研究问题. 图3中显示了实验研究设计流程. 下面将依次介绍设计流程的每个部分.程序植入变异FOMsHOMs多错误定位评估定位效果图3 实验设计流程3.1 实验程序本文选择了错误定位领域常用的软件基准程序库(Subject Infrastructure Repository, SIR)[27]中的5个程序作为实验对象, 分别为printtokens2, schedule2, totinfo, tcas和sed. 这些程序均为开源的C程序, 其中前4个程序来自西门子套件(Siemens Suite), sed是大型的真实错误程序. 实验中使用的错误版本和测试用例均可在SIR库中下载. 这些程序在高阶变异测试领域中广泛使用[12,28–30], 同时也经常应用在错误定位等相关的研究中[18,19,23,26]. 因此我们认为本文测试数据集所得出的结论具有一定的普适性.表2列出了基准程序的具体信息, 包括程序名称,程序所有的版本数量和实验中使用的数量, 程序的平均代码行以及FOMs和HOMs的数量. 其中, FOMs列的“生成的数量”子列表示对应程序生成的FOMs总数,而“使用”子列表示实验中实际运行的FOMs总数. 本文共选择了63个单错误版本程序作为实验对象, 部分版本因为错误语句无法生成有效变异体而导致测试用例无法检测出该版本的错误, 或因为执行过程中出现异常, 无法收集到完整的执行信息.表2 实验基准程序及变异体信息程序版本(使用)行数测试用例FOMs HOMs生成(使用)生成(使用) printtokens29(6)508411521 864(11 548)131 184(23 892) schedule210(4)30727108451(4698)50 706(8038) totinfo23(18)406105239 351(22 476)236 106(37 254) tcas41(30)173160827 245(19 062)163 470(62 991) sed9(5)712536064 307(32 302)385 842(47 551)3.2 生成变异体为了研究FOMs和HOMs在单错误和多错误程序中的表现, 实验首先需要生成FOMs和HOMs. 在这个步骤中, 我们收集被失败测试用例覆盖的程序语句, 通过变异算子植入错误到这些语句, 进而生成相应的变异体. 表3列出了Agrawal等[16]提出的10种经典C语言变异算子.表3 经典C语言变异算子变异算子描述例子CRCR必要的常数替换a = b + *p → a = 0 + *p OAAN算术运算符变异a + b → a * bOAAA算术赋值运算符变异a += b → a -= bOCNG否定谓词逻辑if(a) → if(!a)OIDO自增/自减变异++a → a++OLLN逻辑运算符变异a && b → a || bOLNG否定逻辑a && b →!(a && b)ORRN关系运算符变异 a < b → a <= bOBBA位赋值运算符变异a &= b → a |= bOBBN位运算符变异 a & b → a | b 对于生成FOMs, 我们对fail测试用例覆盖的每条语句使用所有变异算子进行变异, 每次只对一条语句变异, 最终生成161 218个FOMs. 表2“FOMs”列2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期计算机系统应用的“(使用)”子列中列出了每个程序所使用的FOMs 数量.对于生成高阶变异体, 在已有高阶变异测试的研究中, 对变异体阶数的研究有所不同, 有关注于阶数较低(2至4阶)的研究[15,28,29,31], 也有关注阶数较高(2至15阶)的研究[12,32–35]. 本文首次考虑将高阶变异体应用于多错误定位, 然而在实际程序中错误数量是不可知的, 因此结合前人的研究成果, 我们选择生成2至7阶的变异体来模拟多错误情况. 在此基础上, 为了进一步探究不同变异位置的高阶变异体与错误定位的关系, 我们依据不同的变异位置对变异体进行了划分, 并通过理论和实验分析发现错误语句处生成的变异体(如准确HOMs和部分准确HOMs)具有更优的错误定位效果. 另一方面, 考虑到MBFL巨大的执行开销, 我们选择生成每阶HOMs的数量与FOMs数量相同来减少HOMs的数量. 假设生成1000个FOMs, 然后2阶变异体和3阶变异体的数量也是1000; 因此最终生成的HOMs为6000. 在我们的实验中, 采用一阶变异算子FOP构建HOMs. 具体来说, 首先随机选择k条失败测试用例覆盖的语句, 然后对每条选择的语句, 随机选择一个与其相对应的一阶变异算子, 最终生成一个k阶变异体. 实验共生成967 308个HOMs, 其中实际使用的数量如表2所示(“HOMs”列的“(使用)”子列).3.3 构建多错误定位场景为了构建实验中的多错误定位场景, 我们通过随机组合SIR库中的原始单错误程序获得多错误程序.每个多错误程序中的错误数量是2到5个. 最终生成100个版本的多错误程序. 最后, 依据多错误程序生成的变异体, 运行变异体收集测试结果用于效果分析. 3.4 评估MBFL的效果为了评估FOMs和HOMs在MBFL中的定位效果, 我们使用了3种研究人员常用的评估指标[36–39].(1) EXAM: EXAM[36,37]是错误定位领域广泛使用的评价指标之一, 用于评估开发人员找到准确错误位置之前需要检查的程序实体的比例, 因此EXAM值越小表明对应的错误定位效果越好[36,37]. EXAM的公式定义如下:式(6)中, 分子是错误语句的排名, 分母是需要检查的程序语句数量的总和. rank的计算公式为:式(7)中, i表示怀疑度值大于错误语句的正确语句的数量, j表示怀疑度值等于错误语句的正确语句的数量.为更接近真实定位场景, 我们选择第i+1位排名与第i+j位排名的平均作为错误语句的排名.(2) Top-N: Top-N用于评估排名前N个程序候选元素中, 能定位到真实错误的个数[38]. 在Kochhar等的研究发现, 73.58%的开发者只检查排名前5的程 序元素, 并且几乎所有的开发者认为检查排名前10的程序元素是可接受的上限[39]. 因此, 参考之前的研究[36,38],我们将N设定为1, 3, 5. 同时, 假设两条语句有相同的怀疑度, 我们同样计算这些语句排名的平均值(如式(7)所示). Top-N越大表明对应的错误定位技术越好.(3) MAP: MAP (Mean Average Precision)是信息检索领域用于评估语句排序质量的指标, 是所有错误平均精度的平均值[40]. AP (Average Precision)的计算公式如下:式(8)中, i是程序语句的排名, M是排名列表中语句的总数, pos(i)是布尔函数, pos(i)=1表示第i条语句是错误的, 反之pos(i)=0表示第i条语句是正确的. P(i)是每个排名i的定位精度.MAP是错误集合的AP的平均值, MAP越大表明对应的错误定位技术越好.4 实验结果4.1 研究问题为了评估HOMs是否能提高错误定位的精度, 本文从错误定位精度角度出发, 提出如下研究问题:(1) RQ1: 与FOMs相比, 不同阶数的HOMs的多错误定位精度如何？(2) RQ2: 与FOMs相比, 不同类型的HOMs的多错误定位精度如何？4.2 实验结果为探究RQ1, 我们首先针对多错误程序生成一阶计算机系统应用2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期HOMs, 然后运行这些变异体计算得到每个程序对应的EXAM, Top-N和MAP. 本文使用Metallaxis-FL 为原始MBFL对照组, 并生成2阶到7阶的HOMs.图4中展示了MBFL使用FOMs和不同阶的HOMs的错误检查比例. x轴表示代码检查比例, y轴表示不同程序所有错误版本查找到的累积错误比例,对应的曲线越接近y轴表明对应的变异体的检测错误数量越多, 因此对应的变异体错误定位效果更好.0102030405060 Percentage of code examined (%)(a) Printtokens205101520253035 Percentage of code examined (%)(b) Schedule20102030405060 Percentage of code examined (%)(c) Totinfo 0510152025Percentage of code examined (%)(d) Tcas0246810Percentage of code examined (%)(e) SedFOMs2-HOMs3-HOMs4-HOMs5-HOMs6-HOMs7-HOMS HOMS图4 FOMs 与不同阶 HOMs 的代码检查比例比较从图4(a)中可以看出, 7-HOMs检测20%的程序代码能检测到68%的错误, 而FOMs只能检测到55%的错误. 同理, 在schedule2, totinfo和sed上可以看出, HOMs检测更少的代码能检测到更多的错误, 但在tcas程序上FOMs的检测效果优于HOMs.从Top-1, Top-3, Top-5指标来看, FOMs在2错误程序上的定位效果比HOMs更好, 而HOMs在3错误和5错误程序上的表现比FOMs更好. 表4中显示了FOMs和HOMs在多错误程序定位场景下排在前1, 3, 5位错误的数量. 图中包括4种错误数量的程序统计结果. 对2错误程序, FOMs和各阶高阶变异体都将19个错误排在第一名. 除了7-HOMs, FOMs比其他阶数的HOMs的Top-3, Top-5要更高. 对3错误程序, 3-HOMs 比FOMs和其他阶数的变异体在Top-3和Top-5上更高. 同时FOMs在4错误程序中, Top-3和Top-5上的表现略优于HOMs. 最后, 在5错误程序上, FOMs、6-HOMs和7-HOMs的Top-1值最高, 而6-HOMs和3-HOMs分别在Top-3和Top-5上表现最好.从MAP指标来看, FOMs在4错误程序上表现最优, 在其他错误程序上与HOMs有相近的表现. 从表5可以看出, FOMs在4错误程序上的MAP均值最高.在其他错误程序上与HOMs有相近的表现, 例如3错误程序FOMs的MAP均值与4阶到7阶的变异体的MAP均值相同.综上可以看出, HOMs在一些程序上的检错能力优于FOMs. 同时, FOMs在2错误和4错误程序上的定位效果较好, 而HOMs在3错误和5错误程序上的效果更好. HOMs在3错误和4错误程序上有更大的Top-N值, 并且在一些阶数的HOMs下, 计算的MAP 均值都要高于FOMs.2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期计算机系统应用表4 FOMs和不同阶HOMs的TOP-N值比较指标程序FOMs2-HOMs3-HOMs4-HOMs5-HOMs6-HOMs7-HOMs HOMs Top1351351351351351351351352错误printtokens2688688688688688688688688 schedule2466466466466466466466466 totinfo356356356356356356356356 tcas267245256256256256266234 sed455455455455455455455455 Total1930321928301929311929311929311929311930311927293错误printtokens2589589589589589688688589 schedule2344344244344344344344344 totinfo456456456456456456456456 tcas555455556556555555556456 sed311322222311311311311312 Total2023251924261824272023262023252023252023261923274错误printtokens2344344344344344344344344 schedule2345345345345344345345345 totinfo235235235235235235235235 tcas166112246122134144155235 sed344344344344344344344344 Total1221241216201319241217201218221219221220231318235错误printtokens2233233233233233233233233 schedule2345345345345344345345345 totinfo235235235235235235235235 tcas345224029002145356347223 sed333333333333333333333333 Total131721121520101525101318111721131823131723121519表5 FOMs和不同阶HOMs的平均MAP值比较类型程序FOMs2-HOMs3-HOMs4-HOMs5-HOMs6-HOMs7-HOMs HOMs2错误printtokens20.00220.00220.00220.00220.00220.00220.00220.0022 schedule20.00240.00240.00240.00240.00240.00240.00240.0024 totinfo0.00180.00180.00180.00180.00180.00180.00180.0018 tcas0.00420.00310.00330.00380.00360.00380.00390.0041 sed0.00010.00010.00010.00010.00010.00010.00010.0001 Average0.00210.00190.00200.00210.00200.00210.00210.00213错误printtokens20.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.0015 schedule20.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.0010 totinfo0.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.00150.0015 tcas0.00410.00320.00320.00410.00410.00410.00400.0040 sed0.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.0000 Average0.00160.00140.00140.00160.00160.00160.00160.00164错误printtokens20.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.0007 schedule20.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.0010 totinfo0.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.0007 tcas0.00140.00120.00100.00130.00100.00110.00110.0013 sed0.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.0000 Average0.00080.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00075错误printtokens20.00040.00040.00040.00040.00040.00040.00040.0004 schedule20.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.00070.0007 totinfo0.00060.00060.00060.00060.00060.00060.00060.0006 tcas0.00170.00130.00140.00080.00050.00110.00170.0016 sed0.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.00000.0000 Average0.00070.00060.00060.00050.00040.00060.00070.0007计算机系统应用2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期由于FOMs只使用一次变异算子生成而HOMs使用多次变异算子生成. 因此在对同一个程序变异生成等量变异体时, HOMs有更大的概率变异到错误语句,从而增大变异体被杀死的概率, 相应a kf值也会更高,则变异体怀疑度也越高, 最终计算的语句怀疑度也越高, 其定位效果也更优(如图4(a), 图4(c), 图4(e); 表4“3错误”行, “5错误”行; 表5 “3错误”行, “5错误”行).但如果HOMs中更多变异体是对正确语句变异生成的, 那么相应的a kp值会更高, 计算的语句怀疑度值也更高, 错误定位效果将更差. (如图4(d); 表4 “2错误”行, “4错误”行; 表5 “2错误”行, “4错误”行). 综合比较可以得出HOMs在一定程度上能提高多错误定位的效果.为探究RQ2, 我们首先收集多错误程序所有版本下3类HOMs的EXAM值, 然后分别计算Top-N和MAP指标. 为了便于展示, 我们将3类HOMs分别表示为“Accurate”(准确HOMs), “Part-accurate”(部分准确HOMs)和“Inaccurate”(不准确HOMs). 图5表示MBFL使用FOMs和3类HOMs在不同程序上所有版本的错误检查比例. 从图5(a)–图5(c)中可以看出Accurate HOMs与FOMs有相近的表现, 并且Accurate HOMs的检测效果优于FOMs. 而在tcas和sed (图5(d)、图5(e))程序上, Part-accurate的检测效果更好, 检查更少量的代码而找到更多的错误. 同时在所有程序上, Inaccurate 的检测效果最差.0102030405060 Percentage of code examined (%)(a) Printtokens205101520253035 Percentage of code examined (%)(b) Schedule20102030405060 Percentage of code examined (%)(c) Totinfo0510152025Percentage of code examined (%)(d) Tcas024681012Percentage of code examined (%)(e) SedFOMs Accurate Part-accurate Inaccurate HOMs图5 FOMs 与不同类 HOMs 代码检查比例比较从Top-N指标来看, 准确HOMs比FOMs和另外两类变异体能将更多错误排在前1, 3, 5名. 表6中显示, 在2错误程序上, 准确变异体与FOMs能够排列相同数量的错误在Top-1, Top-3和Top-5, 而在其他错误程序版本中, 准确HOMs的Top-N指标均为最大. 同时可以发现, 部分准确HOMs在4错误和5错误程序上, 有更高的Top-5值. 然而不准确HOMs 的表现最差.从MAP指标来看, 准确HOMs的表现同样优于FOMs, 部分准确和不准确HOMs. 表7中准确HOMs与FOMs在2错误程序下有相同MAP平均值, 而在3, 4, 5错误程序下, 准确HOMs仍然比另外两类变异体的定位效果好, 其MAP平均值分别为0.0017, 0.0009, 和0.0008.综上所述我们可以发现, 准确HOMs的错误定位精度高于FOMs、部分准确HOMs和不准确HOMs.在一些情况下, 部分准确HOMs有更好的定位效果, 但普遍情况下不准确HOMs的表现都很差.2021 年 第 30 卷 第 5 期计算机系统应用。

双因子模型：项目反应理论与因素分析的比较刘铁川1戴海琦1王鹏1（江西师范大学心理学院，南昌，330022）摘要二阶因子模型与双因子模型是两种广泛用于探索心理特质结构的计量模型，两种模型存在一定的嵌套关系。

研究者对二阶因子模型较为熟悉，但近年来双因子模型也得到了广泛应用（Gignac, 2006; Immekus & Imbrie, 2008; Simms, Grös, & Watson, et.al, 2008)。

目前有多种方法可用于估计双因子模型，本文通过蒙特卡罗模拟方法，在样本量、模型类型、题目偏度和因子数量等条件下对类别项目因素分析、传统线性因素分析和全息估计三种方法进行比较。

结果显示，类别项目因素分析和全息估计误差较小，传统线性因素分析的误差最大；Gibbson的全息估计程序在一般因子负荷较高时存在系统误差；传统线性因素分析受题目分布影响较大，在题目明显偏态时误差最大。

关键词：双因子模型；项目反应理论；因素分析；likert记分1 引言在心理与教育研究中，被试在不同的能力或人格方面的行为表现存在高度的相关或一致性，此时研究者通常假定存在更为一般的构念。

比如，Spearman( 1927)认为存在一般智力因素（G因素）作为所有认知活动的基础，而将与特殊活动领域相关联的称为特殊因素（S因素）。

对生活质量的维度也有类似的理论观点，Stewart和Ware（1992）认为在生活质量一般因子背后，还存在认知、活力、心理健康和疾病担忧四个特殊因素。

目前通常采用高阶验证性因子分析对此类理论与测验结构进行验证。

但有两种模型可以选择来拟合前述类型数据，其一是二阶因子模型（Second Order Factor Model），模型中每个题目只在特殊因子上有负荷，而特殊因子负荷于二阶因子。

此模型在主观幸福感和人格等心理学研究领域使用广泛(DeYoung, Peterson, & Higgins, 2002; Hills & Argyle, 2002)，研究者较为熟悉。

自动化专业英语词汇大全acceleration transducer 加速度传感器acceptance testing 验收测试accessibility 可及性accumulated error 累积误差AC-DC-AC frequency converter 交-直-交变频器AC (alternating current) electric drive 交流电子传动active attitude stabilization 主动姿态稳定actuator 驱动器，执行机构adaline 线性适应元adaptation layer 适应层adaptive telemeter system 适应遥测系统adjoint operator 伴随算子admissible error 容许误差aggregation matrix 集结矩阵AHP (analytic hierarchy process) 层次分析法amplifying element 放大环节analog-digital conversion 模数转换annunciator 信号器antenna pointing control 天线指向控制anti-integral windup 抗积分饱卷aperiodic decomposition 非周期分解a posteriori estimate 后验估计approximate reasoning 近似推理a priori estimate 先验估计articulated robot 关节型机器人assignment problem 配置问题，分配问题associative memory model 联想记忆模型associatron 联想机asymptotic stability 渐进稳定性attained pose drift 实际位姿漂移attitude acquisition 姿态捕获AOCS (attritude and orbit control system) 姿态轨道控制系统attitude angular velocity 姿态角速度attitude disturbance 姿态扰动attitude maneuver 姿态机动attractor 吸引子augment ability 可扩充性augmented system 增广系统automatic manual station 自动-手动操作器automaton 自动机autonomous system 自治系统backlash characteristics 间隙特性base coordinate system 基座坐标系Bayes classifier 贝叶斯分类器bearing alignment 方位对准bellows pressure gauge 波纹管压力表benefit-cost analysis 收益成本分析bilinear system 双线性系统biocybernetics 生物控制论biological feedback system 生物反馈系统black box testing approach 黑箱测试法blind search 盲目搜索block diagonalization 块对角化Boltzman machine 玻耳兹曼机bottom-up development 自下而上开发boundary value analysis 边界值分析brainstorming method 头脑风暴法breadth-first search 广度优先搜索butterfly valve 蝶阀CAE (computer aided engineering) 计算机辅助工程CAM (computer aided manufacturing) 计算机辅助制造Camflex valve 偏心旋转阀canonical state variable 规范化状态变量capacitive displacement transducer 电容式位移传感器capsule pressure gauge 膜盒压力表CARD 计算机辅助研究开发Cartesian robot 直角坐标型机器人cascade compensation 串联补偿catastrophe theory 突变论centrality 集中性chained aggregation 链式集结chaos 混沌characteristic locus 特征轨迹chemical propulsion 化学推进calrity 清晰性classical information pattern 经典信息模式classifier 分类器clinical control system 临床控制系统closed loop pole 闭环极点closed loop transfer function 闭环传递函数cluster analysis 聚类分析coarse-fine control 粗-精控制cobweb model 蛛网模型--coefficient matrix 系数矩阵cognitive science 认知科学cognitron 认知机coherent system 单调关联系统combination decision 组合决策combinatorial explosion 组合爆炸combined pressure and vacuum gauge 压力真空表command pose 指令位姿companion matrix 相伴矩阵compartmental model 房室模型compatibility 相容性，兼容性compensating network 补偿网络compensation 补偿，矫正compliance 柔顺，顺应composite control 组合控制computable general equilibrium model 可计算一般均衡模型conditionally instability 条件不稳定性configuration 组态connectionism 连接机制connectivity 连接性conservative system 守恒系统consistency 一致性constraint condition 约束条件consumption function 消费函数context-free grammar 上下文无关语法continuous discrete event hybrid system simulation 连续离散事件混合系统仿真continuous duty 连续工作制control accuracy 控制精度control cabinet 控制柜controllability index 可控指数controllable canonical form 可控规范型[control] plant 控制对象,被控对象controlling instrument 控制仪表control moment gyro 控制力矩陀螺control panel 控制屏，控制盘control synchro 控制[式]自整角机control system synthesis 控制系统综合control time horizon 控制时程cooperative game 合作对策coordinability condition 可协调条件coordination strategy 协调策略coordinator 协调器corner frequency 转折频率costate variable 共态变量cost-effectiveness analysis 费用效益分析coupling of orbit and attitude 轨道和姿态耦合critical damping 临界阻尼critical stability 临界稳定性cross-over frequency 穿越频率，交越频率current source inverter 电流[源]型逆变器cut-off frequency 截止频率cybernetics 控制论cyclic remote control 循环遥控cylindrical robot 圆柱坐标型机器人damped oscillation 阻尼振荡damper 阻尼器damping ratio 阻尼比data acquisition 数据采集data encryption 数据加密data preprocessing 数据预处理data processor 数据处理器DC generator-motor set drive 直流发电机-电动机组传动D controller 微分控制器decentrality 分散性decentralized stochastic control 分散随机控制decision space 决策空间decision support system 决策支持系统decomposition-aggregation approach 分解集结法decoupling parameter 解耦参数deductive-inductive hybrid modeling method 演绎与归纳混合建模法delayed telemetry 延时遥测derivation tree 导出树derivative feedback 微分反馈describing function 描述函数desired value 希望值despinner 消旋体destination 目的站detector 检出器deterministic automaton 确定性自动机deviation 偏差deviation alarm 偏差报警器DFD 数据流图diagnostic model 诊断模型diagonally dominant matrix 对角主导矩阵diaphragm pressure gauge 膜片压力表difference equation model 差分方程模型differential dynamical system 微分动力学系统--differential game 微分对策differential pressure level meter 差压液位计differential pressure transmitter 差压变送器differential transformer displacement transducer 差动变压器式位移传感器differentiation element 微分环节digital filer 数字滤波器digital signal processing 数字信号处理digitization 数字化digitizer 数字化仪dimension transducer 尺度传感器direct coordination 直接协调disaggregation 解裂discoordination 失协调discrete event dynamic system 离散事件动态系统discrete system simulation language 离散系统仿真语言discriminant function 判别函数displacement vibration amplitude transducer 位移振幅传感器dissipative structure 耗散结构distributed parameter control system 分布参数控制系统distrubance 扰动disturbance compensation 扰动补偿diversity 多样性divisibility 可分性domain knowledge 领域知识dominant pole 主导极点dose-response model 剂量反应模型dual modulation telemetering system 双重调制遥测系统dual principle 对偶原理dual spin stabilization 双自旋稳定duty ratio 负载比dynamic braking 能耗制动dynamic characteristics 动态特性dynamic deviation 动态偏差dynamic error coefficient 动态误差系数dynamic exactness 动它吻合性dynamic input-output model 动态投入产出模型econometric model 计量经济模型economic cybernetics 经济控制论economic effectiveness 经济效益economic evaluation 经济评价economic index 经济指数economic indicator 经济指标eddy current thickness meter 电涡流厚度计effectiveness 有效性effectiveness theory 效益理论elasticity of demand 需求弹性electric actuator 电动执行机构electric conductance levelmeter 电导液位计electric drive control gear 电动传动控制设备electric hydraulic converter 电-液转换器electric pneumatic converter 电-气转换器electrohydraulic servo vale 电液伺服阀electromagnetic flow transducer 电磁流量传感器electronic batching scale 电子配料秤electronic belt conveyor scale 电子皮带秤electronic hopper scale 电子料斗秤elevation 仰角emergency stop 异常停止empirical distribution 经验分布endogenous variable 内生变量equilibrium growth 均衡增长equilibrium point 平衡点equivalence partitioning 等价类划分ergonomics 工效学error 误差error-correction parsing 纠错剖析estimate 估计量estimation theory 估计理论evaluation technique 评价技术event chain 事件链evolutionary system 进化系统exogenous variable 外生变量expected characteristics 希望特性external disturbance 外扰fact base 事实failure diagnosis 故障诊断fast mode 快变模态feasibility study 可行性研究feasible coordination 可行协调feasible region 可行域feature detection 特征检测feature extraction 特征抽取feedback compensation 反馈补偿feedforward path 前馈通路field bus 现场总线finite automaton 有限自动机FIP (factory information protocol) 工厂信息协议--first order predicate logic 一阶谓词逻辑fixed sequence manipulator 固定顺序机械手fixed set point control 定值控制FMS (flexible manufacturing system) 柔性制造系统flow sensor/transducer 流量传感器flow transmitter 流量变送器fluctuation 涨落forced oscillation 强迫振荡formal language theory 形式语言理论formal neuron 形式神经元forward path 正向通路forward reasoning 正向推理fractal 分形体，分维体frequency converter 变频器frequency domain model reduction method 频域模型降阶法frequency response 频域响应full order observer 全阶观测器functional decomposition 功能分解FES (functional electrical stimulation) 功能电刺激functional simularity 功能相似fuzzy logic 模糊逻辑game tree 对策树gate valve 闸阀general equilibrium theory 一般均衡理论generalized least squares estimation 广义最小二乘估计generation function 生成函数geomagnetic torque 地磁力矩geometric similarity 几何相似gimbaled wheel 框架轮global asymptotic stability 全局渐进稳定性global optimum 全局最优globe valve 球形阀goal coordination method 目标协调法grammatical inference 文法推断graphic search 图搜索gravity gradient torque 重力梯度力矩group technology 成组技术guidance system 制导系统gyro drift rate 陀螺漂移率gyrostat 陀螺体Hall displacement transducer 霍尔式位移传感器hardware-in-the-loop simulation 半实物仿真harmonious deviation 和谐偏差harmonious strategy 和谐策略heuristic inference 启发式推理hidden oscillation 隐蔽振荡hierarchical chart 层次结构图hierarchical planning 递阶规划hierarchical control 递阶控制homeostasis 内稳态homomorphic model 同态系统horizontal decomposition 横向分解hormonal control 内分泌控制hydraulic step motor 液压步进马达hypercycle theory 超循环理论I controller 积分控制器identifiability 可辨识性IDSS (intelligent decision support system) 智能决策支持系统image recognition 图像识别impulse 冲量impulse function 冲击函数，脉冲函数inching 点动incompatibility principle 不相容原理incremental motion control 增量运动控制index of merit 品质因数inductive force transducer 电感式位移传感器inductive modeling method 归纳建模法industrial automation 工业自动化inertial attitude sensor 惯性姿态敏感器inertial coordinate system 惯性坐标系inertial wheel 惯性轮inference engine 推理机infinite dimensional system 无穷维系统information acquisition 信息采集infrared gas analyzer 红外线气体分析器inherent nonlinearity 固有非线性inherent regulation 固有调节initial deviation 初始偏差initiator 发起站injection attitude 入轨姿势input-output model 投入产出模型instability 不稳定性instruction level language 指令级语言integral of absolute value of error criterion 绝对误差积分准则integral of squared error criterion 平方误差积分准则integral performance criterion 积分性能准则--integration instrument 积算仪器integrity 整体性intelligent terminal 智能终端interacted system 互联系统，关联系统interactive prediction approach 互联预估法，关联预估法interconnection 互联intermittent duty 断续工作制internal disturbance 内扰ISM (interpretive structure modeling) 解释结构建模法invariant embedding principle 不变嵌入原理inventory theory 库伦论inverse Nyquist diagram 逆奈奎斯特图inverter 逆变器investment decision 投资决策isomorphic model 同构模型iterative coordination 迭代协调jet propulsion 喷气推进job-lot control 分批控制joint 关节Kalman-Bucy filer 卡尔曼-布西滤波器knowledge accomodation 知识顺应knowledge acquisition 知识获取knowledge assimilation 知识同化KBMS (knowledge base management system) 知识库管理系统knowledge representation 知识表达ladder diagram 梯形图lag-lead compensation 滞后超前补偿Lagrange duality 拉格朗日对偶性Laplace transform 拉普拉斯变换large scale system 大系统lateral inhibition network 侧抑制网络least cost input 最小成本投入least squares criterion 最小二乘准则level switch 物位开关libration damping 天平动阻尼limit cycle 极限环linearization technique 线性化方法linear motion electric drive 直线运动电气传动linear motion valve 直行程阀linear programming 线性规划LQR (linear quadratic regulator problem) 线性二次调节器问题load cell 称重传感器local asymptotic stability 局部渐近稳定性local optimum 局部最优log magnitude-phase diagram 对数幅相图long term memory 长期记忆lumped parameter model 集总参数模型Lyapunov theorem of asymptotic stability 李雅普诺夫渐近稳定性定理macro-economic system 宏观经济系统magnetic dumping 磁卸载magnetoelastic weighing cell 磁致弹性称重传感器magnitude-frequency characteristic 幅频特性magnitude margin 幅值裕度magnitude scale factor 幅值比例尺manipulator 机械手man-machine coordination 人机协调manual station 手动操作器MAP (manufacturing automation protocol) 制造自动化协议marginal effectiveness 边际效益Mason's gain formula 梅森增益公式master station 主站matching criterion 匹配准则maximum likelihood estimation 最大似然估计maximum overshoot 最大超调量maximum principle 极大值原理mean-square error criterion 均方误差准则mechanism model 机理模型meta-knowledge 元知识metallurgical automation 冶金自动化minimal realization 最小实现minimum phase system 最小相位系统minimum variance estimation 最小方差估计minor loop 副回路missile-target relative movement simulator 弹体-目标相对运动仿真器modal aggregation 模态集结modal transformation 模态变换MB (model base) 模型库model confidence 模型置信度model fidelity 模型逼真度model reference adaptive control system 模型参考适应控制系统model verification 模型验证modularization 模块化MEC (most economic control) 最经济控制motion space 可动空间--MTBF (mean time between failures) 平均故障间隔时间MTTF (mean time to failures) 平均无故障时间multi-attributive utility function 多属性效用函数multicriteria 多重判据multilevel hierarchical structure 多级递阶结构multiloop control 多回路控制multi-objective decision 多目标决策multistate logic 多态逻辑multistratum hierarchical control 多段递阶控制multivariable control system 多变量控制系统myoelectric control 肌电控制Nash optimality 纳什最优性natural language generation 自然语言生成nearest-neighbor 最近邻necessity measure 必然性侧度negative feedback 负反馈neural assembly 神经集合neural network computer 神经网络计算机Nichols chart 尼科尔斯图noetic science 思维科学noncoherent system 非单调关联系统noncooperative game 非合作博弈nonequilibrium state 非平衡态nonlinear element 非线性环节nonmonotonic logic 非单调逻辑nonparametric training 非参数训练nonreversible electric drive 不可逆电气传动nonsingular perturbation 非奇异摄动non-stationary random process 非平稳随机过程nuclear radiation levelmeter 核辐射物位计nutation sensor 章动敏感器Nyquist stability criterion 奈奎斯特稳定判据objective function 目标函数observability index 可观测指数observable canonical form 可观测规范型on-line assistance 在线帮助on-off control 通断控制open loop pole 开环极点operational research model 运筹学模型optic fiber tachometer 光纤式转速表optimal trajectory 最优轨迹optimization technique 最优化技术orbital rendezvous 轨道交会orbit gyrocompass 轨道陀螺罗盘orbit perturbation 轨道摄动order parameter 序参数orientation control 定向控制originator 始发站oscillating period 振荡周期output prediction method 输出预估法oval wheel flowmeter 椭圆齿轮流量计overall design 总体设计overdamping 过阻尼overlapping decomposition 交叠分解Pade approximation 帕德近似Pareto optimality 帕雷托最优性passive attitude stabilization 被动姿态稳定path repeatability 路径可重复性pattern primitive 模式基元PR (pattern recognition) 模式识别P control 比例控制器peak time 峰值时间penalty function method 罚函数法perceptron 感知器periodic duty 周期工作制perturbation theory 摄动理论pessimistic value 悲观值phase locus 相轨迹phase trajectory 相轨迹phase lead 相位超前photoelectric tachometric transducer 光电式转速传感器phrase-structure grammar 短句结构文法physical symbol system 物理符号系统piezoelectric force transducer 压电式力传感器playback robot 示教再现式机器人PLC (programmable logic controller) 可编程序逻辑控制器plug braking 反接制动plug valve 旋塞阀pneumatic actuator 气动执行机构point-to-point control 点位控制polar robot 极坐标型机器人pole assignment 极点配置pole-zero cancellation 零极点相消polynomial input 多项式输入portfolio theory 投资搭配理论pose overshoot 位姿过调量position measuring instrument 位置测量仪posentiometric displacement transducer 电位器式位移传感器--positive feedback 正反馈power system automation 电力系统自动化predicate logic 谓词逻辑pressure gauge with electric contact 电接点压力表pressure transmitter 压力变送器price coordination 价格协调primal coordination 主协调primary frequency zone 主频区PCA (principal component analysis) 主成分分析法principle of turnpike 大道原理priority 优先级process-oriented simulation 面向过程的仿真production budget 生产预算production rule 产生式规则profit forecast 利润预测PERT (program evaluation and review technique) 计划评审技术program set station 程序设定操作器proportional control 比例控制proportional plus derivative controller 比例微分控制器protocol engineering 协议工程prototype 原型pseudo random sequence 伪随机序列pseudo-rate-increment control 伪速率增量控制pulse duration 脉冲持续时间pulse frequency modulation control system 脉冲调频控制系统pulse width modulation control system 脉冲调宽控制系统PWM inverter 脉宽调制逆变器pushdown automaton 下推自动机QC (quality control) 质量管理quadratic performance index 二次型性能指标qualitative physical model 定性物理模型quantized noise 量化噪声quasilinear characteristics 准线性特性queuing theory 排队论radio frequency sensor 射频敏感器ramp function 斜坡函数random disturbance 随机扰动random process 随机过程rate integrating gyro 速率积分陀螺ratio station 比值操作器reachability 可达性reaction wheel control 反作用轮控制realizability 可实现性,能实现性real time telemetry 实时遥测receptive field 感受野rectangular robot 直角坐标型机器人rectifier 整流器recursive estimation 递推估计reduced order observer 降阶观测器redundant information 冗余信息reentry control 再入控制regenerative braking 回馈制动，再生制动regional planning model 区域规划模型regulating device 调节装载regulation 调节relational algebra 关系代数relay characteristic 继电器特性remote manipulator 遥控操作器remote regulating 遥调remote set point adjuster 远程设定点调整器rendezvous and docking 交会和对接reproducibility 再现性resistance thermometer sensor 热电阻resolution principle 归结原理resource allocation 资源分配response curve 响应曲线return difference matrix 回差矩阵return ratio matrix 回比矩阵reverberation 回响reversible electric drive 可逆电气传动revolute robot 关节型机器人revolution speed transducer 转速传感器rewriting rule 重写规则rigid spacecraft dynamics 刚性航天动力学risk decision 风险分析robotics 机器人学robot programming language 机器人编程语言robust control 鲁棒控制robustness 鲁棒性roll gap measuring instrument 辊缝测量仪root locus 根轨迹roots flowmeter 腰轮流量计rotameter 浮子流量计，转子流量计rotary eccentric plug valve 偏心旋转阀rotary motion valve 角行程阀rotating transformer 旋转变压器Routh approximation method 劳思近似判据routing problem 路径问题--sampled-data control system 采样控制系统sampling control system 采样控制系统saturation characteristics 饱和特性scalar Lyapunov function 标量李雅普诺夫函数SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm) 平面关节型机器人scenario analysis method 情景分析法scene analysis 物景分析s-domain s域self-operated controller 自力式控制器self-organizing system 自组织系统self-reproducing system 自繁殖系统self-tuning control 自校正控制semantic network 语义网络semi-physical simulation 半实物仿真sensing element 敏感元件sensitivity analysis 灵敏度分析sensory control 感觉控制sequential decomposition 顺序分解sequential least squares estimation 序贯最小二乘估计servo control 伺服控制，随动控制servomotor 伺服马达settling time 过渡时间sextant 六分仪short term planning 短期计划short time horizon coordination 短时程协调signal detection and estimation 信号检测和估计signal reconstruction 信号重构similarity 相似性simulated interrupt 仿真中断simulation block diagram 仿真框图simulation experiment 仿真实验simulation velocity 仿真速度simulator 仿真器single axle table 单轴转台single degree of freedom gyro 单自由度陀螺single level process 单级过程single value nonlinearity 单值非线性singular attractor 奇异吸引子singular perturbation 奇异摄动sink 汇点slaved system 受役系统slower-than-real-time simulation 欠实时仿真slow subsystem 慢变子系统socio-cybernetics 社会控制论socioeconomic system 社会经济系统software psychology 软件心理学solar array pointing control 太阳帆板指向控制solenoid valve 电磁阀source 源点specific impulse 比冲speed control system 调速系统spin axis 自旋轴spinner 自旋体stability criterion 稳定性判据stability limit 稳定极限stabilization 镇定，稳定Stackelberg decision theory 施塔克尔贝格决策理论state equation model 状态方程模型state space description 状态空间描述static characteristics curve 静态特性曲线station accuracy 定点精度stationary random process 平稳随机过程statistical analysis 统计分析statistic pattern recognition 统计模式识别steady state deviation 稳态偏差steady state error coefficient 稳态误差系数step-by-step control 步进控制step function 阶跃函数stepwise refinement 逐步精化stochastic finite automaton 随机有限自动机strain gauge load cell 应变式称重传感器strategic function 策略函数strongly coupled system 强耦合系统subjective probability 主观频率suboptimality 次优性supervised training 监督学习supervisory computer control system 计算机监控系统sustained oscillation 自持振荡swirlmeter 旋进流量计switching point 切换点symbolic processing 符号处理synaptic plasticity 突触可塑性synergetics 协同学syntactic analysis 句法分析system assessment 系统评价systematology 系统学system homomorphism 系统同态system isomorphism 系统同构system engineering 系统工程--tachometer 转速表target flow transmitter 靶式流量变送器task cycle 作业周期teaching programming 示教编程telemechanics 远动学telemetering system of frequency division type 频分遥测系统telemetry 遥测teleological system 目的系统teleology 目的论temperature transducer 温度传感器template base 模版库tensiometer 张力计texture 纹理theorem proving 定理证明therapy model 治疗模型thermocouple 热电偶thermometer 温度计thickness meter 厚度计three-axis attitude stabilization 三轴姿态稳定three state controller 三位控制器thrust vector control system 推力矢量控制系统thruster 推力器time constant 时间常数time-invariant system 定常系统，非时变系统time schedule controller 时序控制器time-sharing control 分时控制time-varying parameter 时变参数top-down testing 自上而下测试topological structure 拓扑结构TQC (total quality control) 全面质量管理tracking error 跟踪误差trade-off analysis 权衡分析transfer function matrix 传递函数矩阵transformation grammar 转换文法transient deviation 瞬态偏差transient process 过渡过程transition diagram 转移图transmissible pressure gauge 电远传压力表transmitter 变送器trend analysis 趋势分析triple modulation telemetering system 三重调制遥测系统turbine flowmeter 涡轮流量计Turing machine 图灵机two-time scale system 双时标系统ultrasonic levelmeter 超声物位计unadjustable speed electric drive 非调速电气传动unbiased estimation 无偏估计underdamping 欠阻尼uniformly asymptotic stability 一致渐近稳定性uninterrupted duty 不间断工作制，长期工作制unit circle 单位圆unit testing 单元测试unsupervised learing 非监督学习upper level problem 上级问题urban planning 城市规划utility function 效用函数value engineering 价值工程variable gain 可变增益，可变放大系数variable structure control system 变结构控制vector Lyapunov function 向量李雅普诺夫函数velocity error coefficient 速度误差系数velocity transducer 速度传感器vertical decomposition 纵向分解vibrating wire force transducer 振弦式力传感器vibrometer 振动计viscous damping 粘性阻尼voltage source inverter 电压源型逆变器vortex precession flowmeter 旋进流量计vortex shedding flowmeter 涡街流量计WB (way base) 方法库weighing cell 称重传感器weighting factor 权因子weighting method 加权法Whittaker-Shannon sampling theorem 惠特克-香农采样定理Wiener filtering 维纳滤波work station for computer aided design 计算机辅助设计工作站w-plane w平面zero-based budget 零基预算zero-input response 零输入响应zero-state response 零状态响应zero sum game model 零和对策模型z-transform z变换--。

基于模糊系统的DOS攻击检测系统随着互联网的快速发展和普及，网络安全问题日益突出。

其中，分布式拒绝服务（DOS）攻击是一种常见且具有破坏性的网络攻击手段。

为了保障网络的安全性，我们需要建立一套高效可靠的DOS攻击检测系统。

本文将介绍一种基于模糊系统的DOS攻击检测系统，并探讨其原理与实现。

一、DOS攻击的概念与影响1.1 DOS攻击的定义DOS攻击是指攻击者通过某种手段，使目标系统或网络资源无法继续为合法用户提供服务的行为。

1.2 DOS攻击的影响DOS攻击会导致系统服务无法正常进行、资源耗尽、网络缓慢甚至崩溃，给正常用户带来不便和损失，严重时可能导致系统瘫痪。

二、模糊系统在DOS攻击检测中的应用2.1 模糊系统的基本原理模糊系统是一种模拟人类思维方式的人工智能系统，它利用模糊逻辑进行推理和决策。

模糊逻辑能够处理模糊、不确定的信息，有效应对DOS攻击的复杂性。

2.2 模糊系统在DOS攻击检测中的优势传统的DOS攻击检测方法往往基于特征与规则的匹配，无法处理模糊性和变化性较强的DOS攻击。

而模糊系统能够通过对攻击行为的建模和推理，实现对DOS攻击的检测与识别。

三、基于模糊系统的DOS攻击检测系统设计与实现3.1 系统架构基于模糊系统的DOS攻击检测系统主要由前端数据采集模块、模糊推理模块和决策模块三部分组成。

3.2 数据采集模块数据采集模块负责收集网络流量数据，包括网络流量的大小、数量、频率等信息。

这些数据将作为模糊系统的输入，用于进一步分析和检测。

3.3 模糊推理模块模糊推理模块是整个系统的核心部分，它通过对网络流量数据的模糊建模和推理，判断当前的流量情况是否存在DOS攻击的可能性。

具体来说，该模块将输入的网络流量数据与已经建立的模糊规则集进行匹配和推理，得出相应的识别结果。

3.4 决策模块决策模块根据模糊推理模块的输出结果，结合系统的阈值设定，进行进一步的决策与处理。

如果判断有DOS攻击存在，系统将自动采取相应的防御措施，例如封锁攻击源IP地址，降低攻击对系统的影响。

Package‘countfitteR’October12,2022Type PackageTitle Comprehensive Automatized Evaluation of Distribution Models forCount DataVersion1.4Maintainer Jaroslaw Chilimoniuk<******************************>Description A large number of measurements generate count data.This is a statistical data type that only assumes non-negative integer values and is generated by counting.Typically,counting data can be found in biomedical applications,such as the analysis of DNA double-strand breaks.The number of DNA double-strand breaks can be counted in individual cells using variousbioanalytical methods.For diagnostic applications,it is relevant to record the distribution ofthe number data in order to determine their biomedical significance(Roediger,S.et al.,2018.Journal of Laboratory and Precision Medicine.<doi:10.21037/jlpm.2018.04.10>).The software offers functions for a comprehensive automated evaluation of distribution models of countdata.In addition to programmatic interaction,a graphical user interface(web server)is included,which enables fast and interactive data-scientific analyses.The user is supportedin selecting the most suitable counting distribution for his own data set.License GPL-3Encoding UTF-8LazyData trueVignetteBuilder knitrSuggests dplyr,DT,gridExtra,knitr,pander,reshape2,rmarkdown,shinythemes,shinycssloaders,shinyWidgets,spelling,testthatDate2020-09-30URL https:///BioGenies/countfitteRBugReports https:///BioGenies/countfitteR/issuesRoxygenNote7.1.1Imports ggplot2,MASS,shiny,stats,pscl,tools,utilsLanguage en-USNeedsCompilation no12countfitteR-package Author Jaroslaw Chilimoniuk[cre,ctb](<https:///0000-0001-5467-018X>),Alicja Gosiewska[ctb](<https:///0000-0001-6563-5742>),Jadwiga Słowik[ctb](<https:///0000-0003-3466-8933>),Michal Burdukiewicz[aut](<https:///0000-0001-8926-582X>),Stefan Roediger[ctb](<https:///0000-0002-1441-6512>)Repository CRANDate/Publication2020-09-3021:30:02UTCR topics documented:countfitteR-package (2)case_study (3)case_study_all (3)case_study_APC (3)case_study_FITC (4)compare_fit (4)countfitteR_gui (5)decide (5)fit_counts (6)plot_fitcmp (7)process_counts (7)select_model (8)sim_dat (8)summary_fitlist (9)validate_counts (10)zinb (11)zip (11)Index13 countfitteR-package countfitteR-a framework forfitting count distributions in RDescriptionThe countfitteR package is a toolbox for the analysis of count data.AcknowledgementscountfitteR is a wrapper around existing count models in R.To standardize error messages and ease up the integration,we slightly modified the zeroinfl function by Achim Zeileis.Author(s)Jaroslaw Chilimoniuk,Stefan Roediger,Michal Burdukiewczcase_study3Examplesset.seed(15390)library(countfitteR)df<-data.frame(pois=rpois(25,0.3),binom=rbinom(25,1,0.8))cmp<-compare_fit(df,fitlist=fit_counts(df,model="all"))case_study Short version of the case_study_FITCDescriptionshorter version of the case_study_ed as an example in shiny app,when the user will not load his own count data.Usagecase_studycase_study_all Case study with twofluorescent dyesDescriptionexample data extracted from Aklides system and merged into onefile.Counts in thisfile will notfit properly,due to the fact that we integrated into thefile counts with two differentfluorescent dyes used.Usagecase_study_allcase_study_APC Case study for APC dyeDescriptionexample data extracted from Aklides system.Counts with only APCfluorescent dye were merged. Usagecase_study_APC4compare_fit case_study_FITC Case study for FITC dyeDescriptionexample data extracted from Aklides system.Counts with only FITCfluorescent dye were merged.Usagecase_study_FITCcompare_fit ComparefitsDescriptionCompare empirical distribution of counts with the distribution defined by the modelfitted to counts.Usagecompare_fit(count_list,fitlist=fit_counts(count_list,model="all"))Argumentscount_list A list of counts.Each count should be in separate column,rows should repre-sent values of these counts.fitlist a list offits,as created by fit_counts.ValueA data.frame with distribution values for each unique count.Count is the name of the originalcount,model is the name of distribution model,x is unique count value,n is the frequency of unique counts,value is result of calculations made by chosen distribution model.Examplesdf<-data.frame(poisson=rpois(25,0.3),binomial=rbinom(25,1,0.8))compare_fit(df,fitlist=fit_counts(df,model="all"))countfitteR_gui5 countfitteR_gui countfitteR Graphical User InterfaceDescriptionLaunches graphical user interface that analyses given count data and chooses the best performing distribution model.UsagecountfitteR_gui()WarningAny ad-blocking software may cause malfunctions.Author(s)Jaroslaw Chilimoniuk,Stefan Roediger,Michal BurdukiewczExamplesif(interactive()){countfitteR_gui()}decide Make a decision based on the BIC valueDescriptionSelect the most appropriate distribution for the count data in the html-friendly format.Usagedecide(summary_fit,separate)Argumentssummary_fit a result of the summary_fitlist function.separate logical.If TRUE,each count is separatelyfitted to the model.If FALSE,all counts arefitted to the same models having the count name as the independentvariable.See Alsofit_counts6fit_counts Examplesdf<-data.frame(poisson=rpois(25,0.3),binomial=rbinom(25,1,0.8))fc<-fit_counts(df,model="all")summ<-summary_fitlist(fc)decide(summ,separate=FALSE)fit_counts Fit counts to distributionsDescriptionFit counts to distributionsUsagefit_counts(counts_list,separate=TRUE,model,level=0.95,...)Argumentscounts_list A list of count data.Each count should be in separate column,rows should represent values of that counts.separate logical.If TRUE,each count is separatelyfitted to the model.If FALSE,all counts arefitted to the same models having the count name as the independentvariable.model single character:"pois","nb","zinb","zip","all".If"all",all possible model arefitted.level Confidence level,default is0.95....Dots parameters are ignored.ValueThe list offitted s are names of original counts,an underline and a name of model used.confint is a matrix with the number of rows equal to the number of parameters.Rownames are names of parameters.The columns contain respectively lower and upper confidence intervals. Examplesdf<-data.frame(poisson=rpois(25,0.3),binomial=rbinom(25,1,0.8))fit_counts(df,model="pois")plot_fitcmp7 plot_fitcmp plot_fitcmpDescriptionCompare empirical distribution of counts with the distribution defined by the modelfitted to counts.The bar charts represent theoretical counts depending on the chosen distribution.Red dots describe the real number of counts.Usageplot_fitcmp(fitcmp)Argumentsfitcmp You need to input data frame that is created by compare_fit function.Examplesdf<-data.frame(poisson=rpois(25,0.3),binomial=rbinom(25,1,0.8))fitcmp<-compare_fit(df,fitlist=fit_counts(df,model="all"))plot_fitcmp(fitcmp)process_counts Process countsDescriptionConverts data in a table-like formats into lists of counts.Usageprocess_counts(x)Argumentsx data.frame or matrix.Detailscase_study does not consider NA s and NaN s effectively omitting them(as per the is.na function).ValueA list of counts.8sim_datExamplesdata(case_study)process_counts(case_study)select_model Select the most appropriate modelDescriptionSelect the most appropriate modelUsageselect_model(fitlist)Argumentsfitlist a list offits,as created by fit_counts.Valuea data.frame with two columns:count representing the name of the count and chosen model withthe model with the lowest BIC.Examplesset.seed(1)df<-data.frame(poisson1=rpois(50,2),poisson2=rpois(50,5),zip1=rZIP(50,2,0.7),zip2=rZIP(50,5,0.7))fitlist_separate<-fit_counts(df,model=c("pois","zip"))select_model(fitlist_separate)sim_dat Data created from simulation of NB PoissDescriptionData created from simulation of NB PoissUsagesim_datsummary_fitlist9Examples#code used to generate the data#be warned:the simulations will take some time##Not run:library(dplyr)set.seed(15390)sim_dat<-do.call(rbind,lapply(10^(-3L:2),function(single_theta)do.call(rbind,lapply(1L:10/2,function(single_lambda)do.call(rbind,lapply(1L:100,function(single_rep){foci<-lapply(1L:10,function(dummy)rnbinom(600,size=single_theta,mu=single_lambda))names(foci)<-paste0("C",1L:10)fit_counts(foci,separate=TRUE,model="all")%>%summary_fitlist%>%mutate(between=single_lambda<upper&single_lambda>lower)%>%group_by(model)%>%summarize(prop=mean(between))%>%mutate(replicate=single_rep,lambda=single_lambda,theta=single_theta) }))))))##End(Not run)summary_fitlist Summary of estimatesDescriptionCounts arefitted to model(s)using the count name as the explanatory variable.Estimates are pre-sented in the table below along with the BIC values of their models.Estimated coefficients of models(lambda for all distributions,theta for NB and ZINB,r for ZIP and ZINB).Usagesummary_fitlist(fitlist)Argumentsfitlist a list offits,as created by fit_counts.ValueData frame with summarised results of all distribution models.•Count:the name of the original count.•lambda:λ-Poisson mean,lower and upper confidence intervals.•BIC:Bayesian information criterion10validate_counts•theta:θ-dispersion parameter•r:probability of excess zeros.See Alsofit_countsExamplesdf<-data.frame(poisson=rpois(25,0.3),binomial=rbinom(25,1,0.8))fc<-fit_counts(df,model="all")summary_fitlist(fc)validate_counts Validate dataDescriptionValidates count data.Usagevalidate_counts(x)Argumentsx data.frame or matrix.DetailsErrors if x has negative values or non-numeric values,otherwise TRUE.ValueAn input object.Examplesdata(case_study)process_counts(case_study)zinb11 zinb Zero-inflated negative binomial distrbutionDescriptionDensity and random generation for the zero-inflated negative binomial distribution.UsagerZINB(n,size,mu,r)dZINB(x,size,mu,r)Argumentsn number of random values to return.size target for number of successful trials,or dispersion parameter(the shape param-eter of the gamma mixing distribution).Must be strictly positive,need not beinteger..mu mean.r probability of excess zeros.x vector of(non-negative integer)quantiles.See AlsoNegative binomial distribution:NegBinomial.ExamplesrZINB(15,1.9,0.9,0.8)zip Zero-inflated Poisson distrbutionDescriptionDensity and random generation for the zero inflated Poisson distribution.UsagedZIP(x,lambda,r)rZIP(n,lambda,r)12zipArgumentsx vector of(non-negative integer)quantiles.lambda vector of(non-negative)means.r probability of excess zeros.n number of random values to return.See AlsoPoisson distribution:Poisson.ExamplesrZIP(15,1.9,0.9)Index∗PoissoncountfitteR_gui,5∗countcountfitteR_gui,5∗datasetscase_study,3case_study_all,3case_study_APC,3case_study_FITC,4sim_dat,8∗zero-inflatedcountfitteR_gui,5case_study,3case_study_all,3case_study_APC,3case_study_FITC,4compare_fit,4countfitteR(countfitteR-package),2 countfitteR-package,2countfitteR_gui,5decide,5dZINB(zinb),11dZIP(zip),11fit_counts,4,5,6,8–10is.na,7NegBinomial,11plot_fitcmp,7Poisson,12process_counts,7rZINB(zinb),11rZIP(zip),11select_model,8sim_dat,8summary_fitlist,5,9validate_counts,10zeroinfl,2ZINB(zinb),11zinb,11ZIP(zip),11zip,1113。