Brief Introduction of the Prague School

布拉格学派代表人物介绍英文版The Prague School, also known as the Prague Linguistic Circle, was a group of linguists, literary scholars, and philosophers who were active in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) from the 1920s to the 1950s. Their work focused on structuralist approaches to language and literature, emphasizing the importance of context, meaning, and communication. Here are some key figures associated with the Prague School:1. Vilém Mathesius (1882-1945): He was one of the founding members of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Mathesius's work laid the foundation for functional linguistics, emphasizing the study of language in its social and cultural contexts.2. Roman Jakobson (1896-1982): Jakobson was a prominent structural linguist and one of the most influential members of the Prague School. He contributed extensively to the development of linguistic theory, particularly in the fields of phonology, morphology, and language functions.3. Jan Mukařovský (1891-1975): Mukařovský was a literary critic and theorist a ssociated with the Prague School. He focused on the study of aesthetics and semiotics, exploring the relationship between language, art, and culture.4. Bohuslav Havránek (1893-1978): Havránek was a linguist and leading figure in the Prague School. He pioneered research in functional syntax and contributed to the study of Czech grammar.5. René Wellek (1903-1995): Wellek was a literary critic and scholar who worked closely with the Prague School theorists. He is known for his contributions to literary theory, including his emphasis on the historical and cultural context in analyzing literary works.These individuals, along with other scholars associated with the Prague School, greatly influenced linguistic and literary theory, leaving a lasting impact on the field of humanities.。

怎么去普吉岛上学英语作文Introduction:Phuket Island, a tropical paradise in Thailand, is not only a popular destination for tourists but also an ideal place to immerse oneself in the English language. With its diverse culture, beautiful beaches, and a growing number of language schools, learning English in Phuket can be both enjoyable and educational.1. Choose the Right Language School:- Research and select a reputable language school that offers English courses tailored to your needs. Consider factors such as course structure, teaching methods, and the school's location.2. Engage in a Language Immersion Program:- Opt for a program that provides a full immersion experience. This could involve living with a local family, participating in cultural activities, and attending language classes.3. Take Advantage of Group Classes:- Group classes are a great way to learn English as they encourage interaction with other students. This helps improve conversational skills and provides a platform to practice speaking English in a supportive environment.4. Utilize One-on-One Tutoring:- For personalized attention and focused learning, consider one-on-one tutoring sessions. This allows for a customized curriculum and immediate feedback on your language skills.5. Practice with Native Speakers:- Engage with native English speakers as much as possible. This could be through language exchange meetups, social events, or simply striking up a conversation with locals and other tourists.6. Explore the Island and Learn through Experience:- Use everyday experiences as learning opportunities. Ordering food, asking for directions, and shopping are all excellent ways to practice English in real-life situations.7. Join English Language Clubs and Activities:- Look for clubs or activities that are specifically designed for English learners. These can include book clubs, movie nights, and conversation groups.8. Use Technology to Your Advantage:- Utilize language learning apps, online courses, and social media to supplement your classroom learning. This can help reinforce what you've learned and keep you engaged with the language.9. Set Realistic Goals and Track Your Progress:- Establish clear objectives for what you want to achieve and monitor your progress regularly. This will help you stay motivated and focused on your language learning journey.10. Immerse Yourself in the Local Culture:- Learning English is not just about the language; it's also about understanding the culture. Attend local festivals, try traditional cuisine, and learn about the history of Phuket to enhance your language learning experience.Conclusion:Learning English on Phuket Island offers a unique blend of relaxation and education. By taking advantage of the resources available, engaging with the local community, and setting clear goals, you can make significant strides in your English language proficiency while enjoying the beauty and hospitality of this enchanting destination.。

关于语言的讨论，跨越三个层面：处于底层是具体语言的事实，处于中层是语言学和应用语言学研究；处于顶层是语言学观点或思想认识的讨论。

需要指出的是，本书只涉及西方，没有东方（包括中国），这颇值得我们思考。

索绪尔集西方语言研究之大成，以符号为核心，创立了现代语言学。

其后的语言学流派或理论研究，虽各有建树，但都以语言是一个结构系统为基点。

最有影响的包括布拉格学派、伦敦学派、美国结构主义、转换生成语法、哥本哈根学派等。

布拉格学派是由马泰修斯创始。

该派突显的一个贡献就是区分了语音学与音位学。

语音学着眼于语音的物理性和生理性，而音位学关注的是语音的心理性、文化性和意义。

音位学的具体研究包括经济性，和谐性，音位对立性以及音色特征等。

句法学是布拉格流派的另一贡献。

在分析语句时，他们没有沿袭传统的词类和句子成分等范畴概念，而是引入了信息论，以交际力大小分析判断各成分对全句子的贡献，重视句子的功能，而不是形式。

功能决定形式。

伦敦学派两位最重要人物分别是马林诺夫斯基和弗斯。

在语言观上，马林诺夫斯基特别重视语言的社会环境，认为它语言的本质，因为语境有下列功能：产生语言，帮助建立意义和理解意义，语言的存在与发展所在。

弗斯继承发扬了他老师马林诺夫斯基的传统，认为语言远远不止符号和信号，而应该是人类生活的一种方式，所以“社会语境”是语言研究极为重要的课题。

弗斯将结构（组合关系）和系统（聚合关系）的方法用到语音学和音位学上，提出韵律分析理论，即音位可以继续分解为准音位单位和韵律成分。

美国结构主义语言学呈现两大特点，实用性与科学性，其创始人为博厄斯，重要代表者萨皮尔，集大成者布龙菲尔德。

博厄斯摆脱了以前语言学只着眼于印欧语系的局限，得出语言只有结构上的区别，没有发达与原始之分。

而且，形式总是为内容表达服务的，所有语言在功能上没有优劣之分。

萨皮尔在接触研究了大量非印欧语系的语言之后，发现语言都带着个民族的思维特征，文化与语言有着密切关系，语言能够反映不同人群观察、描述和解释世界的方式有差别，这都表现在各自语言的形式和语法手段上。

介绍结构学校的英语作文5句话英文回答：The structural school, also known as the Prague school of linguistics, is a functionalist theory that emerged in the early 20th century. It was founded by a group of Czech linguists, including Vilém Mathesius, Bohuslav Havránek, and Roman Jakobson. The structural school is based on the idea that language is a system of signs that are organized according to a set of rules. These rules govern the waythat signs are combined to form words, phrases, and sentences. The structural school also emphasizes the importance of context in understanding language. They argue that the meaning of a word or phrase can only be understood in relation to the other words and phrases that it is used with.The structural school has had a profound influence on the development of linguistics. It has helped to establish linguistics as a scientific discipline and has provided aframework for the study of language that has been used by linguists around the world. The structural school has also been influential in the development of other fields, such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology.Here are some of the key tenets of the structural school:Language is a system of signs.The signs of language are organized according to a set of rules.The meaning of a word or phrase can only be understood in relation to the other words and phrases that it is used with.The study of language should be scientific.中文回答：结构学派，又称为布拉格学派语言学，是一种于 20 世纪早期出现的形式主义理论。

介绍孔夫子学院英语作文如下：Title: The Confucius Institute: Bridging Cultures through EducationThe Confucius Institute, an innovative educational initiative, stands at the forefront of global endeavors to promote intercultural understanding and language proficiency. Established in 2004, this network of institutions operates under the auspices of the Chinese Ministry of Education, aiming to extend the reach of Mandarin instruction and to illuminate the rich tapestry of Chinese culture to an international audience.At the heart of the Confucius Institute mission lies a profound belief in cultural exchange as a catalyst for global harmony. These institutes achieve this noble objective by offering a comprehensive array of programs, including Chinese-language courses, lectures on Chinese history and society, and exhibitions that showcase China's diverse artistic heritage. Such immersive experiences serve not only to educate but also to dispel myths and foster appreciation for the intricacies of China's cultural narrative.Confucius Institutes are characterized by their adaptability and their commitment to integrating into local communities. They engage in collaborative partnerships with universities, schools, and other educational entities worldwide, thereby ensuring that the learning experience is contextualized and relevant to the societies they serve. This strategy facilitates an environment where knowledge is not merely transferred but is co-created by learners and educators alike.Moreover, these institutes place particular emphasis on the development of pedagogical approaches that cater to diverse learning preferences. Instructors employ a blend of traditional methodologies and modern technological tools, crafting a learning journey that is engaging, interactive, and effective. For example, the use of virtual reality to simulate immersion in Chinese settings or the integration of language learning apps testifies to the institutes' willingness to innovate in pursuit of enhanced educational outcomes.The impact of the Confucius Institute extends beyond linguistic proficiency to embrace broader social and economic benefits. By fostering a nuanced understanding of China, these institutes contribute to the creation of a global platform for dialogue, thereby mitigating potential cultural conflicts and enhancing international relations. Furthermore, as the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the ability to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries is not only desirable but essential. The Confucius Institute equips learners with the necessary tools to thrive in such an environment, promoting mutual respect and collaboration among nations.In summary, the Confucius Institute embodies more than an institution dedicated to language education; it is a vibrant bridge facilitating cultural exchange and understanding in a rapidly evolving global landscape. Through its extensive network and innovative approach to pedagogy, the Confucius Institute has become a vital component in the quest for global harmony and mutual prosperity. As we progress towards an increasingly connected future, the role of the Confucius Institute in shaping a new generation of culturally aware and globally engaged citizens is both significant and worthy of recognition.。

The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics and its most important contribution to linguistics is that is sees language in terms of function。

该学派有一种独特的共时语言学研究风格，对语言学最重要的贡献是从“功能”角度来看待语言。

There are generally three major points developed in Prague school:1)Itwas stressed that the synchronic study对语言的共时研究充分强调2)There is an emphasis on the systemic character of language.强调语言的系统的这一属性。

3)Emphasizing the Functions of Language in Known linguistic community强调语言在已知的语言社团中所发挥的功能The Prague School puts forward the aesthetic function, that is, language can serve art. 布拉格学派提出了美学功能，即语言可以位艺术服务Important concepts of prague school1Phonological opposition 音位对立2Distinctive features 区别性特征3Fsp 句子功能前景The Prague school is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology.Following theSaussure’s distinction between langue and parole, argued thatphonetics belonged to parole while phonology belonged to langue. His definition of phonology is: the study of phonological functions。

The Prague School【Abstract】Modern linguistics has been divided into different schools, such as the Prague School, the London School and American Structuralism. This article is meant to introduce one of these schools----the Prague School generally.【Key Words】The Prague School linguistics Saussure theoriesSaussure has not had the time to do a detailed and in-depth research on structural linguistics because of his untimely death. But his theory is widespread via his students, especially his General Linguistics, influenced the field of linguistics a lot. Many western logisticians have been influenced by him, and then developed the Prague School and others. The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.There are generally three major points developed in Prague school: (1) It stressed the combination of the synchronic and diachronic study of language. (2) There was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast and opposition. (3)Language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.The Prague school is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Following the Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole while phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme” as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. In classifying distinctive features, there are nine OPPOSITIONS as follo ws:(1)Bilateral opposition: /p/ and /b/ share the features of “bilabial”.(2)Multilateral opposition: a more loosely established relationship. /a/ and /i/ for instance are alike only to the extent that both are vowels.(3)Proportional opposition: for example, not only /p/ and /b/, but also /t/ and /d/, and /k/ and /g/.(4)Isolated opposition: /v/ and /l/, the former is labial-dental fricative, the latter is lateral voiced, not shared by any other pair of phonemes.(5)Privative opposition: aspiration vs. lack of aspiration as between /p/ and /b/, nasalization vs. lack of nasalization as between /m/ and /b/.(6)Gradual opposition: /u/ and /o/(7)Equipollent opposition: /t/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/.(8)Neutralisable opposition: /p/ and /b/ do not contrast after /s/.(9)Constant opposition: the opposition between /t/ and/d/ is constant in all positions for consonants.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP), another theory inspired by the ideas of the Prague School, is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterancesin terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. Some Czech linguists devoted considerable attention to problem of analyzing sentences from a functional point of view. They believe that a sentence contains point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer, and is called the THEME. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer, and is called the RHEME. It is believed that the movement from the THEME to RHEME reveals the movement of the mind itself .Language may use different syntactic structures, but the order of ideas remains basically the same. Based on these observations, they created the notion of FSP to describe how information is distributed insentences.FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. The theory of FSP is concerned with the distribution of information as determined by all meaningful elements, from intonation (for speech) to context. A central feature of FSP is communicative dynamism. J. Firbas discusses the distribution of the degrees of communicative dynamism(CD) over sentence elements, which determines the orientation or perspective of the sentence. He examines also the relation of theme and rheme to, and implementation by, syntactic components. Special attention is paid to the relation between FSP and word order. The second part of the book deals with spoken communication and considers the place of intonation in the interplay of FSP factors, establishing the concept of prosodic prominence. It tackles the relationship between the distribution of degrees of communicative dynamism as determined by the interplay of the non-prosodic FSP factors and the distribution of degrees of prosodic prominence as brought about by intonation.No doubt that the Prague School is one of the successful examples. It indeed can be said to “have influenced every important development in the United States” and has been stated that “No other European group has wielded quite as much influence as this one”. (Bolinger, 1968)【References】(1) Abercrombie, David. 1963. Studies in phonetics and linguistics, London: OxfordUniversity Press.(2) Language and linguistics, 2000—2010. Oxford: Pergamon.(3) Culler, J. 1976. Saussure. London: Fontana/Collins.(4) Rosch. 1975. Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories. Journal ofexperimental psychology: general. 104: 192-233。

西双版纳小学简单英语介绍范文Nestled in the heart of the tropical rainforest, Xishuangbanna Primary School stands as a beacon of educational excellence. This vibrant institution is notjust a place where children learn the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic; it's also a cultural melting pot where students are introduced to the rich tapestry of the region's natural and cultural heritage.English education at Xishuangbanna Primary School is not just about textbooks and exams. It's an immersive experience that encourages students to explore the language beyond the classroom. The school's English program is designed to foster a love for learning and a curiosity about the world beyond their immediate surroundings.From interactive storytelling sessions to role-playing games, students are constantly engaged in fun and innovative ways to practice their English. Teachers use a variety of teaching methods, including songs, dances, andeven field trips to make learning English an exciting and enjoyable experience.One of the unique aspects of the English program at Xishuangbanna Primary School is its emphasis on cross-cultural understanding. Students are encouraged to compare and contrast their own culture with those of other countries, fostering a sense of empathy and respect for diversity. This approach not only helps students develop their language skills but also broadens their horizons and prepares them to be global citizens.The school's commitment to environmental sustainability is also reflected in its English curriculum. Students learn about the importance of conserving the rainforest and protecting the endangered species that call it home. They are taught to appreciate the natural world in English, making the language not just a tool for communication but also a bridge to understanding and respecting the planet. The impact of this comprehensive English education is evident in the confident and well-rounded students who graduate from Xishuangbanna Primary School. They are notjust proficient in English but are also culturally aware, environmentally conscious, and eager to explore the world. In conclusion, the English program at Xishuangbanna Primary School is not just about teaching a language; it's about fostering global citizenship and instilling a sense of wonder and curiosity in young minds. It's an education that goes beyond the classroom, preparing students for a future where they can connect with the world and make a positive impact.**西双版纳小学的英语魅力**西双版纳小学，这所坐落在热带雨林心脏地带的学校，不仅是教育卓越的象征，更是一个文化交融的熔炉。

The Prague schoolThe Prague School (Circle of Linguistics of Prague) is one of the four main schools of the modern linguistics, which has influenced development in the United States and originated in the first meeting under the leadership of V.Mathesius, R.Jakobson and N.Trubetzkoy in 1926. They are the main representatives of the Prague school.The Prague School is most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function, particularly phonology, for which the Prague School is the best known and remembered, it has made great contribution to different phonetics and phonology. It developed three important points. First, the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretical barrier is erected to separate diachronic study; second elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition; third, language was a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.N.Trubetzkoy is the most influential scholar in distinction between phonetics and phonology; his complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principle of Phonology published in 1939. This is followed by Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme’ as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far. They can serve to distinguish meaning. He proposed three criteria in classifying distinctive features: the first criteria are their relation to the whole contrastive system; the second criteria are relations between the opposing elements; the third one is their power of discrimination. These opposition can be summarized nine aspects; such as, Bilateral opposition, Multilateral opposition, Proportional opposition, Isolated opposition, Privative opposition, Gradual opposition, Equipollent opposition, Neutralisable opposition, and Constant opposition.The phonology theory is Trubetzkoy’s main contributions and concern four aspects. Such as, distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme, making distinction between phonetics and phonology, and sphere of phonological studies, revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes, set of methodologies for phonological studies.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP), which is a theory of linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. Analysis a sentence from functional point of view.at this stage, the linguists believe that a sentence consists of two parts——a point of departure and a goal of destination. In detail, the point of departure is actually a platform where the speaker and the listener meet, it is THEME, while the goal of discourse is the information the speaker imparts, called RHEME. Furthermore, the movement from the THEME to RHEME reveals the movement of the mind itself. Whatever use different syntactic structures, the order always have the same basically. Inspired by the ideas of the Prague School, the theoryof functional sentence perspective is concerned with the distribution of information as determined by all meaningful elements, from in to nation to context. A control feature of FSP is Communicative Dynamism (CD), developed by J. Firbas, this is in order to figure out the relation between structure and function, which measures the amount of information an element, carries in a sentence. J. Firbas also discusses the distribution of the degrees of communicative dynamism over sentence elements, which determines the orientation or perspective of the sentence, based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one.Any elements, for example, sentence, phrase, word, and morpheme; it is elects to establish a sharp opposition. Contextually dependent elements carry the lowest degree of communicative dynamism owing to the operation of the context. Strictly speaking, contextual dependence or independence is determined by the very purpose of the communication, the purpose of the communication is the expression of the direction of the movement.The semantic contents and relations contribute to the degree of Communicative Dynamism and they are not directly related to the position the elements occupy within the linear arrangement. But, not all semantic contents and relations are capable of signaling degrees of Communicative Dynamism in the same way.The Prague School is one of four important schools in modern linguistics, it practiced a special of synchronic linguistics, and it sees language in terms of FUNCTION. The Prague School contributed to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Principle of Phonology wrote by Trubetzkoy, whom argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. He was most influenced one who contributed to in modern linguistics.。

第一部分：英语语言学知识（共100分）一．Define the following terms, using examples where necessary.(每题2分，共20分)1.arbitrariness2.morphophonemics3.assimilation4.root5.converse antonymy6.paradigmatic relation7.interlanguage8.deep structure9.suprasegmental features10.concordance二．Multiple choice. (每题1分，共20分)1．Phatic is one of the language ______________.A. formsB. structuresC. patternsD. functions2. Diachronic linguistics is a study of language____________.A. in ancient timesB. in modern timesC. at different placesD. over a certain period of time3. __________is one of the suprasegmental features.A. StopB. V oicingC. DeletionD. Tone4. Narrow transcription is the phonetic transcription with__________.A. diacriticsB. distinctive featuresC. voicingD. articulation5. Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies_______, and of the rules by which words are formed.A. the external structure of wordsB. the internal structure of wordsC. the surface structure of wordsD. the deep structure of words6. _______ refers to a type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.A. BorrowingB. Back-formationC. AcronymD. Analogical creation7. According to construction types, prepositional phrases such as “in the classroom” is regarded as a(n)____________construction.A. exocentricB. endocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate8. Semantics is ___________________.A. element of meaning which combine in different ways to make up the denotation ofdifferent lexical items.B. a general variable of universal grammarC. the study of meaning as encoded in language.D. the study of what people mean by language when they use it in the normal context of sociallife.9. If the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use, a branch of linguistic study called ________comes into being.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. pragmaticsD. morphology10. Which of the following is not the concern of psycholinguistics?A. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language.B. It focuses on the way of processing the information we receive in the course ofcommunication.C. It pays more attention to the study of language acquisition in children.D. It relates the social norms that determine the type of language to be used in a certainoccasion.11. Error analysis is____________________.A. the analysis and diagnosis of errors of teaching methodsB. the analysis and diagnosis of errors of language learnersC. the analysis and diagnosis of errors of language acquisitionD. the analysis and diagnosis of errors of learning style preferences12. Every speaker has his own pet words and expressions and special way of expressing his ideas in language. This variety of individual users is called “___________”.A. social dialectB. regional dialectC. temporal dialectD. idiolect13. Dialectology is________________.A. the search for spatially determined differences in various aspects of languageB. the search for geographically determined differences in various aspects of languageC. the search for spatially and geographically determined differences in various aspects oflanguageD. the search for geographically determined differences in an aspect of language14. A speaker may change from one dialect to another according to his subject matter, the required formality and other factors in the course of communication. This linguistic behaviour isreferred to as __________________.A. bilingualismB. code-switchingC. dialectD. register15. _____________may be said to be equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning.A. Locutionary actB. Perlocutionary actC. Illocutionary forceD. Performatives16. The Indirect Speech Act was developed by ____________.A. John AustinB. LevinsonC. John LyonsD. John Searle17. Stylistics is _______________.A. varieties of language used by an individual appropriate to a level of formalityB. the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistics featureC. unit of sound consisting of a vowel (with or without consonants)D. fixed and prejudicial patterns of thought about kinds of people that are often mistaken18. The theoretical linguistic background of the audiolingual method is _____________.A. Latin grammarB. audiolingualismC. structuralismD. generative-transformational grammar19. Who first used the term “communicative competence” in deliberate contrast to Chomsky’s “linguistic competence”?A. SternB. AsherC. KrashenD. Hymes20. Functional linguistic is _____________________.A. the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communicationB. the study of language abstract forms of language and their internal relationC. the study of language use in its social contextD. the study of what people mean by language when they use it in the normal context of sociallife三. True or false questions. (每题1分，共15分)1．The traffic light system does not possess duality because there is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning.2. Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics are branches of linguistics.3. The sound [p] in the word “expensive ” is pronounced as a voiceless consonant.4. Allophones are described in phonetic terms.5. An idiom consists of at least two words. Each has a single meaning and often functions as oneword. This is called structural stability.6. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with verbs when converted to nouns.7. Government is a type of control in which a word of a certain class determines the form ofothers in terms of certain category.8. An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition, unlikeentailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true.9. Pairs of words like good/bad, long/short, big/small are examples of converse antonyms.10. The term “accent” refers to differences between languages which are different in vocabulary,grammar and pronunciation.11. At the age of two, children can master the essentials of their mother tongue.12. Austin claims that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.13. Text is a prosodic unit.14. Classified by different aims, there are four major types of test: aptitude test, attitude test,proficiency test and achievement test.15. An important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language interms of function.四．Give the description of the following sounds. (每题1分，共5分)1．[ s ]2. [g ]3. [ j ]4. [ p ]5. [ ]五．Work out the tree diagrams of the following ambiguities through IC analysis.(第1题3分，第2题2分，共5分)1. my small child’s cot2. Leave the book on the shelf.六．Answer the following questions briefly. (每题3分，共15分)1. What functions include in Halliday’s theory of metafunctions of language?2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? Exemplify the two notions.3. What is Pro-form? Explain with examples.七．Discussions. (每题10分，共20分)1. Comment on how and why the following exchange of conversation violates the cooperative principle.A. Isn’t her new dress beautiful?B. The color is nice.2. Why can’t we have the English consonant clusters such as *hepl, *lupm, *rpay, *lkaps, or *wqick etc. in onset and coda positions? Explain with examples.第二部分 英美文学知识（共50分）一. “Crossing the Bar” is a poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson. It is thought that Tennyson wrote it as his own elegy, as the poem has a tone of finality about it. Read the last stanza of the poem and answer the two questions.For though from out our bourn of Time and PlaceThe flood may bear me far,I hope to see my Pilot face to faceWhen I have crost the bar.1. What does “crossing the Bar” mean? (5 points)2. Explain the implied meaning of “I hope to see my Pilot face to face” (5 points)二. The following is from Song of Myself, an American epic loosely following a quest pattern.I CELEBRATE myself, and sing myself,And what I assume you shall assume,For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.I loafe and invite my soul,I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.3. Please comment on its style and ideas. (10 points)三. Read the following excerpt from Chapter XXIII, Jane Eyre and answer the questions that follow.“I grieve to leave Thornfield: I love Thornfield: - I love it, because I have lived in it a full and delightful life, - momentarily at least. I have not been trampled on. I have not been petrified. I have not been buried with inferior minds, and excluded from every glimpse of communion with what is bright and energetic and high. I have talked, face to face, with what I reverence, with what I delight in, - with an original, a vigorous, an expanded mind. I have known you, Mr. Rochester; and it strikes me with terror and anguish to feel I absolutely must be torn from you forever. I see the necessity of departure; and it is like looking on the necessity of death.”… …“I tell you I must go!” I retorted, roused to something like passion. “Do you think I can stay to become nothing to you? Do you think I am an automaton? - a machine without feelings? and can bear to have my morsel of bread snatched from my lips, and my drop of living water dashed from my cup? Do you think, because I am poor, obscure, plain, and little, I am soulless and heartless? You think wrong! - I have as much soul as you, - and full as much heart! And if God had gifted me with some beauty and much wealth, I should have made it as hard for you to leave me, as it is now for me to leave you. I am not talking to you now through the medium of custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh; - it is my spirit that addresses your spirit; just as if both had passed through the grave, and we stood at God's feet, equal, - as we are!”4. What are Jane’s chief concerns over her love of Rochester? (15 points)5. What feelings does she have for Rochester and why? (15 points)。

你了解预科教育吗英语作文Preparatory education, also known as pre-college education, refers to educational programs that are designed to prepare students for college or university studies. These programs typically focus on improving students' academic skills and knowledge in order to help them succeed in higher education.There are a few different types of preparatory education programs, including foundation programs, bridging programs, and English language programs. Foundation programs are typically aimed at students who need to improve their academic skills in order to meet the entry requirements for college or university courses. Bridging programs are designed for students who have completed high school but need additional support to transition to higher education. English language programs focus on improving students' English language skills, especially for non-native speakers.Preparatory education programs can be found at many different educational institutions, including universities, colleges, and language schools. These programs can vary in length, with some lasting a few weeks and others lasting up to a year or more. Students who successfully complete a preparatory educationprogram may receive a certificate or diploma that can help them gain entry to their desired college or university.There are many benefits to participating in preparatory education programs. These programs can help students improve their academic skills, gain confidence, and develop study habits that will serve them well in higher education. Preparatory education programs can also provide students with valuable support and guidance as they navigate the college or university application process.Overall, preparatory education plays a crucial role in helping students prepare for the rigors of higher education. By providing students with the academic skills and support they need to succeed, preparatory education programs can help students reach their full potential and achieve their academic goals. Whether students need to improve their English language skills or strengthen their academic foundation, preparatory education programs can be a valuable stepping stone to future success.。

The Prague schoolAfter reading something about the Prague School, we can learn that the Prague School is best known for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. As we know, phonetics studies speech sounds and the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. As for phonology, this studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds. So this school‟s most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees languages in terms of function. And it‟s an influential group of literary critics and linguists not only in Europe but also in America.Among the many ideas on linguistics the Prague School has developed, three of them are of most importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. It was argued that no element of any language can satisfactorily analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. Assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition.Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense.Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP), another theory Inspired by the ideas of the Prague School, refers to a theory of linguistic analysis whichrefers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. The theory of FSP is concerned with the distribution of information as determined by all meaningful elements, from intonation (for speech) to context. the linguists believe that a sentence consists of two parts——a point of departure and a goal of destination. In detail, the point of departure is actually a platform where the speaker and the listener meet, it is THEME, while the goal of discourse is the information the speaker imparts, called RHEME. Furthermore, the movement from the THEME to RHEME reveals the movement of the mind itself. Whatever use different syntactic structures, the order always have the same basically. A central feature of FSP is communicative dynamism. Jan Firebase discusses the distribution of the degrees of communicative dynamism (CD) over sentence elements, which determines the orientation or perspective of the sentence. Special attention is paid to the relation between FSP and word order.The Prague School is established by Mathesius, Trnka, Jakobson, Karcevskij in 1926 and under the leadership of Mathesius. The mostinfluential scholar of this school is Trubetzkoy(1890--1938),who wrote the Principle of Phonology(1939) to express the most complete and authoritative statements. This book has three characteristics:(1)discussing the nature of distinctive oppositions in theoretical, terms;(2)Surveying analytical procedures;(3)giving extensive examples of the different oppositions of various languages. Trubetzkoy thought phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme”as an abstract unit of the sound actually produced. In his opinion, purpose of developing a phonological theory is the development of universally valid laws governing the structure of phonemic systems. Trubetzkoy also proposed 3 criteria to classify distinctive features:(1) their relation to the whole contractive system;(2)relations between the opposing elements; and(3)their power of discrimination. There are also other representatives. Jakobson‟s contribution to linguistics can be represented as the concept such as feature, binary opposition, markedness, redundancy, and universals. He also focuses the importance of linguistics on language acquisition, aphasia, act of communication, meaning in grammar, poetry, and the systematism of language change,which changes the direction of the development of the European phonology.Following Saussure‟s emphasis on the differential function of linguistic elements, both Jakobson and Trubetzkoy attached greatimportance to the oppositions among phonemes rather than to the phonemes themselves. Thus to say that English has phonemes /s/ and /z/ is a statement about a distinction which English speakers make and recognize rather than a claim about phonemes as mental images or phonetic entities. This was a significant insight, which seemed to accord with linguistic experience. Jakobson and Trubetzkoy also initiated modern distinctive feature theory. The notion of component features is already implicit in the idea of opposition. The notion was made explicit by Jakobson‟s and Trubetzkoy‟s recognition of such features as …differential qualities‟or …relevant properties‟ .This further strengthened their point that phonemes represented points in a system rather than physical or mental entities.In conclusion, the Prague School, as one of the four main schools in the modern linguistics, is indeed an influential school. Prague School linguistics‟success essentially changed the characte r of European linguistics. Trubetzkoy‟s contributions were inherited and further elaborated by Martinet and his associates who found the Functionalist School.。