Preparation of a Novel Highly Effective and Environmental Friendly Wheat Seed Coating Agent

分类号：单位代码：10140密级：公开学号：4031641485专业学位论文功能对等理论指导下的修辞翻译实践报告——以《以赛玛中文题目：利》为例A Report on Figures of Speech Translation under theGuidance of Functional Equivalence Theory---A Case Study 英文题目：of Ishmael论文作者：王千艺指导教师：刘秀玉教授专业：英语笔译完成时间：二〇一八年五月辽宁大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师的指导下独立完成的。

论文中取得的研究成果除加以标注的内容外，不包含其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，不包含本人为获得其他学位而使用过的成果。

对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体均已在文中进行了标注，并表示谢意。

本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。

学位论文作者签名：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交学位论文的原件、复印件和电子版，允许学位论文被查阅和借阅。

本人授权辽宁大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编学位论文。

同时授权中国学术期刊（光盘版）电子杂志社将本学位论文收录到《中国博士学位论文全文数据库》和《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库》并通过网络向社会公众提供信息服务。

学校须按照授权对学位论文进行管理，不得超越授权对学位论文进行任意处理。

保密（），在年后解密适用本授权书。

（保密：请在括号内划“√”）授权人签名：指导教师签名：日期：年月日日期：年月日辽宁大学硕士专业学位论文功能对等理论指导下的修辞翻译实践报告——以《以赛玛利》为例A Report on Figures of Speech Translation under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory---A CaseStudy of Ishmael作者：王千艺指导教师：刘秀玉教授专业：英语笔译专业方向：文学翻译答辩日期： 2018年5月20日二〇一八年五月·中国沈阳AbstractLiterary translation has a long history in the West, which can be dated back to 250 BC when a Roman, livius andronicus, translated Homer’s Epic Odyssey with Latin. In contrast, literary translation in the East originated from 1 BC. Although literary translation has a long history in China and even the world, the translation of modern philosophical novels in modern China is much less. The main reason is that the philosophical novels are recondite and some of them are difficult to translate. Once the translator cannot understand the main idea that the author wants to express, the quality and elegance of the translation cannot be guaranteed.This is a translation practice report based on the short novel Ishmael. The author is Daniel Quinn who is an American. The Philosophical novel Ishmael was published in 1992 and the length of the original text is about 30,000 words. Extracting 7000 words from the novel, the translator wrote this translation practice report. Under the guidance of the theory of Functional Equivalence, the translator used a variety of translation methods such as: Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization and also used Amplification Method, Omission,Combination and Word Order Adjustment in order to achieve the standard of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.Functional Equivalence is also known as Dynamic Equivalence. Eugene Nida, an American linguist, clearly defined “Dynamic Equivalence” in The Theory and Practice of Translation: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, E., & Taber, C.，2004) Nida was taught by several famous linguists researching in structuralism and had served in the 33th American Bible Society for more than half a century. His main academic activity throughout his life was that he had centered on the translation of the Bible. In the process of translation of the Bible, Nida developed a set of his own translation theories in the actual situation. His translation eventually became one of the classic works."Ishmael" is the representative work of the author, Daniel Quinn. The book runs through the author's religious thoughts. This undoubtedly bring a lot of difficulties to the translator. The translator used case analysis to list figures of speech appeared in the novel, such as metaphor, simile, hyperbole and transferred epithet and used examples toillustrate the instructional effect of Functional Equivalence in figures of speech translation and finally she offered some solutions.Key words: Ishmael; Functional Equivalence; literary translation; figures of speech摘要文学翻译具有悠久的历史，其在西方翻译的足迹可追溯到公元前250年罗马人里维乌斯·安德罗尼用拉丁文翻译的荷马史诗《奥德赛》，在东方，这一项活动最早可追溯到公元前一世纪。

考试紧张节失态情绪英语范文Exam - Nerves, Stages, and Coping with EmotionsI. IntroductionExams are an inescapable part of academic life. They often bring about a range of emotions, especially nervousness. This can sometimes lead to what we might call "losing one's composure" or experiencing失态 (a state of being out of control in terms of emotions). Understanding these emotions and learning how to deal with them is crucial for students.II. Reasons for Exam - related Nervousness1. Fear of Failure- Students are often afraid of getting bad grades. In a highly competitive academic environment, a low grade can seem like the end of the world. For example, if a student dreams of getting into a top university, a single bad exam result might make them think their dreams are shattered. They worry about disappointing their parents, teachers, or themselves.2. High Stakes- Some exams have a significant impact on a student's future. Entrance exams for prestigious schools or professional qualification exams can determine one's career path. The pressure to perform well in such high -stakes exams is immense. For instance, the college entrance examination in many countries is a make - or - break event for students. If they don't do well, they may not be able to study the major they desire or enter the university they have been aiming for.3. Lack of Preparation- When students are not well - prepared for an exam, they are more likely to be nervous. This could be due to procrastination, difficulty in understanding the course material, or simply not having enough time to study. For example, if a student has left a large part of the syllabus unstudied until the last minute, they will feel extremely anxious as the exam approaches.III. The Stages of Nervousness during an Exam1. Before the Exam- This is the stage where anticipatory anxiety builds up. Students may experience symptoms like restlessness, difficulty sleeping, or loss of appetite. They constantly worry about what will be on the exam, whether they have studied enough, and how they will perform. Some students may even start to have negative self - talk, such as "I'm going to fail" or "I'm not smart enough."2. At the Beginning of the Exam- When the exam starts, the nervousness can peak. The sight of the exam paper, the ticking of the clock, and the formal atmosphere of the exam room can all add to the stress. Students may find it hard to focus at first, their hands might shake as they pick up their pens, and they may have trouble recalling the information they have studied.3. During the Exam- As the exam progresses, some students may start to feel more confident if they are able to answer the questions smoothly. However, for those who encounter difficult questions, the nervousness can return or even intensify. They may start to panic, sweating profusely and feeling their hearts pounding. This can further disrupt their thinking process, making it even more difficult to answer the questions.4. After the Exam- Even after the exam is over, the nervousness may not completely disappear. Students may start to second - guess their answers, worrying that they made mistakes or missed important points. They may compare their answers with their classmates, which can either relieve or exacerbate their anxiety.IV. Coping with Nervousness and Emotional Disturbances during Exams1. Proper Preparation- The best way to combat exam - related nervousness is to be well - prepared. This means starting to study early, making a study plan, and following it religiously. For example, breaking the syllabus into smaller parts and studying a little bit each day can make the task seem less daunting. Reviewing past exams and doing practice questions can also boost confidence.2. Relaxation Techniques- Deep breathing is a simple yet effective relaxation technique. Before the exam, or even during the exam if one starts to feel overly nervous, taking a few deep breaths can calm the body and mind. Inhale slowly through the nose for a count of five, hold the breath for a few seconds, and then exhale slowly through the mouth for a count of seven. Another technique is progressive muscle relaxation, where one tenses and then relaxes different muscle groups in the body to relieve physical tension.3. Positive Self - talk- Replacing negative self - talk with positive affirmations can have a significant impact on one's state of mind. Instead of saying "I'm going to fail," students can tell themselves "I have studied hard and I am well - prepared. I can do this." This helps to build self - confidence and reduce anxiety.4. Maintaining a Healthy Lifestyle- A balanced diet, regular exercise, and sufficient sleep are essential for managing stress. Eating nutritious foods provides the energy needed for studying and taking exams. Exercise releases endorphins, which are natural mood - boosters. And getting enough sleep ensures that the brain is well - rested and able to function optimally during the exam.In conclusion, while exam - related nervousness and emotional challenges are common, there are many ways to deal with them. By understanding the reasons behind these emotions, recognizing the different stages of nervousness, and implementing effective coping strategies, students can better manage their stress and perform to the best of their ability in exams.。

高三英语学术研究方法创新不断探索单选题30题1. In academic research, a hypothesis is a ______ that is tested through experiments and observations.A. predictionB. conclusionC. theoryD. assumption答案：D。

本题考查学术研究中“假说”相关的基本概念。

选项A“prediction”意为“预测”，通常是基于现有信息对未来的估计；选项B“conclusion”指“结论”，是在研究后得出的最终判断；选项C“theory”是“理论”，是经过大量研究和验证形成的体系；选项D“assumption”表示“假定、设想”，更符合“假说”的含义，即在研究初期未经充分验证的设想。

2. The main purpose of conducting academic research is to ______ new knowledge and understanding.A. discoverB. createC. inventD. produce答案：A。

此题考查学术研究目的相关的词汇。

选项A“discover”意思是“发现”，强调找到原本存在但未被知晓的事物；选项B“create”意为“创造”，侧重于从无到有地造出新的东西；选项C“invent”指“发明”，通常指创造出新的工具、设备等；选项D“produce”有“生产、产生”的意思，比较宽泛。

在学术研究中，主要是“发现”新知识和理解，所以选A。

3. A reliable academic research should be based on ______ data and methods.A. accurateB. preciseC. correctD. valid答案：D。

本题关于可靠学术研究的基础。

选项A“accurate”侧重于“准确无误”，强调与事实完全相符；选项B“precise”意为“精确的、明确的”，更强调细节的清晰和明确；选项C“correct”指“正确的”；选项D“valid”表示“有效的、有根据的”，强调数据和方法具有合理性和可靠性。

When writing an essay to promote a book,its essential to capture the readers interest and convey the books unique qualities.Here are some key elements to include in your essay:1.Engaging Introduction:Start with a hook that grabs the readers attention.This could bea quote from the book,a provocative statement,or a question that piques curiosity.2.Brief Overview:Provide a concise summary of the book without giving away too much.Mention the genre,the author,and the main theme or storyline.3.Authors Background:Introduce the author,highlighting their credentials,previous works,and any awards or recognitions they have received.This adds credibility to the book.4.Unique Selling Points:Emphasize what makes this book stand out from others in its genre.This could be the writing style,the depth of characters,the originality of the plot, or the relevance of the subject matter.5.Target Audience:Identify who would most appreciate this book.Are you targeting young adults,history enthusiasts,fans of a particular genre,or a general audience?6.Key Themes and Messages:Discuss the main themes and messages of the book. Explain how these themes resonate with readers and why they are important.7.Testimonials and Reviews:Include quotes from reviews or testimonials that praise the book.This social proof can be very persuasive.8.Personal Experience:Share your personal experience with the book.What did you learn?How did it affect you?This adds a personal touch and makes your essay more relatable.9.Call to Action:End your essay with a clear call to action.Encourage readers to purchase the book,share it with friends,or discuss it in a book club.10.Conclusion:Summarize the main points of your essay and reiterate why the book is worth reading.Remember to keep your language engaging and persuasive,and to proofread your essay for clarity and coherence.Heres a brief example to illustrate these points:Title:A Journey Through Time:Discovering The Ageless QuestIntroduction:Have you ever wondered what it would be like to live in a world where time is not a constraint?The Ageless Quest by renowned author Jane Everlasting takes you on an unforgettable journey through the ages.Overview:This historical fiction novel weaves a tale of adventure,love,and the quest for eternal youth,set against the backdrop of various historical periods.Authors Background:Jane Everlasting,a historian turned author,brings her extensive knowledge of history to life in this captivating narrative.Her previous works have won numerous literary awards, establishing her as a master storyteller.Unique Selling Points:The Ageless Quest stands out for its richly detailed settings,complex characters,and a plot that keeps readers on the edge of their seats.The books exploration of the human desire for immortality is both thoughtprovoking and timeless.Target Audience:This book is perfect for history buffs,fans of adventure stories,and anyone who enjoys a good romance.Key Themes and Messages:The novel delves into themes of mortality,the importance of living in the moment,and the consequences of our choices.Testimonials and Reviews:A mustread for anyone who has ever pondered the mysteries of time,says The Literary Review.Personal Experience:Reading The Ageless Quest was an enlightening experience.It made me reflect on my own life and the choices Ive made.Call to Action:Dont miss out on this literary gem.Grab your copy today and embark on an adventure that will stay with you long after youve turned the last page.Conclusion:In conclusion,The Ageless Quest is more than just a book its an experience that will transport you through time and leave you with a new perspective on life.This structure provides a comprehensive approach to promoting a book in an essay, ensuring that potential readers are intrigued and motivated to explore the book further.。

高三英语专业选择单选题40题1.Which area focuses on analyzing language structure and usage?A.TranslationB.LiteratureC.Linguistics答案：C。

翻译主要是进行语言转换；文学主要关注文学作品等；语言学聚焦于分析语言结构和用法。

2.If you are interested in studying famous English novels, which major should you choose?A.TranslationB.LiteratureC.Linguistics答案：B。

翻译专业重点在语言转换；语言学关注语言结构和用法；文学专业会研究著名的英语小说。

3.Which major is more likely to involve researching the history and development of language?A.TranslationB.LiteratureC.Linguistics答案：C。

翻译专业主要是语言转换工作；文学专业主要是文学作品；语言学专业更可能涉及研究语言的历史和发展。

4.Which major would help you become a professional interpreter?A.TranslationB.LiteratureC.Linguistics答案：A。

翻译专业能培养专业口译人员；文学专业主要研究文学作品；语言学专业重点在语言分析等方面。

5.If you want to analyze the style and themes of English poems, which major is suitable?A.TranslationB.LiteratureC.Linguistics答案：B。

翻译专业主要是语言转换；语言学专业关注语言结构等；文学专业适合分析英语诗歌的风格和主题。

HowtoWriteaBookReviewHow to Write a Book ReviewThere are two approaches to write book review.: the descriptive and the critical. A descriptive review is one in which the writer, without over-enthusiasm or exaggeration, gives the essential information about a book. This is done by description and exposition, by stating the perceived aims and purposes of the author, and by quoting striking passages from the text. A critical review is one in which the writer describes and evaluates the book, in terms of accepted literary and historical standards, and supports this evaluation with evidence from thetext. The following pointers are meant to be suggestions for writing a critical review.Basic RequirementsSimply stated, the reviewer must know two things in order to write a critical review:the work being reviewed andthe requirements of the genre类型to which the work belongs (novel, short story, biography, poetry, etc.).1.Knowledge of the work demandsnot only an attempt to understand what the author's purpose is and how the component parts of the work contribute to that purpose, but also some knowledge of theauthor--his/her nationality, time period, other works etc.2.Knowledge of the genre meansunderstanding the art form and how it functions. Without such understanding, the reviewer has no historical or literary standard upon which to base his/her evaluation.Minimum Essentials of a Book Review1.Description, not a summary, ofthe book. Sufficient description should be given so that the reader, as he reads the review, will have some understanding of the author's thoughts. This account of the contents of a book can often be woven编排 into the critical remarks.2.Something about, not a biography of the author. Biographical information should be relevant to the subject of the review and enhance the reader's understanding of the work under discussion.3.An appraisal, preferably indirect, through description and exposition and based on the aims and purposes of the author. While a critical review is a statement of opinion, it must be a considered judgement including:o a statement of the reviewer'sunderstanding of the author'spurposeo how well the reviewer feelsthe author's purpose has beenachievedo evidence to support thereviewer's judgement of theauthor' achievement. Preliminary 最初Mechanical Steps1.Read the book with care.2.Note effective passages forquoting.3.Note your impressions as youread.4.Allow yourself time toassimilate消化、吸收what you have read so that the book can be seen in perspective.5.Keep in mind the need forachieving a single impression which must be made clear to the reader.The Review OutlineThe review outline enables you to get an over-all grasp of the organization of the review, to determine what central point your review is going to make, to eliminate除去 inessentials or irrelevancies, and to fill in gaps or omissions省略、删除、遗漏.By examining the notes you have made and eliminating those which have no relationship to your central thesis, and by organizing them into groups, several aspects of the book will emerge: e.g., theme, character, structure, etc. After ordering your topics--determining in what sequence they will be discussed--write down all the major headings of theoutline and then fill in the subdivisions. Keep in mind that allparts of the outline should support your thesis or central point.The DraftThe opening paragraph, like the concluding one, is in a position of emphasis and usually sets the tone of the paper. Among the various possible introductions are:a statement of the thesisa statement of the author's purposea statement about the topicality of the work or its significancea comparison of the work to others by the same author or within the same genrea statement about the authorThe main body of the review shouldlogically develop your thesis 论题as organized by your outline. Changes in the outline may need to be made and transitional paragraphs introduced, but the aim should be toward logical development of the central point. Quoted material should be put in quotation marks, or indented,空格，缩进 and properly footnoted.The concluding paragraph may sum up or restate your thesis or may make the final judgement regarding the book. No new information or ideas should be introduced in the conclusion.Steps in Revising the Draft1.Allow some time to elapse经过、流逝, at least a day, beforestarting your revision.2.Correct all mistakes ingrammar and punctuation as you find them.3.Read your paper through againlooking for unity, organization and logical development.4.If necessary, do not hesitateto make major revisions in your draft.5.Verify quotations for accuracyand check the format and content of references.Some Considerations When Reviewing:| Fiction| Biography| History| Poetry |Fiction(above all, do not give away thestory)Character⼈物1.From what sources arethe characters drawn?2.What is the author'sattitude toward hischaracters?3.Are the characters flator three dimensional?4.Does characterdevelopment occur?5.Is character delineation描画、描绘direct orindirect?Theme1.What is/are the majortheme(s)?2.How are they revealedand developed?3.Is the theme traditionaland familiar, or new and original?4.Is the theme didactic说教的、教诲的, psychological, social, entertaining, escapist逃避现实者, etc. in purpose or intent?Plot情节、结构1.How are the variouselements of plot (eg, introduction, suspense悬念, climax⾼潮, conclusion) handled?2.What is the relationshipof plot to character delineation描画、描写?3.To what extent, and how,is accident employed as a complicating复杂and/or resolving force?4.What are the elements ofmystery and suspense⽞疑?5.What other devices ofplot complication and resolution are employed?6.Is there a sub-plot andhow is it related to the main plot?7.Is the plot primary orsecondary to some of the other essential elements of the story (character, setting, style, etc.)? Style⽂体、风格1.What are the"intellectual qualities" of the writing (e.g., simplicity, clarity清晰)?2.What are the "emotionalqualities" of the writing(e.g., humour, wit风趣的,satire讽刺的)?3.What are the "aesthetic美学的、审美的qualities"of the writing (e.g., harmony, rhythm)?4.What stylistic devicesare employed (e.g., symbolism, motifs主题、题旨, parody戏仿, allegory寓⾔、讽喻)?5.How effective isdialogue?Setting背景1.What is the setting anddoes it play a significantrole in the work?2.Is a sense of atmosphereevoked, and how?3.What scenic场景 effectsare used and how importantand effective are they?4.Does the settinginfluence or impinge撞击、冲击on the charactersand/or plot?Some Considerations When Reviewing Biography1.Does the book give a "full-length" picture of the subject?2.What phases of the subject'slife receive greatest treatment and is this treatment justified?3.What is the point of view of the author?4.How is the subject matter organized: chronologically按年代先后的, retrospectively回溯的, etc.?5.Is the treatment superficial 肤浅的or does the author show extensive study into the subject's life?6.What source materials were used in the preparation of the biography?7.Is the work documented有⽂件证明的?8.Does the author attempt to get at the subject's hidden motives?9.What important new facts about the subject's life are revealed in the book?10.What is the relationship ofthe subject's career tocontemporary history?11.How does the biography comparewith others about the sameperson?12.How does it compare with otherworks by the same author?Some Considerations When Reviewing History1.With what particular perioddoes the book deal?2.How thorough is the treatment?3.What were the sources used?4.Is the account given in broadoutline or in detail?5.Is the style that ofreportorial writing, or is therean effort at interpretivewriting?6.What is the point of view or thesis of the author?7.Is the treatment superficial or profound?8.For what group is the book intended (textbook, popular, scholarly, etc.)?9.What part does biographical writing play in the book?10.Is social history or political history emphasized?11.Are dates used extensively, and if so, are they used intelligently?12.Is the book a revision修订本? How does it compare with earlier editions?13.Are maps, illustrations, charts, etc. used and how arethese to be evaluated?Some Considerations When Reviewing Poetry1.Is this a work of power,originality, individuality?2.What kind of poetry is underreview (epic, lyrical抒情的, elegaic挽歌、哀歌, etc.)?3.What poetical devices havebeen used (rhyme押韵, rhythm节奏, figures of speech, imagery⽐喻, etc.), and to what effect? 4.What is the central concern ofthe poem and is it effectively expressed?Sources of Book ReviewsMany indexes, such as ABI Inform and Historical Abstracts includecitations to book reviews. Reviews can also be found at book-related online sites, such as /doc/1c1d1d5f0b4c2e3f57276369.html .and so on.Step 1: Read a BookNextReviewHere's a review the authur wrote about one of his favorite books,To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Read his review, and try using itas a model as you begin thinking about your own book review.To Kill a Mockingbirdby Harper LeeReview by Rodman Philbrick。

西宁2024年03版小学英语第二单元期中试卷考试时间：90分钟（总分:110）B卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题)1、听力题：The ______ is a skilled architect.2、How many strings does a standard guitar have?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 7答案: C3、听力题：Burning wood produces __________.4、听力题：A __________ has a long neck and legs, often found in Africa.5、填空题：I often tell my friends, "You can call me ______ anytime!"(我经常告诉我的朋友：“你随时可以叫我！”)6、听力题：In a redox reaction, one species is oxidized while another is reduced, involving a transfer of _____.7、填空题：The garden is full of _______ that bloom in spring.8、听力题：__________ are used in laboratories to measure the volume of liquids.9、填空题：We visit the ______ (艺术博物馆) for inspiration.My grandma enjoys sewing ____ (quilts).11、填空题：I have a _______ (question/answer) for you.12、Which of the following is a fruit?A. CarrotB. PotatoC. TomatoD. Lettuce答案:C13、听力题：Stars are very _____ and can be seen at night.14、听力题：The _____ (小镇) is beautiful in autumn.15、听力题：She is ___ her friend. (calling)16、填空题：Queen Elizabeth I ruled during the __________ (伊丽莎白时代).17、What is the color of a lemon?A. BlueB. YellowC. GreenD. Red答案:B18、选择题：What is the capital of Japan?A. SeoulB. TokyoC. BeijingD. Bangkok19、填空题：A hamster runs on its ______ (跑轮).20、听力题：A ______ occurs when a substance is heated and changes form.She can _______ (speak) three languages.22、填空题：My sister's birthday is in . (我妹妹的生日在。

摘要摘要活性氧(reactive oxygen species，ROS)在肿瘤的生长代谢过程中扮演着重要的角色，适当提高细胞内ROS的水平可以促进癌细胞的生长繁殖，而过量产生的ROS将会破坏细胞内的DNA、蛋白质等导致细胞死亡。

因此，通过提高癌细胞内ROS水平来治疗癌症是非常有吸引力且可行的策略。

芬顿反应，即铁催化H2O2产生高毒性的羟基自由基(•OH)，被认为是一种提高癌细胞内ROS水平的有效方法，它既可以单独进行治疗，也可以作为其它治疗方法的辅助疗法。

铁在芬顿反应的过程中主要起到了催化作用，并且铁基纳米材料在临床应用中具有安全有效性，因此，铁促进ROS增强的路线探索及其相应纳米材料制备/癌细胞杀伤效应研究具有重要意义。

基于以上考虑，我们从以下几个方面开展工作：1. 含铁材料对低温热疗增敏作用的探究光热疗法已经成为肿瘤治疗的一种重要手段，当温度提高到50℃以上才能有效的抑制肿瘤生长，但是这会引起周围正常组织的损伤，相对而言，低温加热对癌症的治疗显示出潜在的价值。

在低温热疗过程中，癌细胞产生应激反应致使ROS水平升高，这个过程可能伴随着H2O2的升高，因此，探讨铁对热应激过程中ROS增强效应在肿瘤治疗中有着重要的意义。

在本章中，我们将细胞孵育箱设置不同的温度来模拟光热治疗过程，然后探索含铁材料对低温热疗的增敏作用。

实验结果显示：(1) 随着温度的升高及孵育时间的增加，MCF-7细胞的增殖能力明显降低；(2) 在45℃加热1 h的条件下，细胞凋亡率为17.19%，并且观察到ROS的明显增加，但是当低温加热与含铁材料共同处理细胞后，并未观察到细胞凋亡率增加和ROS水平升高。

这可能是因为低温加热过程促进了细胞内ROS的生成，但是细胞内H2O2的水平没有提高或者增加量较低，所以铁离子引入不足以增加细胞对低温热疗的敏感性。

2. 基于铁/单宁酸包埋葡萄糖氧化酶纳米复合材料的制备及性能评价结合上一章工作可知，增加肿瘤细胞中H2O2含量是提高芬顿反应效率的一个重要因素，因此，在本章中，探讨了使用葡萄糖氧化酶(GOD)催化葡萄糖产生H2O2来提高芬顿反应效率。

361 Chapter 14Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling PETER MOBBS, DA VID BECKER, RODDY WILLIAMSON, MICHAEL BATE and ANNE WARNER1. IntroductionThe introduction of compounds into cells via iontophoresis or pressure injection from micropipettes is a powerful technique of wide application in modern biology. The many uses to which this technique can be put include:(i) Cell identification following electrophysiological recording.(ii) Delineation of cellular architecture in anatomical studies.(iii) Tracing neuronal pathways.(iv) Identification of cell progeny in lineage studies.(v) Investigations of the transfer of molecules from one cell to another via gap junctions or other routes.(vi) The introduction of genetic material that affect protein synthesis or gene expression.(vii) The measurement of intracellular ion concentrations, for example pH or calcium ion.This chapter describes the techniques used to inject cells and focuses upon the design of experiments for some common applications of these methods. In the final sections, we offer sample protocols and advice on the necessary equipment.The basic methods for cell injection are similar whatever the compound to be used. This chapter concentrates on techniques that involve iontophoresis or pressure injection using intracellular micropipettes while section 9 describes some other routes by which compounds can introduced into cells. For each application described below, we concentrate upon the factors that influence thePETER MOBBS, Department of Physiology, University College London, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT, UKDAVID BECKER AND ANNE WARNER, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT, UKRODDY WILLIAMSON, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, UK MICHAEL BATE, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK362P. MOBBS AND OTHERSchoice of the compound to inject, since this is usually the factor most crucial to success.2. Microinjection methodsManufacturing micropipettesPipettes for intracellular microinjection can be produced on any standard microelectrode puller. The best pipettes generally have the following characteristics: (a) a relatively short shank (b) a relatively large tip diameter. The latter is frequently a limitation because, for successful penetration of small cells without damage, the tip diameter also must be small. When the diameter of the tip is small then both the iontophoresis and pressure injection of compounds is impeded, the former by the charge on the glass and the electrical resistance of the tip and the latter by the tip’s resistance to bulk flow of solution. Several different types of glass are available for the production of micropipettes. A number of manufacturers (see appendix B) provide suitable capillaries with a variety of outside diameters, with thick or thin walls, with and without internal filaments, made from soda or borosilicate glass. Pipettes made from thick-wall borosilicate glass are usually the most robust and useful for penetrating tough tissue. However, thin-wall glass has the advantage that the channel through the tip is usually larger, and thus the resistance is lower, for any given tip size. The characteristics of micropipettes for use in microinjection experiments can sometimes be improved by bevelling (see Chapter 11). Soda-glass is somewhat less fragile than borosilicate glass but is difficult to pull to fine tips, it has been dropped from some supplier’s lists. No matter what the theoretical expectations, the best electrodes to use are those that work!Pipette fillingModern micropipette glass incorporates an internal ‘filament’ (actually a second narrow capillary). The filament increases the capillarity of pipettes so that fluid is drawn into the tip. This characteristic can be exploited to enable very small volumes of fluid to be loaded into the pipette tip, which is useful where the compound to be injected is expensive. Solutions can be introduced into the back of the pipette either by immersion or by bringing into contact with a drop of fluid. The volume drawn into the tip depends upon its diameter. Pipettes with tips of 1 µm will draw up about 100 nl and those of 5 µm will fill with about 1 µl of fluid. Coarse pipettes can be filled by sucking fluid directly through the tip. Electrical connections to pipettes in which only the tip is filled can usually be effected simply by sticking a wire into the pipette lumen. The presence of a thin trail of electrolyte along the outside of the internal filament provides the necessary path for current flow. It is advisable to centrifuge all solutions before use to remove material that may block the tip.IontophoresisIontophoresis involves the ejection of a substance from a pipette by the application ofcurrent. The polarity of the ejection current employed depends on the net charge on the substance to be injected (negative pulses are used to eject negatively charged molecules). Most modern microelectrode amplifiers are equipped with a current pump that can be used to provide an iontophoretic current that is, within limits,independent of the electrode resistance (see Chapters 1 and 16). If only a simple amplifier is available, or the current pump is unable to provide sufficient voltage to drive the required current through the electrode tip, then it is possible to use a battery and a current limiting resistor as a current source. If a battery is employed then the headstage of the amplifier should be switched out of the circuit when the battery is connected. Obviously the current provided by this crude arrangement will be governed by Ohm’s Law. The current applied to a cell should be as small as is consistent with the introduction of sufficient of the compound into the cell. In all events the voltage produced by the passage of the iontophoretic current must be limited (to say +100 to −100 mV) to avoid damage to the cell membrane.Continuous application of current should be avoided since it often causes the electrode tip to block. This block can sometimes be relieved by reversing the polarity of the current for a short time. However, once an electrode shows signs of block the trend is usually irreversible and the pipette should be discarded. Often the best strategy is to employ short duration current pulses of alternating polarity. Whatever the form of the pulse, small currents for long periods are usually more successful than high currents for shorter times. To recognise electrode block and standardise procedures, it is essential to monitor the current flow through the electrode. It is not sufficient simply to monitor the voltage applied to the electrode! If the amplifier employed does not have a current monitor then a simple one can be improvised by measuring the voltage drop across a resistor in the earth return circuit. The membrane potential of the cell should be measured during electrode insertion, before switching to current injection. It is sensible to check the condition of the cell by measuring its resting potential at intervals during iontophoresis. Such measurements are simplified by using a bridge amplifier (see Chapters 1 and 16) that enables the membrane voltage to be monitored continuously during current passing experiments. For a detailed discussion of the circuits for current injection and current monitoring see Purves (1981).A useful technique for achieving bulk flow from the electrode tip is to cause high frequency oscillations of the voltage across the electrode resistance. This is achieved by pressing the ‘buzz’ or ‘zap’ buttons present on some amplifiers. The effect of these can be imitated by turning up the capacity compensation control, found on nearly all microelectrode amplifiers, to the point at which the electrode voltage oscillates (termed ‘ringing’).In theory the amount of a substance ejected from the pipette during an iontophoretic pulse can be estimated from a consideration of its transport number (Purves, 1981). In practice, these estimates are highly unreliable and the transport number is often unknown for the compound employed.Pressure injectionPressure ejection is the method of choice for the injection of neutral molecules and 363Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling364P. MOBBS AND OTHERSthose of low iontophoretic mobility. Commercial pressure injection devices are available (see list of suppliers) that enable the application of calibrated pressure pulses to the back end of the injection pipette. Essentially a pressure injection system consists of a gas cylinder connected, via a timing circuit, a solenoid-operated valve and a pressure regulator, to a side-arm pipette holder. Commercial equipment is expensive, but a home-made rig can be simply made from the components listed above. The timing circuit can be replaced by a manually operated switch. Take care to ensure that the connections and tubing are safe at the pressures employed and that the pipette is firmly held within the holder. The pressure and timing of the pulse can be roughly established by measuring the diameter of a drop expelled from the pipette tip into a bath of liquid paraffin. However, this method frequently over-estimates the back-pressure from the cytoplasm and quantification of pressure injection is often as uncertain as in iontophoresis.Patch-pipettesMany substances can be introduced into cells from patch-pipettes while recording in the whole-cell mode. The concentration that a compound reaches within the cell during whole-cell recording is equal to that within the patch-pipette solution. Thus for most dyes and labels the concentrations to employ are a fraction of those used in iontophoresis or pressure injection experiments. For example, Lucifer Yellow CH incorporated into the patch-pipette solution at 1 mg ml−1will produce intense fluorescence of the cell (40 mg ml−1is used in sharp electrodes for iontophoresis; Fig. 1B).3. Techniques for visualizing cellsVisualizing cells prior to injectionIn order to inject a cell you must be able to guide your micropipette toward it. There are three techniques available to aid in the steering of electrodes:(a) Stereotaxic movements combined with continuous electrical recording (mainly used for penetration of cells in brain nuclei).(b) Visual guidance using white light and interference contrast optics to visualize the cell and identify targets.(c) Visual guidance using cells prelabelled with fluorescent dyes as the target.In solid tissue, whatever technique is chosen to guide the electrode, the target must lie along initial trajectory of the electrode. Manipulation out of this axis will break the electrode.1. Stereotaxis. This method requires that you know precisely where your target cells lie even though you can not see them. Such information is sometimes available from stereotactic atlases. Micromanipulators can be roughly calibrated to give depth measurements but errors always arise as a result of tissue distortion during electrode penetration. The identification of the target cells can sometimes be achieved through knowledge of their electrical properties or synaptic connections,for example by the response to current injection or stimulation of a peripheral nerve.2. Interference contrast optics.Phase contrast and differential interference contrast techniques (Nomarski) are good for visualising living cells. Phase contrast is useful for cells in tissue culture but does not work well for tissue slices. Nomarski optics provide high resolution and can be used to provide effective optical sections of transparent tissue. The more recently introduced Hoffman optics are cheaper than Nomarski optics and are useful for viewing tissue slices because they provide a greater depth of field.3. Prelabelling with a fluorophore.There are two approaches to the prelabelling of cells to identify them as targets for subsequent microinjection experiments. Cells can either be bathed in a dye that becomes internalized (Fig. 1E), or labelled by retrograde transport of a marker from their axons (Fig. 1A). Whilst some dyes are either actively taken into cells or simply diffuse across the membrane others only enter if the membrane is disrupted by osmotic shock or through exposure to dimethyl sulphoxide. Whatever the method of prelabelling, the choice of the label is crucial to success. Ideally the label should be visible under the same filter set as the dye used in subsequent injection experiments and the intensity of the prelabel’s fluorescence should not mask that of the injected fluorophore. Since the prelabel may remain inside the cell for an extended period, it is important that it is non-toxic.Retrograde labelling of neurons via their axonal projections is an extremely useful means of identifying populations of cells that project to particular targets. Fast blue and diamidino yellow are amongst the most popular of the labels available for this purpose. Fast blue labels the cell cytoplasm and diamidino yellow stains the nucleus (Fig. 1E). Both pass rapidly across the cell membrane and can be used to label cells from their axon terminals or from cut axons. General labelling of all the cells in a tissue can be achieved by bathing in a dilute solution of the dyes. Both of these dyes work well on formaldehyde-fixed tissue. Target cells identified with these prelabel dyes can subsequently be injected with Lucifer Yellow, carboxyfluorescein or Cascade Blue which are visible with the same filter set (Fig. 1E).Some fluorophores with useful properties are neither taken up nor transported by cells. However, they can be made into useful labels through conjugation to lectins,dextrans or plastic microspheres. Lectins bind to sugar moieties on the cell membrane, are brought into the cell through endocytosis and transported. Dextrans can also be conjugated to most fluorophores. Plastic microspheres can be coupled to fluorescent molecules. They are available in a variety of materials and sizes. Applied to damaged axons they are taken up by and retrogradely transported. Microspheres are visible in the electron microscope.Visualizing labelled cellsThe object of many microinjection experiments is to render the cell under study visible by introduction of a label. The majority of such labels are either fluorescent or can be processed to produce a coloured reaction product. Below we describe the techniques for visualizing and recording the results of cell labelling experiments.365Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling366P. MOBBS AND OTHERSOften labelled cells can be visualised without any histological processing and some labels can be used to follow changes in cell morphology that occur over extended periods of time (Purves et al.1986). Methods for the fixation of tissue and the histological processing of tissue containing labels are given later.Fluorescent labels are excited by light at one wavelength and emit light at another longer wavelength. The user must choose the excitation and emission filters most suitable to their application (see appendix A). It is convenient to have the microscope used for positioning the electrode equipped with a light source and filters capable of exciting the label. This allows the user to determine the endpoint of the injection experiment by observation. Many of the labels in common use are excited by far blue or UV light. The tungsten or quartz halogen bulbs found in most microscope illuminators do not provide much light at these wavelengths and an additional mercury or xenon light source is required. Most manufacturers provide some convenient means for switching between the white and UV light sources. If this switching mechanism is to be used during the course of a labelling experiment, it is imperative that it operates without vibration if the microelectrode is to remain in the cell under study.The factors involved in the choice of the optics and light sources for fluorescence microscopy are complex. The short discussion below is offered as an introduction that may be supplemented by consulting some of excellent free literature provided by major manufacturers (see for example the booklets offered by Zeiss, Lieca and Nikon). Mercury lamps are cheaper than xenon lamps. However, the emission spectrum of a xenon lamp is relatively continuous throughout the UV and visible spectrum while that of mercury lamps consists of a series of sharp peaks (emission lines). With mercury lamps, it is important to ensure that a line exists at a wavelength appropriate to the dye in use. Most modern fluorescence microscopes employ epi-illumination, a system in which the light used to excite the dye is focused on the specimen through the same objective used to view the light emitted by the dye.The choice of objective is critical in fluorescence microscopy. Quartz objectives pass much more short wavelength light than those made from glass. However, quartz objectives are expensive and unnecessary for use with dyes excited by light in the visible and near UV regions of the spectrum. It is crucial that the objective has a high numerical aperture (NA) since both the intensity of the light focused on the specimen and the light gathering power of the lens increase with the square of the aperture. An objective with an NA of 1.0 will yield 16 times as much light as a 0.5 NA lens. High NA objectives have shorter working distance and need an immersion medium - water, oil or glycerol (for UV). For injection of cells in thick preparations on an upright microscope water immersion lenses are preferable to those that work in air because they have a greater NA and there is no optical distortion due to meniscus effects of the micropipette on the bath surface. On the other hand, very long working distance air electrodes can be covenient, if optically inferior. Two particularly useful lenses are Zeiss ×40 0.75 NA W water immersion and the Nikon ×40 ELWD air (NA 0.5) with correction collar. Intensity of fluorescent light also depends upon the magnification. Itdecreases as the square of the magnification: a ×10 eyepiece produce an image of 25% the intensity of an image formed by a ×5 eyepiece. Low magnification eyepieces are therefore preferable for visual observation.Fluorescent images can be recorded on film or by analog or digital video techniques. There are many black and white, colour print and transparency films suitable for recording fluorescence images. Generally a film of high speed and acceptable grain should be chosen. Colour films of speed greater than 400 ASA tend to be too grainy, however, black and white films such as Kodak’s TMAX give excellent results even at 2400 ASA (must be developed in TMAX developer). In normal photography, the reciprocity law applies and the total amount of exposure is given by the product of the luminance and the exposure time. Thus an exposure of 1/60th of a second at f8 is the same as for 1/30th at f11. With dim objects the reciprocity law fails to predict the exposure and the exposure time has to be increased.Most film manufacturers provide a guide to the performance of their films at low light intensities. In practice it is often better simply to take several exposures of increasing duration starting with the exposure time indicated by the meter on the camera.The advent of cheaper video cameras that operate at low light intensities has opened up the possibility of recording fluorescent images either on video-tape or in digital form on a computer. Digital image recording has the advantage of allowing complex analysis of an image.Labels that result in a coloured or opaque reaction product are much simpler to photograph than those labelled with fluorescent compounds. No special equipment is required.4. Labelling cells for subsequent identification and fordetermination of overall cell architectureDyes injected for these purposes should have the following properties: (a) they should be visible, either immediately or after chemical reaction; (b) they should remain in the injected cell, either because they are too large to move across the cell membrane and through gap junctions or because they are strongly bound by the cytoplasm; (c) they should not be toxic, although this requirement can be relaxed if the tissue is to be processed immediately after the cell has been injected; (d) they should be stable and not break down to give products with different properties; (e)they should withstand histological processing. In practice, property (e) is the most difficult to achieve.Six classes of compound are used for this purpose:1. Inherently fluorescent molecules and those tagged with a fluorescent probe.Lucifer Yellow (MW 457) and carboxyfluorescein (MW 376) are the most popular fluorescent compounds for determining overall cellular architecture. However, they are far from ideal for this purpose. Both pass through gap junctions (see below) and carboxyfluorescein cannot be fixed. Lucifer Yellow withstands fixation well but as 367Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling368P. MOBBS AND OTHERSwith all other dyes some fluorescence intensity is lost. Passage through gap junctions can be prevented by conjugation of the fluorophore to dextrans. Dextrans (MWs 3000-70000) can be coupled to fluorescein, rhodamine isothiocyanate or Texas Red. They can be prepared in the laboratory (see Gimlich & Braun, 1985) or purchased commercially (Molecular Probes, 48-49 Pitchford Avenue, Eugene, Oregon, OR97402-9144 USA). Cascade Blue and sulphrhodamine 101 are also useful for determining cellular architecture and extend the range of colours available for double marking experiments. For examples of multiple labelling see Fig. 1D,F. Advantages:Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Can be seen in living cells with appropriate fluorescent illumination.Are not toxic provided the amount injected is kept fairly low.Do not break down.Will withstand routine fixation and embedding techniques, provided the fixative or mountant does not generate auto-fluorescence. Glutaraldehyde fixation, for example, must be avoided. Many commercial mountants, such as DPX, are unsuitable for this reason. Mountants that are designed to reduce fading can now be obtained (e.g. Citifluor, City University, London). Disadvantages:Limit of detection determined by threshold of fluorescence. Detection levels can be improved by electronic image intensification.Fluorescence fades under continuous illumination. This can be reduced by using anti-fade mountants.Fluorescein fades particularly fast, but is more fluorescent than rhodamine or Texas Red.Sometimes become incorporated into cellular organelles with time, making fluorescence particulate.Margin between visible not toxic, and visible but toxic is narrow.2. The carbocyanine dyes.Octadecyl(C18)-indocarbocyanine (DiI) and oxycarbocyanine (DiO) (MWs 934 and 882) are highly fluorescent lipophilic compounds. They dissolve in, and diffuse throughout, the lipids of the plasma membrane. They are not toxic and they have been reported to remain in the cell membrane for up to one year (Kuffler, 1990). They will also diffuse along membranes in lightly fixed tissue. In the absence of any sites of membrane fusion the carbocyanines label single cells. The diffusion rate for these compounds is slow (about 6 mm/day, slower in fixed tissue), however, carbocyanines with unsaturated alkyl chain segments (FAST-DiI and FAST-DiO) exhibit accelerated diffusion rates. The polyunsaturated “DiASP” compounds (N-4(4-dilinoleylaminostyryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide and related molecules) (MW~800) are also reported to diffuse more rapidly. Because the carbocyanines are insoluble in water they must either be pressure injected into cells in solution inDMSO or alcohol or applied to the cell membrane in which they rapidly dissolve.DiI and DiO can be visualized by fluorescence microscopy. DiI has similar excitation properties to rhodamine, excited by green it fluoresces red. DiO is similar to fluorescein in that it is excited by blue light and produces green fluorescence. DiAsp has a broad excitation spectrum and fluoresces orange. These dyes can be converted into a permanent reaction product via the Maranto reaction (Maranto, 1982) in which the singlet oxygen released by illumination is used to oxidise diamino-benzidine (DAB).Advantages:They are not toxic and can remain in the cell membrane without harm over several years.Disadvantages:Not water soluble.They tend to fade quickly particularly in laser scanning confocal microscopy.Long diffusion times.Can only be pressure injected.3. Enzymes such as horse radish peroxidase. Horse radish peroxidase (HRP) is reacted with diamino-benzidine or other chromogens to generate a product visible in the light or electron microscope. There are many protocols for developing HRP (see Mesulam, 1982 and Heimer & Robards, 1981 for a selection). Widely used in studies in the central nervous system. The injection of enzymes can also be used to kill individual cells (e.g. pronase). This is potentially useful in lineage and regeneration studies.Advantages:Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Not toxic.Remains within the injected cell, provided the preparation is free from micro-peroxidases. Will cross synapses, which can be useful when tracing pathways.Does not break down.Good visibility.Reaction product visible in the electron microscope.Disadvantages:Can only be seen after reaction product produced. However, by using a fluorescent peroxidase conjugate, such as RITC-peroxidase (Sigma P5031),an indication of the staining can be obtained during the fill period (see Fig.1A-C).Can get reaction product from endogenous peroxidases, so method has to be modified if this is likely to be a problem.The penetration of chromogen into tissue is rather poor (about 100 µm), so that whole mounts or slices have to be below this thickness.369Techniques for dye injection and cell labelling370P. MOBBS AND OTHERSMuch of the enzyme activity is lost on fixation. If possible the material is best fixed after reaction.4.Biocytin. A recently introduced intracellular marker (Horikawa & Armstrong, 1988) comprising a highly soluble conjugate of biotin and lysine (MW 372.48) that has a high binding affinity for avidin. The injected biocytin is visualised by attaching a label to avidin, e.g. a fluorescent label such as FITC or rhodamine, or a chromogenic enzyme such as HRP. Suitable avidin conjugates are widely available (e.g. Sigma, Vector Labs.). A small molecular weight biotin compound, biotinamide (MW 286), is also available (Neurobiotin, Vector Labs, 16 Wulfric Square, Bretton, Peterborough PE3 8RF, UK) and may be easier to inject (Kita & Armstrong, 1991). Advantages:Highly soluble in aqueous solutions.Can be pressure injected or iontophoresed.Low toxicity.Does not break down.Good fluorescent, visible light, or electron microscopic visibility after avidin reaction.Disadvantages:Can only be seen after avidin reaction.Reaction penetration limited to about 100 µm even with detergents or surfactants so tissue may have to be sectioned.Some ultrastructural degradation from penetration agents.Can pass between coupled cells.Occurs naturally in trace amounts.5. Heavy metals such as cobalt and nickel.The metal is precipitated with ammonium sulphide or hydrogen sulphide. The sensitivity can be improved by intensification with silver (Pearse, 1968; Bacon & Altman, 1977). Double labelling can be achieved by using different metals in the same preparation followed by precipitation with rubeanic acid (Quicke & Brace, 1979); this results in precipitates of different colours depending on the metal, e.g. cobalt = yellow, nickel = blue, copper = olive.Heavy metal complexes, such as lead EDTA (Turin, 1977) can be suitable in cells that are not linked to their neighbours by gap junctions (see later section). In principle, it is possible to prepare a range of heavy metal complexes of different sizes so long as the complex is firmly held, so that there is no free metal or anion which might be toxic, and the metal has a much higher affinity for sulphide than for the anion used to make the complex. This is essential to ensure precipitation of the metal out of the complex. The advantage of a heavy metal complex is that the complex can be much less toxic than the heavy metal itself and may be much easier to eject from the pipette. However, some metal sulphides will re-dissolve if the precipitant (usually ammonium sulphide) contains polysulphides. Freshly prepared solutions saturated with H2S do not suffer from polysulphide formation.。

一、考试题型暨测试重点分析I. 词语翻译（英译汉；汉译英）II. 单句改译（英语句子改译；汉语句子改译）III. 单句翻译（英译汉；汉译英）IV. 语篇翻译（英译汉；汉译英）二、冲刺班内容I. 词语翻译（课本内容总结）II. 单句改译（考点及技巧解析）III. 单句翻译（技巧分析及重点总结）IV. 语篇翻译（翻译方法讲解）第一部分词语翻译（课本内容总结）第一课：英语时政要闻汉译词语英译汉：nuclear proliferation 核扩散economic recovery 经济复苏freedom of speech and assembly 言论和集会自由national security adviser 国家安全事务助理第二课：汉语时政要闻英译词语汉译英：政府网the website of the central government新华网the web site of Xinhua News Agency十二五the 12th Five-Year Plan 国计民生national development and people's livelihood任期tenure of office恪尽职守to perform one’s duty honestly稳定物价price stabilization货币流动性the monetary flow通胀预期inflation expectations调控措施readjustment measures囤积居奇cornering the market哄抬物价jack up prices保障性住房economy houses棚户区shantytown投机性住房需求speculative housing demands 捂盘惜售property hoarding圈地不用keeping purchased land unused医疗改革health care reform第三课：英语时事评论汉译词语英译汉：economic reach经济影响力achieve eminence 脱颖而出a zero-sum game得失相抵的较量exceptionalism 例外论Sino-American relationship 中美关系第四课：汉语时事评论英译词语汉译英：贫富差距gap between the rich and the poor 基尼系数Gini coefficient平均主义egalitarianism限高upper limit关税customs duty增值税value added tax营业税business tax资源税resource tax地下经济illegal underground economy偷漏税tax evasion弱势群体the disadvantaged group基础阶层people at the bottom level兜底guaranteed income system社会保障事业social security undertakings 转移支付social transfer payments垄断经营monopolized operation垄断利润monopoly profits垄断行业monopoly trades特许经营franchise暴利colossal profits邮电通讯post and telecommunications 公共事业部门public institutions第五课：英语经贸资料汉译词语英译汉：equality of opportunity 机会均等social class background 社会背景inherited privilege 继承的特权business section 商务专栏foreign aid 对外援助federal budget 联邦预算Federal Reserve Bank 联邦储备银行the entertainment industry 娱乐业show business 演艺业第六课：汉语经贸资料英译词语汉译英：货币疲软teetering currency rates购买力purchasing power大中型国有企业large and medium-sized state enterprises外贸体制改革the reform of China’s foreign trade regime以质取胜fine quality or else no export售前售后服务good service before and after sales附加值the added value名特优新产品premium and novel products “拳头”产品“hard-punch”items市场多元化geographical diversification不能在一棵树上吊死It is no good to “put all our eggs in one basket”大显身手make a good killing站稳脚根weather over the bad times优惠政策preferential policies基础设施infrastructure外资foreign investment劳工问题labor problem金融危机financial crisis消费市场consumer market市场坚挺steady market第七课：英语科技资料汉译词语英译汉：Silicon Valley 硅谷genetic alteration 转基因crude oil 原油science fiction 科幻小说renewable petroleum 可再生汽油hydrogen fuel 氢燃料carbon negative 负碳的the raw materials 原材料industrial yeast 工业酵母nonpathogenic strains 非病原菌株E. coli 大肠杆菌custom-designing 定制设计fatty acid 脂肪酸byproduct 副产品第八课：汉语科技资料英译词语汉译英：聚丙烯polypropylene聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇醋polyethylene glycol terephthalate中国科学院the Chinese Academy of Science抽纱to draw yarn化学分解chemical decomposition水解hydrolysis醇解alcoholysis单体monomer低相对分子质量物质substances with relatively low- molecular mass高分子合成的原料high-molecular synthetic materials化纤车间a chemical fiber workshop涤纶短纤维short polyester fibers洗涤剂瓶detergent bottles环保运动服environment-friendly sportswear环保晴雨两用衣environment-friendly all-weather clothes化学物质chemical substance对苯二甲酸terephthalic acid乙二醇ethylene glycol再生树脂regenerated resin环保事业environment-friendly undertaking第九课：英语自然探秘资料汉译词语英译汉：global warming 全球气候变暖nuclear facilities 核设施flash floods 山洪sea-ice cover 海冰覆盖面积greenhouse gases 温室气体fossil-fuel emissions 化石燃料的排放solar variation 太阳的变化air mass 气团satellite measurements 卫星测量carbon-dioxide effect 二氧化碳效应第十课：汉语自然探秘资料英译词语汉译英：低空大气层the lower atmosphere水汽凝结物condensed matters of the vapor水平能见度horizontal distance of visibility轻雾light fog大雾thick fog浓雾heavy （or dense）fog辐射雾radiation fog平流雾advective fog蒸汽雾steam fog上坡雾up-slope fog锋面雾frontal surface fog病害plant disease抽穗to ear up赤霉病wheat scab气管炎tracheitis咽喉炎pharyngolaryngitis结膜炎conjunctivitis千姿百态appear in various shapes and postures 云雾缭绕be enveloped in mists and clouds第11课：英语文化习俗资料汉译词语英译汉：Passport to the Pub: The Tourists’Guide to Pub Etiquette 《酒吧护照：旅游者酒吧仪俗指南》第12课：汉语文化习俗资料英译词语汉译英：中国社会调查事务所China’s Social Survey Office“洋节”Western festivals中国传统节日traditional Chinese festivals西学东渐Western learning being introduced into China农耕社会agrarian society情人节Saint Valentine’s Day复活节Easter Sunday万圣节All Saints’Day感恩节Thanksgiving Day坚船利炮armored ships with big guns民族认同感the sense of national identity儒学经典Confucian teachings封建残余feudalist vestiges端午the Dragon Boat Festival中秋Mid-Autumn Day法定假日legal holidays《全国节日及纪念日放假办法》“Solution to the Holiday Problem of Festivals and Anniversaries”联合国教科文组织the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization （UNESCO）教师节Teachers Day文化自轻cultural belittlement自我殖民self-colonization第13课：英语医疗保健资料汉译词语英译汉：the death tolls 死亡人数exotic organisms 外来微生物毒lethal strain 致命的病毒品种asteroid impact 小行星撞击white blood cell 白细胞temperature hike 体温骤升warning systems 预警系统side-effects 副作用loss of appetite 食欲减退genetic variation 基因变异第14课：汉语医疗保健资料英译词语汉译英：非典型性肺炎severe actue respiratory syndrome（SARS）免疫系统immune systemSARS疫区a SARS-affected area痊愈率recovery rate预防措施precautions培养信念foster our faith第15课：英语教育资料汉译词语英译汉：global integration 全球一体化geopolitical stability 地缘政治稳定global career 世界性职业the movement across borders 跨国界迁移research university 研究型大学summer internship 暑期实习doctoral degrees 博士学位videoconference seminars 视频会议研讨班on-the-job training 在岗培训mainframe computer 计算机主机integrated circuit 集成电路internet infrastructure 互联网基础设施Silicon Valley 硅谷MIT 麻省理工学院第16课：汉语教育资料英译词语汉译英：筹建阶段a phase of preparation金融贸易区Financial and Trade Zone国际著名高等学府prestigious international universities中外合作办学Sino-foreign cooperative education鲇鱼效应catfish effect纷至沓来come in flocks教育部the Ministry of Education意向书a letter of intent奠基the cornerstone-laying ceremony全球网络大学a global network university独立法人an independent legal entity含金量the value of sth.优秀生源outstanding students高考college entrance examination第17课：英语体育运动资料汉译词语英译汉：the steam engine 蒸汽机the pneumatic tyre 充气轮胎the Football Association 国际足协kicking and grabbing 踢踏或者拉拽Rugby Football Union 橄榄球协会Wimbledon Tennis Championships 温布尔登网球赛Grand Slam 大奖赛the physical and mental condition 体能和健康athletic disciplines 运动规则第18课：汉语体育运动资料英译词语汉译英：中华民族精神the spirit of the Chinese nation 古老文明意蕴the deeper import of the ancient civilization华夏子孙品格he character of Cathay’s descendents奥林匹克史诗the Olympic epic经典华章as a classic chapter东方思想eastern ways of thinking民族气韵the nation’s lasting appeal人文特质cultural quality精诚所至，金石为开Complete sincerity can affect even metal and stone和平、友谊、进步peace, friendship, and progress of mankind更快、更高、更强faster, higher, and stronger 第19课：英语旅游资料汉译词语英译汉：Place de la Concorde Paris 巴黎协和广场Washington’s Pennsylvania Avenue 华盛顿宾夕法尼亚大街Buckingham Palace 白金汉宫financial districts 金融中心Globe Theatre 全球剧院two-way radios 对讲机slum houses 贫民窟council flats 政府公寓drug abuse 吸毒racial hatred 种族歧视Chinese gateways 中国式牌楼London’s Chinese Culture Association 伦敦中国文化协会Chinese ceramics 中国陶瓷Ode to a Nightingale 《夜莺颂》Victorian lecture room 维多利亚演讲堂第20课：汉语旅游资料英译词语汉译英：树木苍翠exuberant trees流水潺潺babbling streams洪水肆虐rampant floods大禹Yu the Great碳酸钙calcium carbonate奇花异草exotic flowers and rare herbs灿烂如缤纷a dazzling sight深邃莫测be of immeasurable depth庙会a temple fair喧腾be bustling with activity石灰岩地质a limestone composition岩溶地貌 a geological formation unique to a karst region桂林山水the Guilin Landscape in Guangxi云南石林the Stone Forest in Yunnan九寨沟自然保护区Jiuzhaigou Natural Reserve 第21课：英语名人演讲汉译词语英译汉：Partisan feeling 党派的门户之见President-elect 候任总统partisan rancor 党派之争结下的仇恨the U.S. Supreme Court 美国最高法院ruling principle 核心原则Electoral College 总统选举团popular will 公众意愿Declaration of Independence 《独立宣言》第22课：汉语名人演讲英译词语汉译英：国际奥委会IOC国际奥委会评估团IOC Evaluation Commission北京陈述报告Beijing’s Candidate File全民健身运动nation­wide fitness campaign平均预期寿命average life expectancy体育设施sport facilities奥林匹克友谊合作基金Olympic Friendship-and-Cooperation Fund改革开放reform and opening-up有朋自远方来，不亦说乎Is it not a delight after all to have friends come from afar!第23课：英语汉译散文（无）第24课：汉语散文英译词语汉译英：痛自反省to introspect with remorse少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲One who does not work hard in youth will grieve in vain in old age.体力渐衰the approaching of one’s senility鞭策自己to spur oneself悔之晚矣It is too late to repent经书Chinese classics圈点to mark words or phrases for special attention with small circles and dots时作时辍my efforts at self-study were off and on同文石印the Tong Wen lithographic edition前四史the First Four Books of History鼓起勇气to pluck up enough courage to do sth.强迫运动compulsory physical exercises嬉戏merry-making第25课：英语小说汉译（无）第26课：汉语小说英译词语汉译英：连挂式大型公共汽车an articulated bus第27课：英语剧本汉译（无）第28课：汉语剧本英译词语汉译英：烂肉面noodles with minced pork藤椅cane/rattan chairs醉八仙the intoxicated eight immortals 神食龛the shrine of the god of wealth 第29课：英语法律文献汉译词语英译汉：on the basis of equality and free will在平等自愿的基础上intangible asset 无形资产all-weather scaling rain and snow meter 全天候称重降水量计front dispersion visibility instrument前向散射能见度仪hot field wind sensor 热场风传感器technical value 技术价值registered capital 注册资本transfer and hand-over formalities权利转移手续processing drawing 加工图纸test-run method 调试方法testing method 检测方法to keep in strict confidence承担严格的保密责任arbitration procedural rule 仲裁程序规则come into force and effect 生效第30课：汉语法律文献英译词语汉译英：著作权法Copyright Law实施条例regulations for the implementation of sth.行使权利to exercise one’s rights版式、装帧设计typographical design专有使用权exclusive right of exploitation in sth.有效期term of validity合同约定地区the territory of execution defined by a contract 经济补偿economic compensation保护期term of protection著作权人the copyright owner国家版权局National Copyright Administration著作权公报copyright bulletin。

六级听力原文背英语单词技巧1、循环记忆法艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线人的大脑是一个记忆的宝库，人脑经历过的事物，思考过的问题，体验过的情感和情绪，练习过的动作，都可以成为人们记忆的内容。

例如英文的学习中单词、短语和句子，甚至文章的内容都是通过记忆完成的。

从"记"到"忆"是有个过程的，这其中包括了识记、保持、再认和回忆。

有很多人在学习英语的过程中，只注重了学习当时的记忆效果，孰不知，要想做好学习的记忆工作，是要下一番工夫的，单纯的注重当时的记忆效果，而忽视了后期的保持和再认同样是达不到良好的效果的。

在信息的处理上，记忆是对输入信息的编码、贮存和提取的过程，从信息处理的角度上，英文的第一次学习和背诵只是一个输入编码的过程。

人的记忆的能力从生理上讲是十分惊人的，它可以存贮1015比特(byte，字节)的信息，可是每个人的记忆宝库被挖掘的只占10%，还有更多的记忆发挥空间。

这是因为，有些人只关注了记忆的当时效果，却忽视了记忆中的更大的问题--即记忆的牢固度问题，那就牵涉到心理学中常说的关于记忆遗忘的规律。

一、艾宾浩斯记忆规律曲线解释德国有一位著名的心理学家名叫艾宾浩斯(Hermann Ebbinghaus，1850-1909)，他在1885年发表了他的实验报告后，记忆研究就成了心理学中被研究最多的领域之一，而艾宾浩斯正是发现记忆遗忘规律的第一人。

根据我们所知道的，记忆的保持在时间上是不同的，有短时的记忆和长时的记忆两种。

而我们平时的记忆的过程是这样的：输入的信息在经过人的注意过程的学习后，便成为了人的短时的记忆，但是如果不经过及时的复习，这些记住过的东西就会遗忘，而经过了及时的复习，这些短时的记忆就会成为了人的一种长时的记忆，从而在大脑中保持着很长的时间。

那么，对于我们来讲，怎样才叫做遗忘呢，所谓遗忘就是我们对于曾经记忆过的东西不能再认起来，也不能回忆起来，或者是错误的再认和错误的回忆，这些都是遗忘。

COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION of 29 July 1997 concerning the scientific aspects and the presentation of information necessary to support applications for the placing on the market of novel foods and novel food ingredients and the preparation of initial assessment reports under Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council (Text with EEA relevance) (97/618/EC)THE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European Community,Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 1997 concerning novel foods and novel food ingredients (1), and in particular Article 4 (4) thereof,Whereas, in order to protect public health, it is necessary that novel foods and novel food ingredients are subject to a single safety assessment through a Community procedure before they are placed on the market within the Community;Whereas recommendations concerning the scientific aspects of the information necessary to support an application for the placing on the market of a novel food or a novel food ingredient will facilitate the task of economic operators in preparing such an application; whereas recommendations concerning the presentation of such information and concerning the preparation of initial assessment reports by the competent food assessment bodies of the Member States will facilitate the evaluation of such applications;Whereas the Scientific Committee for Food has made recommendations on the information necessary to support such applications, the presentation of that information and the preparation of initial assessment reports on those applications;Whereas experience in the assessment of novel foods and novel food ingredients is at present limited; whereas therefore any recommendations in this area must be kept under constant review to take account of new scientific information and the work of the relevant international organizations;Whereas the Member States have been consulted on this Recommendation within the framework of the Standing Committee for Foodstuffs,HEREBY RECOMMENDS THAT:1. When preparing applications for the placing on the market of novel foods and novel food ingredients, economic operators should follow the recommendations concerning the scientific aspects of the information necessary to support such applications set out in the Annex, Part I.附錄Part 1，當準備進軍NF、NF經濟經營者(企業)應遵循科學方面提供必要的資料，以支持這些應用2. Economic operators should ensure that the information necessary to support applications referred to in point 1 is presented in accordance with the recommendations set out in the Annex, Part II.附錄Part 2，說明依第一點，企業要保證支持申請文件的資料3. Member States should ensure that the initial assessment reports drawn up by their competent food assessment bodies pursuant to Article 6 (2) of Regulation (EC) No 258/97 are prepared in accordance with the recommendations set out in the Annex, Part III.附錄Part 3，會員國的主管單位依Article 6 (2) of Regulation (EC) No 258/97來要求各項最初的評估報告。