Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary

第一章：Basic Concepts of Words and Voculary词的基本知识1.1 What is a wordLinguists: 语言学家a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 单词是最小的自由形式具有给定声音的语言意义和句法功能。

1视觉角度a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper一组有意义的字母打印或者写出来横排在一张纸上2口语角度a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sound which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment一个词被视为一个声音或声音的组合是由人类发声器官自动组合而成的3语义学家a word is a unit of meaning一个词就是一个意义单位4语法学家a word be a free form that can function in sentence一个单词是可以在句子中起到自由形式的作用简答模板or例句(1) man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words.man和fine都很简单，但它们都有发音、意义和句法功能，而且都可以单独用于句子中。

它们自然是文字。

(2) There are words which are complex such as misfortune and management. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as subject object and predictive in a sentence.有些词很复杂如“misfortune”和“management”。

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.What is a word?/ The definition of word.（名词解释）A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. The relationship between sound and meaning.（填空或简答）The relationship between sound and meaning are arbitrary and conventional. （这两个单词要会拼写）3.Why are there differences between sound and form?/ Explain the reasons that sound isdifferent from form.（简答）1）The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2）Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years3）A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4）Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.4.V ocabulary(简答)All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term ‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect,a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.5.The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words. Classification of words(P10这一小节是重中之重，大题小题都会出到，请结合课本认真复习)6.分类标准(选择填空)Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into contents words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.7.The characteristics of basic words stock (简答)1)All national character2)Stability3)Productivity4)Polysemy5)Collocability8.All national character is the most important of all features that may differentiate words ofcommon use form all others. （选择或填空）9.nonbasic words(名词解释)1)Terminology (术语) consist of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academicareas.(重点)2)Jargon（行话）refers to the specialized vocabulary by which members of particular arts,sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.（重点）3)Slang（了解）4)Argot （黑话）generally refers to the jargon of criminals.5)Dialectal words （方言）are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.6)Archaisms （古语）are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restrictedonly to specialized or limited use.7)Neologisms（新词）are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken onnew meanings.（重点）10.Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. (名词解释或填空)11.Functional words do not have notions of their own. (名词解释或填空)12.Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13.Functional words are also called empty words or form words. They include prepositions,conjunctions, auxiliaries, articles and pronouns.14.the functions of native words:Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.15.Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowedwords, native words have two other features: (选择填空或简答)1)Neutral in style2)Frequent in use 要注意native words一共有5+2=7个特点16.外来语的分类：(选择填空或简答)According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes.1)denizens2)aliens3)Translation-loans4)Semantic-loans17.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the Englishlanguage. （名词解释）18.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. （名词解释）19.课本第20页练习中的选择、判断、填空都要仔细看，可能会出到原题Chapter 2 The Development of The English Vocabulary1.英语的三个发展阶段及其时间（简答，填空，选择，三个阶段及其时间都要记住）1)Old English (450-1150)2)Middle English (1150-1500)3)Modern English (1500-up to now)2.Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English （选择，填空）3.Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000words. It was highly inflectedlanguage just like modern German. （古英语的特点，选择，填空）4.Middle English retained much fewer inflection. If we say that Old English was a fullendings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.(中期英语的特点，选择，填空)5.In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can beconcluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language. (现代英语的特点，选择，填空)6.There are three main sources of new words:1)the rapid development of modern science and technology2)social, economic and political changes3)the influence of other cultures and languages7.Modes of vocabulary development (重点，简答)1）Creation2）Semantic change3）Borrowing8.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.9.第33页课后题中的天空、判断好好看看Chapter 3 Word Formation 11.morpheme: the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.’ (名词解释)2.allomorphs: Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to theirposition in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.(名词解释)3.types of morphemes （要求会画42页的表）4.free morpheme: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to befree. (名词解释)5.We might see that free morphemes are free root.6.bound morphemes: morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. (名词解释)7.bound root: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just likea free root. It is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. (名词解释)8.what is affixes? Illustrate it with examples. 论述题,这是个重点，课本第41页整页，按上课时画的来回答9. A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed withhold total loss ofidentity. (名词解释)10.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in acompound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.11.we will use stem only because it can replace root and also refer to any form which is largerthan a root.12.第44页课后题三个都要好好看一下Unit 4 Word Formation II1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Themost productive are affixation, compounding and conversation.（选择，填空）2.Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming orderivation affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation. (名词解释)3.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. (名词解释)4.Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.(前缀的特点)5.We classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups:1)Negative prefixes:2)Reversative prefixes3)Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-4)Prefixes of degree or size5)Prefixes of orientation and attitude6)Locative prefixes7)Prefixes of time and order8)Number prefixes9)Miscellaneous prefixes（这九种及其例子都要记住，选择题给出例子要知道是属于哪种前缀）6.Suffixes is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. （名词解释）7.Suffixes has only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change thegrammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. (后缀的特点)8.记住几种后缀及其例子，给出一个后缀要选出是什么意义的后缀pounding: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words byjoining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compoundings.（名词解释）pounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.11.Characteristics of compounds/ The differences between compounds and free words (简答)1)Phonetic features2)Semantic features3)Grammatical features12.动词复合词的两种构成形式：(简答)1）Conversation2）Backformation13.Conversation is the formation of new words by conversation words of one class to anotherclass. (名词解释)14.短语动词转换成名词的两种方法：1)Words like hand-out, stand-by are all converted from phrasal verbs. Such conversation isvery common in English. The examples cited here keep their original order, hand-out from hand out, stand-by from stand by.2)Sometimes, when a phrasal verb is turned into a noun, the verb and particle should beinverted.15. Characteristics of full conversation: a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or –(e) to indicate singular or plural number.16. 熟记以下例子，给出例子，要知道是属于完全转类，一般出选择题或判断题：Common adjectives:a white; a native; finals; drinkables; a liberal; a Republican; necessaries; valuablesParticiples and others:a given; a drunk; young marrieds; newly-weds17. Characteristics of words partially conversation:Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. What’s more, they retain some of the adjective features18. 部分转类例子（同16）the poor, the rich, the young, the wounded, the poorer, the more affluent, the most corrupt19. Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. (名词解释)20. Four groups of blends(简答)1) head + tail2) head +head3) head +word4) word +tail21. examples: (选择或判断，要求同前)motel (head + tail)sitcom(head + head)medicare (head +word)22. clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. (名词解释)23. Four common types of clipping (简答)1) Front clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping24. examples(要求同前)quake, phone (front clipping)flu, fridge, (front and back clipping)pub, pop, zoo (phrase clipping)25. Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（名词解释）26. Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. (首字母缩略词)Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. (首字母拼音词)27. examples：VOA, c/o, p.c. TV (Initialisms)AIDS, N-bomb (Acronyms)28. Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.(名词解释)29. examples:donate, beggar, babysitter (back-formation)30. Words from Proper Names include names of people, names of places, names of books and trade names.31. examples:Faraday, Ohm, Volta, Quixote (names of people)China (names of places)Utopia, odyssey, Babbit (names of books)Nylon, orlon, Dacron, rayon (trdaenames)31.课本第73页练习，选择，填空和判断都要仔细看Chapter 5 Word Meaning1.Reference is the relationship between language and the world. (名词解释)2.Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objectiveworld in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. (名词解释)3.Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. (名词解释)4.注意1、2、3的区别5.Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. As weknow, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, and most words can be said to be non-motivated. That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation. Nevertheless, English does not have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. (名词解释或简答)6.Four motivations:（简答）1)Onomatopoeic motivation (拟声理据)2)Morphological motivation (形态理据)3)Semantic motivation (语义理据)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据)7.types of meaning 要会画表8.grammatical meanings refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicatesgrammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. (名词解释)9.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning. It is known thatgrammatical meaning surfaces only in use. But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.10.Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning ) is the meaning given in thedictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. (名词解释)11.概念意义的特点：constant and relatively stable12.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. (名词解释)13.four types of associative meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collective.（填空，选择或简答）14.connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning. (名词解释)15.stylistic meaning: Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features,which make them appropriate for different contexts. (名词解释)16.stylistic meaning normally classify into formal, neural and informal.17.examples:domicile (very formal, official) residence(formal)abode(poetic)home(general)diminutive (very formal) tiny (colloquial)wee(colloquial, dialectal)记住这些例子，要知道这些是说的词的”stylistic meaning”18.affective meaning: Affective meaning indicated the speaker’s attitude towards the person orthing in question. (名词解释)19.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.20.collocative meaning: this meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in itscollocation.21.课本第92页课后题选择，填空，判断Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field1.论述题(按课堂上讲答)Please illustrate two approaches to polysemy with examples.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.2.The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.3.Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both insound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. (名词解释)4.Types of Homonyms (简答)1）Perfect homonyms2）Homographs3）Homophones5.Perfect homonyms are identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. （名词解释）6.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. （名词解释）7.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. （名词解释）8.Homophones constitute the largest number and the most common. (填空或选择)9.Origins of Homonyms (简答)1）Change in sound and spelling2）Borrowing3）Shortening10.Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants (难点，这个课本上整段都要仔细看，不一定会出什么形式的题)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. 1) The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. 2) One important criterion is to see their etymology. 3) The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness. 4) In dictionaries, a polysemant have meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries. 11.Synonyms: one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or verynearly the same essential meaning. In other words, synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as I part of speech. (名词解释)12.Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relativesynonyms.13.Absolute synonyms: Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words shichare identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meaning.14.Discrimination of synonyms:（论述或简答，注意如果出简答题，则不用举例子，直接答每一段的前一句话就行，但如果是论述，以下都答）The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.1)Difference in denotation. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning. For example,timid and timorous are synonymous, but the former isapplied to both the state of mind in which a person may happen to be at the moment,and to the habitual disposition, and the latter only to the disposition. Therefore,timid has a wider range of meaning than timorous.2)Difference in connotation. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecoloring of words. For example, among the group of policeman, constable, bobbyand cop. Policeman and constable are stylistically neutral, yet the former is usedboth in British English and American English while the latter is only British. B obbyis colloquial, used only in British English and cop is slangy.3)Difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but different inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into differentsentence patterns. For example, answer and let are synonyms, but we allow sb to dosth and let sb do sth.15.Antonymy （同上题，简答或论述,另外这里面的例子要记住，选择填空或判断中出现要知道属于哪一类反义词）Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. There are a variety of ‘oppositeness’. They can be classified into three major groups.1)Contradictory terms. These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. Theyare so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit nopossibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In otherwords, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be. For example, an animal iseither dead or alive, and there exists no such a case where the animal is both deadand alive. The same is applicable to present/absent, male/female, boy/girl, true/false,same/different and so on.2)Contrary terms. Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale runningbetween two poles or extremes. Antonyms such as rich/poor, old/young, big/smallrepresent two points at both ends of the pole. The two opposites are gradable andone exists in comparison with the other. (other examples: old/young, open/close,rich/poor, hot/cold, beautiful /ugly这几个答大题是不用写，小题时认识就行)3)Relative terms. This third type consist of relational opposites such as parent/child,husband/wife, predecessor/successor, employer/employee, sell/buy, give/recive. 16.Hyponymy 这部分题量不多，记住其中的例子，可能会出选择、填空或判断，比如flower是rose 的什么词？答案：superordiante17.Semantic field这一部分也是出小题，比如给出一堆蔬菜名称，问这是什么语义场，答案a field of vegetable. 或者其他的语义场，fruit, color, relatives and so on.仔细看一下课本上的例子18.课本123页课后题，选择，填空，判断Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning1.Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, andtransfer. Of these, extension and narrowing by far the most common.2.Extension is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has nowbecome generalized. （名词解释）3.Narrowing is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specializedsense. (名词解释)4.examples: meat, wife, girl （例子要求同前）5.Elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to position ofimportance. (名词解释)6.Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposition of semantic elevation. It is processwhereby of good origins fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.(名词解释)7.examples: silly, knave, criticize8.Transfer: words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean somethingelse have experienced the process of semantic transfer.(名词解释)9.causes of changes (简答)1）Extra-linguistic factorsa.historical reasonb.class reasonc.psychological reason2) Linguistic factorsa. shortening of phrasesb. borrowingc. analogyChapter 8 Meaning and Context1.linguistic context : Context is used in different sense. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words,clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context, which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. (名词解释)2.extra-linguistic context: Context is used in different sense in a broad sense, it includes thephysical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (名词解释)3.Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.4.Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. Themeaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words.(名词解释)5.Grammatical context: In some case, the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structurein which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. (名词解释)6.The role of context: (简答)1)elimination of ambiguity2)indication of referents3)provision of clues for inferring word meaning7.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure.8.课后习题Chapter 9 English Idioms1. Characteristics of idioms(简答)1)semantic unity2)structural stability2. Please explain the structural stability of idioms(简答)1) The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.2) The word order cannot be inverted or changed.3) The constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.3. According to grammatical functions we classify idioms into five groups.4. Idioms can be classified into 5 groups: (简答)1) Idioms nominal in nature2) Idioms adjectival in nature3) Idioms verbal in nature4) Idioms adverbial in nature5) Sentence idioms5. Idioms nominal in nature: Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences. （名词解释）6. Idioms verbal in nature can be divided into phrasal verbs and verb phrases.7. Phrasal verbs are idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle. (名词解释)8. As far as sentence types are concerned, sentence idioms embrace declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences.9. Idioms are generally felt to be informal.10. Apart from the stylistic features, idioms manifest apparent rhetorical colouring in such respects as of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech. （填空或简答）11. Phonetic manipulation: (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme12. 应用举例：eat like a horse -----simileBlack sheep, a dark horse------metaphor13. Metonymy: This refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. (名词解释)14. 课本179页练习，选择，填空，判断，简答。

2012级（1）班Chaper1 The Basic Concepts Of Words and VocabularyI.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1. ______is the most important of all characteristics of the basic word stock.A.Productivity Stability C.Collocability D.All national character2. Nonbasic vocabulary includes all of the following except_______ .A.slangB.Anglo-Saxon wordsC.argotsD.neologisms3. According to the origins of the words, English words can be classified into _______ .A.content words and functional wordsB.native words and borrowed wordsC.basic words and dialectal wordsD.loan words and dialectal words4. Borrowings can be divided into________.A.liens, semantic loans, translationloans, denizensB.empty words, notional words, form words, content wordsC.blends, portmanteau words, acronyms, initializesD.derivatives, compounds, converted words and clipped words5. Apart from the characteristics of basic vocabulary, native words have two other features, namely_________.A.Productivity and stabilityB.neutrality in style and high frequency in useC.collectability and polysemyD.formality and arbitrariness6．The word beaver(meaning“girl”)is_______ .A.a dialectal wordB.argotC.an archaismD.slang7. AIDS as a nonbasic word is_______ .A.jargonB.an archaismC.aneologismD.slang8.Form words include the following word classes except_______ .A.conjunctionsB.auxiliariesC.prepositionsD.adjectives9. Vocabulary can refer to the following except_______ .A.the total number of the words in alanguageB.all the words used in a particular historical periodC.all the words of a given dialectD.most words a person knows10.Kimono is a loan word from_______ .A.GermanB.FrenchC.SpanishD.Japanese11. _______ form the mainstream of the basic word stock.A.Anglo-Saxon wordsB. FrenchwordsC.Danish wordstin words12.Black humor is_______ .A.a translation loanB.a semantic loanC.a denizenD.an alien13.Pronouns and numerals are semantically_______ and have limited_______ .A.polysemous;use and stabilityB.monosemous;collocability and stabilityC.polysemous;use and productivityD.monosemous;productivity andcollectability14.Indigestion is_______ .A.jargonB.slangC.terminologyD.an archaism15.By_______ ,words fall into functional words and content words.e frequencyB.notionC.originD.word formation16. The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always_______ .A.motivatedB.arbitraryC.logicalD.unconventional17. _______ are loan words that have become assimilated in English.A.DenizensB.Semantic loansC.Translation loansD.Aliens18.Smoky, which means “police”,is a(n) _______ word.A.slangB.argotC.loanD.jargon19. Wherein which means “in what”is a(n)word. _______A.slangB.archaicC.functionalD.dialectal20.The difference between sound and form due to all the following except _______.A.more phonemes than lettersB. stabilization of spelling by printingC.change of spelling by early scribesD.development of pronunciationplete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book1. Lexicology is a branch of linguisticsstudying the origins and_______ of words .2. A word is a minimal free form of language that has a given sound, meaning and_______ function.3. In spite of the differences between sound and form,at least_______ percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns4.All the words in language make up its_______ .5.The_______ word stock is the foundations of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and form the common core of the language.6.By_______ ,begin is a native word.7. _______ vocabulary include cant,jargon and argot.8. There is no_______ relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.9. _______ are the basic units of sentences.10. Early borrowings are mostly_______ whereas later loan words remain foreign in sound and spelling.III.Decide whether the following statements are true or false( )1.A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view. ( )2.Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be intrinsically related. ( )3.The introduction of printing press resulted in a lot more differences between sound and form.( )4.The words a person can use in speaking and writing form his active vocabulary.( )5.The principles by which to classify words are usage, notion and origin. ( )6.Native words are more popular than foreign words.( )7.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more. ( )8.audl(meaning “old”)is an instance of archaism.( )9.Kowtow is a loan word known as an alien.( )10.Long time no see is a case of translation loan.IV.Give a term for each of the following definitions.1.Sub-standard words often used on informal occasions.( )2.Specialized vocabulary common in certain professions.( )3.Words used by sub-culturegroups, particularly by understood society.( )4.Words that have clear notions.( )5.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin.( )6.Words borrowed by way of translation. ( )7.Old words with new meanings.( )8.Words which have become assimilated.( )9.Native forms whose meanings are borrowed.( )10.Words essential to native speakers’ daily communication.( )V.Answer the following questions .Your answers should be clear and short.1.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?2.Why are there so many differences between sound and form?3.What are the criteria for classification of words?4.What are the characteristics of the basic word and word stock?[Answers]I.1.D 2.B 3.B 4.A 5.B 6.D 7.C 8.D 9.D 10.D 11.A 12.A 13.D 14.C15.B 16.B 17.A 18.A 19.B 20.DII.1.meanings 2.syntaitic 3.80(eighty) 4.vocabulary 5.basic 6.origin 7.Nonbaic 8.logical 9.Words 10assimilatedII I.1.T 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.TIV.1.slang 2.jargon3.argot 4.content words 5.native words 6.translation loans 7.neologisms 8.denizens 9.semantic loan 10.basic word stockV.1.The relationship is almost always arbitrary and conventional ana there is nological connection between sound and meaning.2.There are four major reasons.(1)The internal reason:the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans,which have more phonemes than letters,so there is nota separate letter to represent each sound.(2)Pronunciation has changed morerapidly than spelling.(3)The spelling forms were changed by the early scribes to make theeir writing more recognizable.(4)Borrowing.3.There are mainly there criteria for classification.Words may fall into:the basicword stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency;content words and functional words by notion;native words and borrowed words by prigin.4.The basic word stock has five charecteristic:(1)all nationalcharacter,(2)stability,(3)productivi-ty,(4)polysemy,(5)productivity.Chapter2 The Development Of the English VocabularyI.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.It is assumed that the world has 3000 languages, which can be grouped intoroughly_______ language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.A.200B.300C.400D.5002. The following languages all belong to the Eastern set except_______ .A.Balto-SlavicB.Indo-IranianC.ArmenianD.Italic3. In the Eastern set,Armenian and_______ are the sole modern languages in the two respective families.A.AlbanianB.RussianC.SloveniaD.Lithuanian4.Which language does not belong to the Italic?A.Portuguese.B.SpanishC.WelshD.French5.The early inhabitants of the British Isles spoke_______ .A.EnglishB.CelticC.ScandinavianD.Hellenic6.The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later called_______ (the land of Angles).A.GermanB.GreeceC.EnglandD.American7.Old English has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words,which is entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from_______ and Scandinavian.tinB.GreekC.CelticD.French8.The influx of French words into English did not occur until after_______ .A.1200B.1300C.1400D.15009.In the Middle English period,the three main dialects of the land were Northern, _______ and Midland.A.EasternB.WesternC.SouthernD.Oriental10. _______ is the chief ancestor of Modern English,not Southern.A.EasternB.WesternC.SouthernD.Oriental11.The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of_______ words into English.tinB.GreekC.DanishD.French12.Middle is an_______ dialect,as its name implies, and intelligible to Northerner and Southerners alike.A.middleB.intermediateC.interchangeableD.internal13.The number of_______ words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society in the Middle English period.A.FrenchB.GermantinD.Russian14.Before English regained social status in Middle English period,those imposer spoke French;those who were literate read and wrote _______ ;those who could educate their children taught them in _______ ;and any young man who sought to earn his living as a scribe learned_______ or_______ .tin;French;Latin;FrenchB.French;French;French;EnglishC.French;French;Latin;FrenchD.Greek;French;Greek;French15.In the early period of modern English,Europe saw a new upsurge in learning ancient Greek and Roman classic,which is known in history as the_______ .A.RenewalB.RevivalC.ReboundD.Renaissance16.Since the beginning of the 20th century, particularly after World War II,although borrowing remains channel of English vocabulary expansion,more words are createdby_______ .A.analogyB.word-formationC.transferD.conversion17.The Anglo-Saxon in the Old English period was almost a “_______ ”language,which created new words from its own compound elements with few foreign words.A.uniqueB.fashionC.pureD.old18.As one scholar notes,old English w as characterized by “_______ endings”,Middle English by “leveled endings”,and Modern English by “_______ endings”.A.full ;lostB.lost;fullC.full;pureD.pure;lost19.Old English which was a_______ language has evolved to the present_______ language.A.analytic;syntheticB.synthetic;analyticC.agglutinative;analyticD.isolating;synthetic20.Of all the foreign languages from which we have borrowed words,Latin ,Greek,French,and_______ stand out as the major contributors.A.ItalianB.GermanC.DutchD.Scandinavian21.In the Pre-Anglo-Saxon period,the words borrowed naturally from reflected the new experience in_______ and _______ .A.war;economyB.economy;agricultureC.war;shrineD.agriculture22.In the Old English period,borrowings from Latin came in because of the introduction of Christianity,such as, _______ and _______ .A.cook;candleB.shrine;sackC.candle;shrineD.mass;circle23.The_______ centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowingsunder the influence of Renaissance.A.12th and 13thB.13th and 14thC.14th and15thD.15th and 16th24.Some late borrowings from Latin still retain their Latin forms.which of the following was borrowed in the Modern English period?A.Frustrate B . Focus C.Logic D.Trade25.Which of the following does not come from Greek?A.PianoB.SynonymC.PhilosophyD.Lexicology26.Typhoon is from_______ and tatami is from_______ .A.Chinese;AfricanB.Chinese;JapaneseC.Arabic;TurkishD.Malay;Japanese27.Modern English vocabulary develops through_______ .A.terminology,analogyand borrowingB.creation,semantic and borrowingC.creation,archaisms,and semantic changeD.semantic change,denizens and argot28.Which of the following contemporary English vocabulary is from the rapid growth of science and technology?A.FalloutB.Pant suitC.Black beltD.Mao jackets29.The Scandinavian languages:Norwegian,Swedish,Danish,and Icelandic,constitute the_______ branch of the Germanic group.A.easternB.westernC.northernD.southern30.Reviving archaic or_______ words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though insignificant.A.obsoleteB.oldedD.ancientII．Decide whether the following statements are true or false.( )1.English is more closed related to German than French.( )2.Scandinavian languages refer to Icelandic,Norwegian,Danish,and Swedish ( )3.Old English was a highly infected language.( )4.In early Middle English period,English,Latin,and Celtic existed side by side.( )5.The introduction of printing into England marked the beginning of Modern English period.( )6.Modern English is considered to be an analytic language.( )7.The four major foreign contributors to English vocabulary in earlier times are Latin,French,Scandinavian and Italian.( )8.In modern times,borrowing brings less than percent of modern English vocabulary.( )9.The three major factors that promote the growth of modern English vocabulary are advances in science and technology,influence of foreign cultures and languages. ( )10.The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is creation of new words by means of word-formation.( )11.Old English vocabulary was in essence Germanic with a small quantity of words borrowed from Latin and Scandinavian.( )12.Middle English absorbed a tremendous number of foreign words but with little change in word endings.III.Define the following terms.1.the Indo-European Language Family2.Old English3.foreign elements4.creation5.semantic changeIV.Answer following questions.Your answers should be clear and short1.Why did Middle become the chief ancestor of Modern English?2.What are the characteristics of Modern English?3.What are the reasons for the growth of contemporary English vocabulary?4.What are the general characteristics of the world-wide appeal of English?V.Analyze and comment on the following.1.Soft drinks and minerals sold here.Tell what“soft drink” and “mineral” mean respectively and explain why they take on those meanings in modern American English.2.“Moon”was originally written as “moan”and the pronuncia tions of the twowords are different,too .Explain the reasons for the change in spelling and pronunciation.AnswersI.1.B2.D3.A4.C5.B6.C7.A8.B9.C 10.D 11.D 12.B 13.A 14.C 15.D 16.B 17.C 18.A 19.B 20.D 21.D 22.C 23.C 24.B25.A26.B 27.B 28.A 29.C 30.AII.1.T2.T3.T4.T5.T6.T7.F8.T9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FIII.1.The Indo-European Language Family is made up of most languages of Europe,theNear East,and India.According to the geographical distribution,these languages fall into ten principal groups,belonging to two sets,namely an Eastern set anda Western set.The Eastern set consistsof:Balto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,AmericanandAlbanian; the Western set comprises:Celtic,Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite and Tocharian.2.Old English grew out of the Anglo-Saxon,which has a vocabulary of about 50000to 60000 words.The vocabulary is almost monogamous and entirely Geomantic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.3.English vocabulary owes most of its words to foreign languages.The words borrowedfrom other languages are known as foreign elements in the English vocabulary.4.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existingmaterials,namely roots,affixes and other elements.In modern times,this is the most important way of vocabularyexpansion.5.Semantic change refers to an old form whichtakes on a new meaning to meet thenew need.This does not increase the number of word forms but create many new usage of the existing words.IV.1. There are several reasons:(1)The midland included London,which was then the capital of England,naturally the political,economical and cultural center.(2)Two great writers Wycliffe and Chaucer employed the Midland dialect in their writings.(3)Midland is an intermediate dialect,as its name implies,and intelligible to Northerners and Southerners alike,whereas these speakers could not often understand each other using their own dialects respectively.(4)When Caxton introduced the printing press in 1477, the printerspatronized the Midland dialect, and any English man who wanted to be published had to write in that dialect.2. Modern English has a huge vocabulary of different elements. Most of the words have actually been borrowed from other languages. Word endings are mostly lost with just a few exceptions.3. Generally there are three main sources of new words:the rapid development of modern science and technology;social,economic and political changes;the influenceof other cultures and languages.4. The more obvious and striking features are summed up as follows:(1)receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity;(2)simplicity of inflection(3)relatively fixed word-order.V.1.(1) “soft drink” means “carbonated drinks”and “mineral” means “mineralwater” in present American English.(2)“soft drink” means “non-alcoholic beverage” and “mineral” means “ore”in British English, but these words no longer have such meanings in present British English.(3) American English ha s revived the old meaning of “soft drink” and that of“mineral”. This is because it is easy to understand and remember.2. (1) “Mona” is an early borrowed word but the original form did not conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.(2) In later development, the word became well assimilated into English languages.(3) At present “mona”is written as “moon”, conforming to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.。

英语词汇学试题复习参考（分章节）英语词汇学试题Introduction and Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarilythrough the use of _________construct.A. wordB. formC. morphemeD. rootis traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.A. SemanticsB. LinguisticsC. EtymologyD. StylisticsEnglish is derived from the language of early ______ tribes.A. GreekB. RomanC. ItalianD. Germanic4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.A. linguisticB. grammaticalC. arbitraryD. semanticis the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effectsA. situationB. contextC. timeD. placeshares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference.A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.A. technicalB. artisticC. differentD. academic8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves.A. SlangB. JargonC. Dialectal wordsD. Argot9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.A. JargonB. ArgotC. Dialectal wordsD. Slang10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it.A. workersB. criminalsC. any personD. policemanare words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.A. ArgotB. SlangC. JargonD. Dialectal words12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.A. commonB. littleC. slightD. great13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings.A. newB. oldC. badD. good14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.A. contentB. notionalC. emptyD. newII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and _____of words.lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______.18.English lexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology,______,etymology, stylistics, ________.19.There are generally two approaches to the study of words , namely synchronic and _______./doc/152063694.html,nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 2) content words and functional words 3) native words and borrowed words 4)characteristics of the basic word stock.A B21 . Stability ( ) A. E-mail22. Collocbility( ) B. aught23. Jargon( ) C. por24. Argot ( ) D. uponwords( ) E. hypo26. Neologisms ( ) F. at heart27. Aliens ( ) G. man28. Semantic-loans( ) H. dip29. Archaisms ( ) I. fresh30. Empty words ( ) J. emirIV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) characteristics of the basic word stock 2) types of nonbasic vocabulary.31. dog cheap ( ) 32 a change of heart ( )33. can-opener ( ) ( )35. bottom line ( ) ( )37. auld ( ) 38. futurology ( )( ) 40. take ( )V. Define the following terms.41. word 42. Denizens 43. Aliens 44. Translation-loans 45. Semantic-loans VI. Answer the following Questionsthe relationship between sound and meaning, sound and form with examples.47. What are the main characteristics of the basic word-stock Illustrate your points with examples.48. Give the types of nonbasic vocabulary with examples.VII. Analyze and comment on the following.49. Classify the following words and point out the types of words according to notion.earth, cloud, run, walk, on, of, upon, be, frequently , the, five, but, a , never.50. Group the following borrowed words into Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.Dream, pioneer, kowtow, bazaar, lama, master-piece, port, shirtKey to Exercises:I. 1. historical, usages 18. semantics, . vocabularyII.21. G 22. F23. E24. H25. C26. A27. the basic word stock; productivity32. the basic word stock; collocabilitybasic word stock; argotword stock; slang35. nonbasic word stock; jargon36. nonbasic word stock ;terminologyword stock; dialectal words38. nonbasic word stock ,neologisms39. nonbasic word stock; archaisms40. the basic word stock; polysemyV-----VI. (see the course book)VII. 49. Content words: earth, clould, run, walk, frequently, never, fiveFunctional words: on, of, upon, be, the, but, a.50. Denizens: port, shirt,Aliens: bazaar, kowtowTranslation-loans: lama, masterpieceSemantic-loans:dream, pioneerChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary and Chapter 3 Word Formation I(练习2)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternativeanswers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000( some put it 5,000)languages, whichcan be grouped into the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.A. 500B. 4000C. 300D. 20002.The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly ______language.A. inflectedB. derivedC. developedD. analyzed3.After the _________, the Germanic tribes called Angles ,Saxons, and Jutes came in greatnumbers.A. GreeksB. IndiansC. RomansD. French4.The introduction of ________had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. BuddhismD. Islamism5.In the 9th century the land was invaded again byNorwegian and Danish Vikings. With theinvaders, many ________words came into the English language.A. GreekB. RomanC. CelticD. Scandinavian6.It is estimated that at least ______ words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modernEnglish.A. 500B. 800C. 1000 .D. 9007.The Normans invaded England from France in 1066. The Norman Conquest started a continualflow of ______ words into English.A. FrenchB. GreekC. RomanD. Latin8.By the end of the _______century , English gradually came back into the schools, the lawcourts, and government and regained social status.A. 12thB. 13thC. 14th9.As a result , Celtic made only a ________contribution to the English vocabulary.A. smallB. bigC. greatD. smaller10. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and _______.A. GreekB. RomanC. IndianD. Russian11.In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which arederived from the dead language.A. SanskritB. LatinC. RomanD. Greek12.Greek is the modern language derived from _______.A. LatinB. HellenicC. Indian D . Germanic13.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian allbelong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______.A. SanskritB. LatinC. CelticD. Anglo-Saxon14.The ________family consists of the four Northern EuropeanLanguages: Norwegian, Icelandic,Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.A. GermanicB. Indo-EuropeanC. AlbanianD. Hellenic15.By the end of the _______century , virtually all of the people who held political or socialpower and many of those in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin.A. 10th D. 13thII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as _______.17.. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings , Middle English was one of______.18.It can be concluded that English has evoked from a synthetic language (Old English) tothe present _____ language.19.The surviving languages accordingly fall into eight principal groups , which can be groupedinto an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian ,Armenian and Albanian; a Western set :Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, _______.20.It is necessary to subdivide Modern English into Early (1500-1700)and _____ Modern English. III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) origin of the words 2)history off English development 3) language family.A B21. Celtic ( )22. religious ( )( ) C. Persian24. French ( )25. Old English ( ) E. abbot( ) F. skirtEnglish ( ) G. sunu28. Modern English ( ) H. lernen29. Germanic family ( ) I. freight( ) J. NorwegianIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify types of morphemes underlined.31. earth ( ) ( )33. predictor ( ) 34. radios ( )35. prewar ( ) 36. happiest ( )37. antecedent ( ) 38. northward ( )38. sun ( ) 40. diction ( )V. Define the following terms.41. free morphemes 42. bound morphemes 43. root 44. stemVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.46. Describe the characteristics of Old English .47. Describe the characteristics of Middle English.48. Describe the characteristics of Modern English.VII. Answer the following questions with examples.49. What are the three main sources of new words50. How does the modern English vocabulary developKey to exercises:I.II. English 17. Leveled endings 18. analytic 19. Germanic (1700-up to the present )III.21. D 22. E 23. F 24. A 25. G 26. I 27. H 28. B 29. J 30. CIV.31. free morpheme/ free root 32. bound root 33. suffix 34. inflectional affix35. prefix 36. Inflectional affix 37. prefix 38. suffix 39. free morpheme/free rootroot( See the course book )VII. 49. The three main sources of new words are :(1)The rapid development of modern science and technology ,. astrobiology, greenrevolution ;(2)Social , economic and political changes; . Watergate, soy milk;(3)The influence of other cultures and language; . felafel, Nehru Jackets.50. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: (1) creation, . consideration, carefulness; (2) semantic change, . Polysemy, homonymy ; (3) borrowing ;. tofu, gongful. Chapter 3 The Development of the English Vocabulary and Chapter 4 Word Formation II（练习3）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______.A.reversative prefixesB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locativeprefixes2.The prefixes contained in the following words are called ______: pseudo-friend, mal practice,mis trust.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes3.The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes4.The prefixes in words extra-strong, overweight and arch bishop are _____ .A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes5.The prefixes in words bi lingual ,uni form and hemis phere are ________.A. number prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. pejorative prefixesD. locativeprefixesare contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.A.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeB. Prefixes of time and orderC. Locative prefixesD. Prefixes of degree or size7. Rugby ,afghan and champagne are words coming from ________./doc/152063694.html,s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames8. Omega,Xerox and orlon are words from _________./doc/152063694.html,s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames, fore tell and post-election contain________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. locative prefixes10.Mackintosh, bloomers and cherub are from _______A. names of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames11.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes12.The prefixes in words anti-government , pro student andcontra flow are _____-.A.prefixes of degree or sizeB. prefixes of orientation and attitudeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes13.Utopia ,odyssey and Babbit are words from ________./doc/152063694.html,s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames14.The suffixes in words clockwise, homewards are ______.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes15.The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixesII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem. This process is also known as_____., also called ________, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems . Words formed in this way are called _________.18. __________ is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.19. _________ is the formation of new words by combiningparts of two words or a word plusa part of another word . Words formed in this way are called blends or _____words.20 A common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called _______.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to types of suffixation.A B21. Concrete denominal noun suffixes ( ) A. priceless22. Abstract denominal noun suffixes ( ) B. downward23. Deverbal noun suffixes(denoting people.) ( ) C. engineer24. Deverbal nouns suffixes( denoting action, etc) （）D. darken25. De-adjective noun suffixes （）Ｅviolinist26. Noun and adjective suffixes ( )27. Denominal adjective suffixes ( ) G. arguable28. Deverbal adjective suffixes ( )29. Adverb suffixes ( ) I. adulthood30. Verb suffixes ( ) J. survivalIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of clipping 2) types of acronymy and write the full terms.( ) 32. stereo ( ) 33. flu ( ) 34. pub ( ) 35. c/o ( )36. V-day ( ) 37. TB ( ) 38. disco ( ) ( ) 40. perm ( )V.Define the following terms .41. acronymy 42. back-formation 43. initialisms 44. prefixation 45.suffixationVI. Answer the following questions with examples.46. What are the characteristics of compounds47. What are the main types of blendings48. What are the main types of compoundsVII. Analyze and comment on the following:49. Use the following examples to explain the types of back-formation.(1) donate ----donation emote----emotion(2) loaf—loafer beg------beggar(3) eavesdrop---eavesdropping babysit---babysitter(4) drowse—drowsy laze---lazy50. Read the following sentence and identify the types of conversion of the italicized words.(1) I’m very grateful for your help. (2) The rich must help the poor.(3)His argument contains too many ifs and buts. (4) They are better housed and clothed.(5) The photograph yellowed with age. (6) We downed a few beers.Key to exercises :1. B2. C3. A4. B5. AII. 16. derivation , compounds 18. Conversion 19. Blending(pormanteau)III. 22. I 23. H 24. J. Front clipping, earthquake32. Back clipping, stereophonicand back clipping, influenzaclipping, public house35. Initialisms, care of36. Acronyms, Victory Day37. Initialisms, tuberculosis38. Back clipping, discotheque39. Front clipping, helicopter40. Phrase clipping, permanent wavesV-VI. (See the course book). There are mainly four types of back-formation.(1)From abstract nouns (2) From human nouns (3) From compound nouns and others(4) From adjectives50. (1)Verb to noun (2) Adjective to noun (3) Miscellaneous conversion to noun(4 ) Noun to verb (5) Adjective (6) Miscellaneous conversion to verbChapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2._______is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the humanmind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships _______the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be ________.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. relatedis a(n) _______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD. etymologically6.Hopeless is a ______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically7.In the sentence ‘ He is fond of pen ’ , pen is a ______ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a _______motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically9.Functional words possess strong _____ whereas content words have both meanings, and lexicalmeaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaningunstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning meaning indicates the speaker’s _______towards the person or thing in question.A. feeling .B. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _________ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that _______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because ina sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaningthe same language, the same concept can be expressed in ______.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different wordsis the relationship between language and the ______.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific countryII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their ______/doc/152063694.html,pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings of many are the sum totalof the morphemes combined.18. _______ refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.19. The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. In other words the historyof the word explains the meaning of the word.20. Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and _________.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of motivation 2) types of meaning.A B21. Onomotopooeic motivation ( ) A. tremble with fear22. Collocative meaning ( ) B. skinny23. Morphological motivation ( ) C. slender24. Connotative meaning ( ) D. hiss25. Semantic motivation ( ) E. laconic26. Stylistic meaning ( ) F. sun (a heavenly body)27. Etymological motivation ( )28. Pejorative meaning ( ) H. home29. Conceptual meaning ( ) I. horse and plug30. Appreciative meaning ( ) J. pen and awordthe following words or expressions and identify 1)types of motivation 2) types of meaning.31. neigh ( ) 32. the mouth of the river ( )33. reading-lamp ( ) 34. tantalus ( )35. warm home ( ) 36. the cops ( )37. dear me ( ) 38. pigheaded ( )39. handsome boy ( ) 40. diligence ( )III.Define the following terms .41. motivation 42. grammatical meanings 43. conceptual meaning 44. associative meaning 45. affective meaning IV.Answer the following questions . Your answers should be clear and short.46. What is reference 47. What is concept 48. What is senseV.Analyze and comment on the following.49. Study the following words and explain to which type of motivation they belong.50. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.Key to exercises:I. 1. CII.16. meanings motivation meaningIII.21. DIV.31. Onomatopoeic motivation 32. Semantic motivation33. Morphological motivation 34. Etymological motivation35. Connotative meaning meaning37. Affective meaning 38. pejorative39. collocative meaning 40. appreciativeV-VI. See the course book.VI.49. (1) Roar and buzz belong to onomatopoeic motivation.(2)Miniskirt and hopeless belong to morphological motivation.(3) The leg of a table and the neck of a bottle belong to semantic motivation.(4) Titanic and panic belong to etymological motivation.50. Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, is often associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, many words have stylisticfeatures, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc.,all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thingin question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones;notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation.In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field (练习5)of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to ______.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages2.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and developmentof the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional3._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and thesecondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection4. _________ is the semantic process in which the meaning ofa word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenationimportant criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage6. ________refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms7. The sense relation between the two words tulip and floweris _______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy8. _________ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, . bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms9. The antonyms: male and female are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms10.The antonyms big and small are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms11.The antonyms husband and wife are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms/doc/152063694.html,position and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms13.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are often employedin a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms14.From the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it was endowed with onlyone meaning . The first meaning is called ______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning15.Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called_______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their____, the second principal consideration is ________.17.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one ______whereas homonyms。

Basic Concepts of Words and VocabularyWhat is lexicology?☐Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.What Is a Word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.词是具有一定的声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位。

What is vocabulary?➢The total number of the words in a language.➢All the words used in a particular historical period.➢All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.Vocabulary Size⏹Speaking vocabulary----active vocabulary⏹writing vocabulary------active vocabulary⏹reading vocabulary------passive vocabulary⏹guess vocabulary--------passive vocabulary⏹Language can be defined as “an arbitrary vocal system used for human communication”. By system we mean that the elements in a language are arranged according to certain rules, but not at random. Elements at a lower level are combined according to certain rules to form elements at a higher level.⏹Specially, Language presents itself as a hierarchy in different aspects. As is shown in the following hierarchical rank scale, language rises form morpheme at the bottom up to the sentence at the top in terms of lexicography. (词典编纂)2.1 Morpheme⏹1.What is a morpheme(词素)?The morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.⏹What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes:⏹One morpheme---nation⏹Two morphemes---nation-al⏹Three morphemes---nation-al-ize⏹Four morphemes---de-nation-al-ize（使…非国有化）⏹More than four morphemes---de-nation-al-iz-ation⏹So we can define morpheme in this way:the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression andcontent, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. ■A morpheme is a two-facet language unit in that it possesses both sound and meaning.A morpheme vs. A wordMorphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words. They can not be used independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor are morphemes divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.2. Allomorph (形位变体，词[语]素变体）⏹Sometimes a morpheme may have two or more different morphological forms or phonetic forms, depending on the context in which it occurs.⏹For example, the prefix sub can be realized as sub as in subway, sup as in support and suppress, suc as in succeed, and sus as in sustain. That is, when sub occurs before a root beginning with the sound /p/ it is realized as sup and when it is added a root with a beginning sound /k/ and a beginning letter c it is realized as suc.⏹These different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme.Allomorphs（词素变体）:⏹An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For example☐ion/-tion/-sion/-ation are the positional variants of the same suffix.☐Verbs ending with the sound /t/usually take –ion (as in invent, invention);☐verds ending with consonants other than /t/ take –tion (as in describe, description);☐verbs ending in –ify and –ize take –ation(as in justify, justification; modernize, modernization);☐verbs ending in –d, -de, or –mit, take –sion (as in expansion, decision, omission); there are exceptions: attend, attention; convert, conversion, etc.Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the verb to which they will be added.e.g.im- before p,b, or m, imperfect, imbalance, immobile;ir- before r, irresponsible, irregular;il- before l, illegal, illogical;in- before all other consonants and vowels, inflexible, inexcusable; im-,ir-, and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme, in-.2.2 Classification of Morpheme1.Free morphemes and bound morphemesFree morphemes(自由词素）：Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, in the traditional sense.e.g. man, faith, read, write, redBound morphemes(粘附词素): morphemes that can not occur as separate words. It can not stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning or grammatical meaning.e .g. -ly , re- , -ed, -sBound morpheme can change the meaning or word class of a word, e.g. fit and unfit, broad and braoden;It can also have grammatical function, e.g. book and books.2. Root and affix⏹Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).⏹a. Free root: In English many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black ( i.e. they can stand alone as words).⏹⏹ A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple words. Free roots, just like simple words, belong to the basic word-stock, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock . Free roots provide the English language with basis for the formation of new words.b. Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes.A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.Notice what the following words have in common:e.g. -tain contain, detain retain-viv/vit revive vitamin vital vivacious vivid例词基本第一种第二种意义单位符号(词) 符号（词根）⏹人man anthro⏹花flower anth(o)⏹时time chron⏹色colour chrom⏹水water hydr(o)⏹石stone lite(o)⏹牙tooth dent(i)⏹头head cephal⏹脚foot ped⏹音sound phon⏹日sun sol⏹月moon lun⏹星star astro(er)⏹世界world cosm(o)⏹生命life bi(o)⏹中心center center☐Affixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.⏹Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes): Affix attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The inflectional affix does not form a new word with a new lexical meaning when it is added toanother word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. It just adds some grammatical information to the word. It serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.Plural markers: -s, -es, -en, feet, sheepGenitive case: -’sVerbal endings: -ing, -(e)d, irregular verbs,Comparative and superlative degrees: -er, -estThe number of inflectional affixes are small and fixed; no new ones have bee added since 1500.Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes): They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they "derive" a new word. If a morpheme can change the meaning or the word class, or both the meaning and word class of a word, it is a derivational morpheme.e.g. re+write,mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er.⏹Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning, for instance: -ism means “doctrine or point of view” as in socialism.⏹Quite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning.⏹e.g. de- 1. to undo what has been done, to reverse the action ofdecentralize, decode⏹ 2. to remove: to debone⏹ 3. to reduce: devalue⏹ 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from sth. else: a deverbal nounDerivational affixes do not only have independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning.e.g. prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo--- pejorativesuffix: -ling -- derogatory : hireling, weakling-ish, -- "of the nature of," -- derogatory: bookish uppish. derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different words-classes:e.g. -able -- verbs -- washable-- nouns -- marriageable;The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes. New ones are coined from time to time.e.g. Russian: sputnik (1957),-nik beatnik, peacenik computernikDerivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in supermarket) those after are called suffixes ( as in friendship).⏹Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:⏹(1) Their linguistic origin:⏹OE affixes: un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and -er. ⏹Foreign affixes: ab-(L), bi- (L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo(GK), poly(GK), mal-(F),-able(F), -ism(GK), -ic(GK).⏹(2) Their productivity:⏹Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words. Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.⏹e.g. for- forgets, forgive, forbid-with withdraw, withhold, withstandRoot, stem, baseAs defined by Bauer:" A root (词根) is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-from that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme." (Bauer 1983:20)e.g. un touch able sgreenhouse-- green houseBauer defines "stem" as follows:" A stem （词干）is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. ... Only Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the part of the word-form which remains when all the inflectional affixes have been removed,“ A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.e.g. friends, friendships, greenhousesA base （词基）is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as "a form to which a rule of word formation is applied."⏹From the definitions of the three terms, we can see that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base is different from the root in that the former is (sometimes) derivationally analyzable while the later is derivationally unanalyzable. A base is also different from a stem in that both derivational and inflectional affixes can be attached to a base but only inflectional affixes can be attached to a stem.⏹e.g. disagreements, disagreement, disagree3. Lexeme, word form, lexical entry, word⏹1) Lexeme:⏹Lexeme an abstract vocabulary item with a common core of meaning. It can be realized by different word forms. Put it in another way, lexeme is a set of linguistic signs which share the same lexical meaningsbut different in their grammatical, meanings. Fro example, dies,died, dying, die belong to the same lexeme DIE. Man and men are varying forms of the same lexeme MAN.⏹Some set expressions such as bury the hatchet, give up and ups and downs would be each considered a single lexeme.⏹2) Word form （词形）：⏹Word form is the realization (representation or manifestation) of the lexeme. Equivalently, it is the inflected forms of a lexeme.An illustration of the relationship between lexeme and word form:⏹word-forms lexeme⏹See, seeing, saw, seen SEE⏹Sleeps, sleeping, slept SLEEP⏹Catch, catches, catching, caught CATCH⏹Jump, jumps, jumped, jumping JUMP⏹Tall, taller, tallest TALL⏹Boy, boys BOY⏹Woman, women WOMAN3）Lexical entry(词条)：⏹Lexical entry is the specification of the information of a lexeme in dictionary or the representation of the idiosyncratic information of a lexeme, including (i) its pronunciation, (ii) syntactic properties and (iii)meaning. For example, the lexical entry swim:⏹PHONOLOGY /swim/⏹SYNTAX intransitive verb⏹SEMANTICS [SWIM]⏹MORPHOLOGY Past swamPast Participle swum4）WordHow to define a word?⏹A word can be defined the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently. Knowing a word means knowing its pronunciation (sound) and meaning, whose relationship is arbitrary. A word can be defined from the following aspects:⏹1) Orthographically speaking, a word is a unit which, in print, is bounded by spaces on both sides. It is a physically definable unit. But there is a problem with this definition: should we count it as two words or one word when two words are contracted as one orthographic unit.⏹a. I am a good cook.⏹b.I’ve been a good cook.⏹2) Morph-syntactically speaking, word has four characteristics: (i) syntactic independence, (ii) positional mobility, (iii) uninterruptibility, (vi) Internal stability.⏹Syntactic independence means that nothing smaller than a word cannormally form a sentence on its own. That is to say, word is the smallest independent unit in a language. It is the smallest unit which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.⏹Positional mobility means that the word-forms as a whole can be moved relatively easily within the sentence, such as “This we must se e” and “Plums I love”.⏹Uninterruptability means that extraneous material cannot be inserted into a word form even there are several parts in a word, such as the contrast between nationalism vs. *national-anti-lism.⏹Internal stability means that internal morpheme or letters are fixed / stabilized, i.e., the ordering of items within the word-form is usually fixed and non-contrastive, as opposed to the ordering of word-forms within the sentence, as is the case with * ly-sudden⏹Part of Speech / Word Class:⏹Part of Speech are the categories into which the words of a language can be classified either according to their syntactic functions or according to their morphological structure.⏹There are traditionally nine word classes in English: noun, verb (transitive and intransitive), adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, article, conjunction, interjection. There are still some new categories introduced recently into linguistic analysis. They are particles, auxiliaries (助动词) and pro-forms(代词形式).⏹Particles include the infinitive marker “to”, the negative marker “not” and the subordinate elements in phrasal verbs, such as “up” in look up, break up and do up, and “at” in look at and arrive at.⏹Pro-form is a collective term for the set of items which can be used to substitute for other items or construction. They are always neglected.e.g.⏹Do you need a lift? If so, I will drive you to the destination.⏹Do you think your little brother study hard enough? Yes, he does.⏹I know him more than I did.⏹I would have never believed it. She has readily accepted his proposal.⏹The dog is hiding there, under the table.⏹Different ways of classifying words:⏹1) Open-class words and closed-class words⏹Open-class words include nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs. They are so called because their membership is not fixed or limited. With the emergency of new ideas and inventions, new expressions are continually being added to the lexicon. The other six word classes are called closed-class words because their membership is relatively fixed.⏹2) Grammatical (function) words and lexical(content) words⏹Grammatical words are also called function words, whose role is largely or wholly grammatical. They include link verb “be”,prepositions, conjunctions and determiners, ect. Lexical words carry the semantic meaning. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and most adverbs are lexical words.⏹3) Variable words and invariable words⏹Variable words are those that have ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms. Invariable words are those that remain relatively constant.⏹Token(标记) and Type（类型）⏹In linguistics, a distinction is always made between classes of linguistic items (e.g. phonemes, words, utterances) and actual utterances in speech or writing of examples of such classes. The class of linguistic units is called a type and examples of individual members of the class are called tokens.⏹In mathematic linguistics the total number of words in a text may be referred to as the number of text tokens, and the number of different words as the number of text types. The ratio of different words in a text to the total words in the text is known as the lexical density or Type-Token ratio for that text.⏹Paradigm⏹A paradigm is a list or pattern showing the forms which a word can have in a grammatical s ystem.. It typically shows a word’s inflections rather than derivatives. It is the set of all the inflected forms which anindividual word assumes or the full set of words realizing a particular lexeme.⏹For example: Boy, {boy, boys}⏹DO, {do, does, did, doing, done}⏹Summary:⏹1.Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme, the minimal meaningful unit of the English language, possesses both sound and meaning. An allomorph is any of variant forms of a morpheme.⏹2. Morphemes may be classified as free or bound. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as a complete utterance, while a bound morpheme cannot exist on its own; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.⏹3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots and affixes. A root carries the main component of meaning in a word. Roots can be free or bound morphemes. Free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words. Bound roots cannot appear as words in modern English, although they were once words, nor can they be used to form new words.⏹4. Affixes are bound morphemes, because they are used only when added to other morphemes. Affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes. The former are related to grammar only. Derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes, whichare related to the formation of new words. Roots, prefixes and suffixesare the building blocks with which words are formed.⏹5. On morphemic level, words can be classified into simple, complexand compound words, according to the number and type ofmorphemes they are composed of.⏹6. Morphemes are important in the word-building process becausethe two most central and productive word-formation process,compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes: the former is acombination of free morphemes, the latter is the addition of boundmorphemes to free ones.English LexicologyUnit 3Word formation 2Contents⏹Abbreviation (shortening)❑Clipping❑Initialism❑Acronym❑Blending❑Aphesis⏹Back-formation⏹Onomatopoeia⏹Words from Proper Names⏹ExercisesClipping(shortening a word or words by leaving out letters or syllables)⏹apocope (back clipped)❑dorm(itory), disco(theque), expo(sition), gas(oline), hi(gh)-fi(delity), memo(randum), rep(resentative),⏹aphaeresis (front clipped)❑(violon)cello, bus, cab, phone,⏹front and back clipped❑flu, fridge⏹syncope (middle clipped, contraction)❑fossil(iz)ation, pacif(ic)ist❑gov't (government), can’tClipping⏹Clipping in phrases:❑daily (paper), finals (final examinations)❑IOU (I owe you),⏹Clipping in style❑informal⏹Changes needed in clipping for the sake of sound❑bike (bicycle), coke (Coca-Cola),Initialism—General(the use of initialization in words where each letter is pronounced)CPPCC (the Chi nese People’s Political Consultative Conference) D.J. (disc jockey)GDP (Gross Domestic Product)GNP (Gross National Product)CPI (consumer price index)IOC (International Olympic Committee)BBC, ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, APc/o =care ofP.S. =postscriptRSVP=Re ponde s’il vous plaitInitialism—ITAGP ←Accelerate Graphics ProcessorAI ←Artificial IntelligenceBBS ←Bulletin Board SystemCAD ←Computer-Aided DesignCAI ←Computer-Assisted InstructionCD ←Compact DiskCPU ←Central Processing UnitDPI ←Dots Per InchFTP ←File Transfer ProtocolHTTP ←Hypertext Transfer ProtocolIC ←Integrate circuitIP ←Internet ProtocolLCD ←Liquid Crystal DisplayLED ←light-emitting diode OS ←Operating System PPM ←Pages Per Minute USB ←Universal Serial Bus VGA ←Video Graphics Array Initialism—Web-chatting ASAPAAMOF (as a matter of fact) BTWBBL (be back later)BRB (be right back)CU (see you)CUL (see you later)FE (for example)FTF (face to face)FYI (for your information)IC (I see)IMO (in my opinion)IOW (in other words)LOL (laughing out loudly)OIC (Oh, I see)TIA (Thanks in advance) TTUL (Talk to you later)TY (Thank you)VG (very good)Initialism—Compound⏹E-school = electronic school（网络学校）⏹E-tail = electronic retail（电子零售）；⏹H-bomb = hydrogen bomb（氢弹）⏹V-day = victory day（胜利日）⏹U-boat = undersea boat（潜艇）Acronym(words derived from the initials of several words, pronounced as a word, not as a list of letters)❑APEC ←Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation （亚太经济合作组织）❑ASEAN ←the Association for South-East Asian Nations（东南亚国家联盟）❑NATO ←the North Atlantic Treaty Organization （北大西洋公约组织）❑UNESCO ←the United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization（联合国教科文组织）❑laser ←light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation（激光）❑ROM ←read only memory（只读内存）Acronym-Intentional coincidence⏹近年来，首字母拼音词出现了一个有趣的现象，人们有意或无意地把首字母英语词汇学拼音词拼写成与现存的词相同的样子，并借用其读音。

英语词汇学试题汇编Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____. 7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited_____________概念：jargonChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was inthe past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of___in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remainfor ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsare known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separatewords.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be usedas independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。

2019年自考《英语词汇学》试题Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____. 7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited_____________Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was in the past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 wordsof___ in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remain for ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be used as independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。

Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1、The Definition of a WordLexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words.According to semanticists（语义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound, meaningand syntactic function（句法功能）.2、 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.3、 Sound and MeaningThe relationship between sound and meaning is no logic4、 Sound and FormThere was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English.With the development of the language, more and more differences arose between sound and form.（1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. In differentlanguages, the same concept can be shown by different sounds. “Woman”, for example,becomes “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “fu nv” in Chinese. On the otherhand, the same sound [mi:t] is used to mean “meet, meat, mete”, denoting differentthings.（2）、What are the four major reasons for the differences between sound and form?The first reason (he internal reason) is that there are more phonemes （音素）than lettersin English. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly thanspelling over the years. The third reasons that some of the differences more created bythe early scribes. The fourth reason is the borrowing.（3）、How are words classified in the course book?Words can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fallinto: the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency; content words andfunctional words by notion; native words and borrowed words by origin; simple words,compounds and derived words by morphology.（4）、What is the difference between denizens and aliens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated（完全同化）into the English language. But aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1、The Indo-European Language FamilyThe prehistoric Indo-European parent language, thought to be a highly inflected （内部曲折语）language.The first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.（1）、Old English（450-1150）In the 9th century England was invaded by Norwegian and Danish Vikings.（2）、Middle English（1150-1500）The French influence on English vocabulary was one of the significant points of theMiddle English period.The most important fact of the Middle English period was the steady erosion of theinflectional systems of Old English.（3）、Modern English（1500-present）In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancientGreek and Roman classics.It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French.3、 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyIn earlier stages of English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian were the four major contributors.The simultaneous existence of French, Latin and English lasted for a century.4、 Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change（旧词新义）and borrowing.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.5、简答What are the characteristics of Old English?Old English also known as the Anglo-Saxon, has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian. Old English was a highly inflected language.It was a synthetic language（综合性语言）.（Modern English is an analytic language）Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1、 MorphemesThe minimal meaningful units in English are known as morphemes（词素）.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4、 Allomorphs（词素变体）An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.6、A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.7、简答（1）、What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes?Free morphemes which have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as freegrammatical units in sentences are independent of other morphemes, but boundmorphemes which cannot occur as separate. Words are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.（2）、What is the difference between derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes?Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words, but inflectional morphemes areemployed used to indicate the syntactic （句法）relationship between words and functionas grammatical markers.Chapter 4 Word FormatioThe most productive ways of creating new words are affixation, compounding, and conversion. 1、Affixationderivatives.2、Compounding（复合法）Example: workfare(work+welfare)In adjective-plus-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.Verb compounds are created either though conversion or through back-formation.3、Conversion（转类法）The conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs is the most productive.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.Nouns fully converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns.4、 Blending（拼缀法）The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns5、Back-formation（逆身法）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.6、简答（1）、What is the main difference between prefixes and suffixes?Unlike prefixes which primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixeshave only a small semantic role, their primary function being to changes thegrammatical function of a base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slightmodification of meaning.（2）、What are the three main features of compounds?The three main features of compounds are phonological features, semantic features and grammatical features. The word stress of a compound usually occurs on the first element.Each compound should express a single idea just as one word. A compound tends to playa single grammatical role in a sentence.（3）、What is back-formation? What are the characteristics of back-formation?Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Words created through back-formation are verbs. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not successfully gained currency.（4）、What is acronymy? What is the difference between initialisms and acrnyms?Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms. Initialisms are pronounced letter by letter, but acronyms are pronounced as normal words7、论述题1、“Medicare” and “sitcom” are blends. “Medicare” is formed by combining the head of “medical’and the word “care”, and “sitcom” is formed by combining the head of “situation” and that of “comdey’.2、”Memo” and “flu” are clipped words. “Memo” is formed by clipping the lack of“memorandum” and “flu” is formed clipping the front and lack of “influenza”.3、”TB” and “NATO” are new words created through acronymy. “TB” from “tuberculosis” is aninitialism, while “NATO” from “the North Atlantic Treaty Organization” is an acronym.Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis（成份分析法）1、ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquiredreference.2、Concept（概念）Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical.Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3、SenseUnlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language.4、Motivation（理据）（1）、What is reference? What are the characteristics of reference?Reference is the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite.（2）、What is conceptual meaning? What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as The same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same speech community. (language).（3）、What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning known as cognitive, denotative, or designative is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. But Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning because it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. .（4）、What is collocative meaning? What are the characteristics of collocative meaning?Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality.Chapter 6 Sense Relations（语义关系）The first meaning of a word is called primary meaning. Later meanings are called derived meaningsThe meaning of a more specific word is include in that of another more general word.简答What is the difference between radiation and concatenation（连锁型）?Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.Chapter 7 Changes in Word MeaningThe vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents.（1）、What is semantic transfer? What are the four main types of transfer?Some words which were used to designate/indicate one thing but later changed to meansomething else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. The four main typesof transfer are the associated transfer, the transfer between abstract and concretemeanings, the transfer between subjective and objective meanings and the synesthesim.（2）、What are the two factors causing changes in meanings? How are they classified?The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are the extra-linguistic factors andthe linguistic factors. The extra-linguistic factors include the historic reason, the classreason and the psychological reason. The linguistic factors include shortening,borrowing and analogy.（类比）Chapter 8 Meaning and Context（语境）1、 Types of ContextWithout context, there is no way to determine the meaning that the speaker intends to convey.When we talk about context, we usually think of linguistic context, hardly aware of theAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure. When a word with multiple meanings is employed in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.3、简答（1）、what is the difference between linguistic context and extra-linguistic context?Linguistic refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears and it is known as linguistic context or co-text may extend to embrace a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. But extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context refers to the participants, time, place, and even the whole cultural background（2）、What is the difference between lexical context and grammatical context?Lexical context refers to the words that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. But grammaticalcontext refers to the structure which may influence the meaning of a polysemant.4、论述题Read the sentence carefully. If you find anything inappropriate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.a.He is a hard businessman.John ran the egg and spoon race.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by polysemy.2、The word “hard” in this sentence can be understood as “hardworking” or “difficult”.The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader todecide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. There would be nomisunderstanding of the original sentence if it is expanded as “He is a hardbusinessman to deal with ”, or “He is a hard businessman and he is often praised by hisemployer”.（participated or organized John ran the egg and spoon race and got second place. orJohn ran the egg and spoon race and gain a larger number of money.）b.They saw her duck.The ball was attractive.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by homonymy.2、The word “ball” in this sentence can be understood as a noun, which refer to “roundobject to play in a game” or a “dancing party”. The context fails to narrow down themeaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little. It is clear if it isexpanded as “The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of peoples ”, or “Theball made of leather of different colors was attractive”.（kind of poultry or verb meaning ”lower one’s head or body quickly, dodge”They saw her duck or swimming in the river or They saw her duck her body.）c、The fish is ready to eat.I like Mary better than Jean.1、The sentence is ambiguous. The ambiguity is caused by inadequate grammaticalstructure..2、The sentence has two different interpretations. It may mean “the fish is cooked orserved, so ready for people to eat or a “the fish is ready to eat things”. The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means.3、The sentence can be improved as “How nice the fish smell! The fish is ready to eat.” or“The fish is ready to eat things.（I like Mary better than I like Jean or I like Mary better than Jean likes MaryI like Mary better than Jean does. or I like Mary better than I do Jean.）Chapter 9 English IdiomsStylistically, idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms（口语体）and slang.（1）、What are the characteristics of English idioms?The two main characteristics of English idioms are semantic unity and structural stability.Idioms each consist of at least two or more constituents, but each is a semantic unity. The structure of an idiom is to a large extend invariable.（2）、What are the rhetorical features of English idioms?The rhetorical features of English idioms include the phonetic manipulation, the lexicalmanipulation and the semantic manipulation. The phonetic manipulation includesalliteration and rhyme（叠韵）. The lexical manipulation includes reiteration, repletionand juxtaposition. The semantic manipulation includes (Figures of speech) Simile,Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Euphemism.Chapter 10 English DictionariesThe main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words.3、Dictionaries（1）、Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English-English-Chinese（LDCE《朗文高级当代英语词典英汉双解》）Features: Clear Grammar Codes, Usage Notes, Language Notes, New words（2）、Collins COBUILD English Dictionary（CCED《柯林斯COBUILD英语词典》）Features: Definition, Extra Column, Frequency Marker, Pragmatics（词语用法说明）4、British or AmericanAmerican dictionaries contain more encyclopaedic information in the main body than British one whereas British dictionaries, especially learner’s dictionaries, embrace more grammatical information.5、简答What is a dictionary? What is the relationship between a dictionary and lexicology?A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of English,with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology because both deal with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.。

英语词汇学习题集（Chapter 1—Chapter 3）Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words andVocabulary1. Decide whether the following are true or false.( ) a. A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view.( ) b. Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be logically related.( ) c. The introduction of printing press resulted in a lot more differences between sound and form.( ) d. The words a person can use in speaking and writing form his active vocabulary.( ) e. The principles by which to classify words are usage, notion and origin.( ) f. Native words are more popular than foreign words.( ) g. Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.2. Give a term for each of the following definitions.a. sub-standard words often used on informal occasions ( )b. specialized vocabulary common in certain professions ( )c. words used by sup-cultural groups particularly by underground society ( )d. words that have clear notions ( )e. words of Anglo-Saxon origin( )f. words borrowed by way of translation ( )g. old words with new meanings( )Key:1. a.(T) b.(F) c.(T) d.(T) e.(F) f.(F) g.(T)2. a. slang b. jargon c. argot d. content words e. native words f. translation loans g. neologismsChapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words1. Explain the following terms:1) morpheme 2) allomorph3) bound morpheme 4) free morpheme5) affix 6) inflectional affix7) derivational affix 8) root9) stemplete the following sentences with proper words according to the text.1) Structurally, a word is not the_________ unit because many words are analyzable or segmentable.2) The morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of ___________.3) Morphemes fall into different classes by different criteria of classification. Now people tent to group morphemes into groups:_________ and _________.4) According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into groups:______ and_____.5) The number of inflectional affixes is ________and ________, which makes English one of the easiest languages to learn.6) Derivational affixes can be further divided into __________and ________.7) A_________, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.8) A________ can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Key:1. 1) a minimum meaningful unit of a language2) one of the variants that realize a morpheme3) a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme4) a morpheme that can stand alone5) a morpheme attached to a stem or a root6) an affix that indicates grammatical relationships7) an affix that forms new words with a stem or a root8) what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes9) a form to which affixes of any kind can be added2. 1) smallest 2) words3) free morphemes, bound morphemes 4) inflectional (affixes), derivational (affixes)5) small, stable 6) prefixes, suffixes7) root 8) stemChapter 4 Word Formation1.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Put F and T inthe brackets.( ) a. The most productive ways of word-formation are affixation, compounding and conversion.( ) b. Shortening includes clipping and blending.( ) c. Prefixation and suffixation are two subbranches of affixation.( ) d. Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.( ) e. Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. ( ) f. The limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or back-formation.( ) g. Verb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping prefixes.( ) h. Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense.( ) i. Blending is the formation of new words by combining part of two words or a word plus a part of another word.( ) j. Clipping, a way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and adding a new part to the original .( ) k. Words formed through acronymy are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the spelling of the words.( ) l. Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.2. Study the following words and decide how each word was formed. Put youranswer in the bracket.Example: disobey (affixation or prefixation)disloyal ( ) harden ( )mass-produce ( ) motel ( )downfall ( ) dorm ( )incapable ( ) VOA ( )glorify ( ) radar ( )edit ( ) sandwich ( )familiars ( ) gas ( )water-proof ( ) quixotic ( )Affixation1. What is affixation?2. What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?3. What is the fundamental difference between prefixes and suffixes?4. Match the prefixes in column A with the words in column B.A Bdis- capableil- willingnessim- legalin- agreementnon- officiallyun- convenientsmoker5. Match the suffixes in Column A with the words in column B.A B-er book-let friend-ship wait-tion china-ese lady-like protect-able natural-ly wash-en dark-fy beautyCompounding1. Express the following in one compound word:a. someone who writes songsb. someone who cleans windowsc. the race for armsd. the train in the morninge. a mine for goldf. bathe in the sung. as cheap as dirth. tanned by the sun2. The compounds in each of the following pairs are similar in structure. Pleaseindicate the different relations of the elements of the two compounds in each pair by syntactic paraphrases.Example: duty-free: free from dutiesraindrop flowerbedair-tight sea-greena well-meant remark a well-behaved personwar-ruined houses country-bred boysa computer-designer a sun-bathersteam engine fire enginesilk worm gaslighthandwriting faultfindingan ocean-going ship peace-loving peoplelanguage teacher baby-sitter3. Translate the following into Chinese:a. knee-deep f. pitch dark / blackb. life-like g. carefreec. snow-white h. soundproofd. nation-wide i. fireproofe. shoulder-high j. lifelong4. According to the definitions given below, write the other part of the nouncompounds, the first part already given.a. a stretch of land, round a town, where building is not al-lowed, so that thefields, woods, etc., remain: green___________b. a booklet giving all the most important information about a subject:hand_______c. an idea that comes later: after_______d. a pill which helps a person to sleep: sleeping_________e. a headline repeated on consecutive pages (as of a book): running_________f. a cloth that is used for washing one’s face and body: wash__________g. strong sunlight as when there are no clouds: sun________h. the action of forcing a way through the enemy: break__________i. a public show of anger: out __________j. a division into smaller parts: break_________5. Turn the phrasal verbs below into compounds:break through fall down break outtake in slide down cry outrun away hang overConversion1. Choose the best answer to complete each statement.( ) a. Conversion is a method_________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a dif-ferent part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure( ) b. Words involved in conversion are mainly_____________.A nouns, verbs and adverbsB nouns, adjectives and verbsC nouns, prepositions and verbsD adjectives, adverbs and verbs( ) c. In a derivational process, an item is converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. The name is______.A full conversionB partial conversionC functional shiftD zero-derivation( ) d. Almost all monomorphemic _______ can be conversed into nouns, which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways.A verbsB adjectivesC adverbsD prepositions( ) e. Nouns converted from adjectives nave all the characteristics of nouns and achieve a full noun status, thus known as ____________.A partial conversionB full conversionC functional shiftD grammatical shift( ) f. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with ____________.A plural formsB single formsC adjectivesD definite articles( ) g. The conversion of two-syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of ________.A spellingB pronunciationC stressD function( ) h. In most cases a noun can be converted to a verb ____________.A with some changesB without any changeC with some changes in spellingD without any change in pronunciation2. Give your explanation for each of the following converted words in the sentences below:a. So she believed me and doctored my battered face, pleased that she could be useful.b. The train was telescoped as a result of the collision.c. We cannot mandate a solution to inflation.d. A team of experts at Columbia is now cataloguing the tapes and indexing the transcripts, which will be available for scholarly research.e. There will be a repeat of this program next week.f. Heart transplants began ten years ago. Why have British doctors done only four since then?g. In the choice of diction he has a taste for the quaint and the picturesque.h. The correspondent tried to get an interview with the condemned.k. The television drearies the ball game.l. The president was sketchiest in broad-brushing his goals in foreign policy. Blending1. Explain the characteristics of blending with examples.2. Explain the four types of blends with examples.3. Analyses the formation of the following blends and translate them intoChinese.botel skylabchunnel humintadvertistics medicaidworkfare psywarNixonomics comsatClipping1. Explain the characteristics of clipping with examples.2. Give examples to explain the different types of clipping.3. Read the following sentences and restore the full forms of the italicizedwords.a. Did you see the doctor’s dilemma on telly last night? ( )b. Palestinian demos mark massacres. ( )c. The America was the first to nuke two Japanese cities. ( )d. Viet troops suffer setback in Kampuchea. ( )e. The police asks for info on stolen computers. ( )f. Rural credit co-ops to get more autonomy. ( )g. Today, china acts to meet high-tech challenge. ( )h. Setback for governing parties in euro vote. ( )Acronymy1. What do the short forms stand for?EEC, OPEC, SLAM, ELSS, EDVAC, GEM, NSC, ERDA, ID2. Explain the following words:SALT laser AIDS V-Day D-Day G-manBack-formation1. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choosethe one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.( ) a. Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of________.A prefixation B. suffixation C. acronymy D. conversion( ) b. Back-formation usually involves _ _____types of words.A. 3B. 4C. 5D. 2( ) c. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely ______ and some of them have not gained public acceptance.A. formalB. adjectivesC. human nounsD. informal( ) d. Back-formation is the method of creating new words by ______ the so-called suffixes.A. removingB. combiningC. shorteningD. considering2. Give the original words from which the following words are back-formed. globe-trot ______ brainwash ________ghost-write ______ sleep-walk ________spoon-feed ________ air-condition ________book-keep _______ browbeat ______ _caretake _ ______ gatecrash _______housebreak _______ housekeep _______mass-p0roduce _______ lase _______proof-read _ ______ sightsee _______stage-manage _______ merry-make _______street-walk ______ _ window-shop _______Words from Proper NamesDecide whether the following statements are true or false.( ) a. Proper nouns form an important source of English vocabulary.( ) b. Words derived from names include names of people, names of country, names of products and names of books.( ) c. All the words denoting products come from the names of places where they were first made.( ) d. Quite a few words come from names of books and thus take on the meaning of the books.( ) e. When proper nouns are communized, many of them have lost their original identity.( ) f. Proper nouns have rich cultural associations and thus stylistically vivid, impressive and thought-provoking.( ) g. Proper nouns can not take suffixes.Key:1. a. T b. T c. T d. F e. T f. Tg.F h. T i. T j. F k. F l. T2. Disloyal ( prefixation, affixation)Harden (suffixation, affixation)Mass-produce (back-formation)Motel (blending)Downfall (compounding, conversion)dorm (clipping)incapable (prefixation)VOA (acronymy)Glorify (suffixation)Radar (acronymy)Edit (back-formation)Sandwich (word from proper names)Gas (clipping)Water-proof (compounding)Quixotic (word from proper names)Affixation1. Affixation, also called derivation, is the formation of new words by adding affixesto stems.2. While prefixation is to create new words by adding prefixes to stems, suffi9xationmakes new words by adding suffixes to stems.3. Generally speaking, prefixes do not change part of speech of the stems but theirmeaning whereas suffixes do change part of speech but modify the meaning of stems.4. dis + agreement il + legalim + mature in + convenient/ in+ capablenon + smoker un + officiallyun + willingness5. waiter, booklet, friendship, protection, Chinese, ladylike, washable, naturally,darken, beautifyCompounding1. a. song writer b. window-cleanerc. arms raced. morning traine. gold minef. sunbatheg. dirt-cheap h. suntanned2. a drop of rainThe bed for flowersimpermeable to airas green as seaa remark that is well meanthouses ruined by warboys bred in the countryone who designs computerone who bathes in the sunengine powered or operated by steamengine to prevent fireworm that produces silklight produced by gaswriting by handfind faulta ship that goes across oceanspeople who love peaceone who teaches languagesone who sits with babies3. a. 深可没膝的 b. 栩栩如生的 c. 雪白的d. 全国性的e. 齐肩高的f. 漆黑的g. 无忧无虑的h. 隔音的i. 防火的j. 终身的4. a. green belt b. handbook c. afterthoughtd. sleeping pille. running headf. washclothg. sunshine h. breakthrough i. outcry j. breakup Conversion1. a. A b. B c. D d. A e. B f. D g. C h. B2. a. doctored = applied medicine tob. was telescoped = became shorter by sliding into one anotherc. mandate = work out a solution by issuing an authoritative or-derd. cataloguing = making a catalogue ofindexing = making an index ofe. a repeat = a rebroadcastf. transplants = instances of transplantingg. the quaint = something quaintthe picturesque = something picturesqueh. the condemned = the person who has been convictedi. moderns = modern paintersj. heavies = big shotsk. drearies = makes deary (dull)1. broad-brushing = describing in broad outlinee.g. flush (flash = blush) smog (smoke = fog)2. Four major patterns:head +tail – motel (motor = hotel)head +head – telex ( teleprinter = exchange)head + word –medicare (medical +care)word = tail – bookmobile (book + automobile)3. botel (boat +hotel) 汽艇游客旅馆chunnel (channel + tunnel) 海峡隧道advertistics ( advertising + statistics)广告统计学workfare (word + welfare) 工作福利Nixonomics (Nixon + economics)尼克松的经济政策skylab (sky + laboratory)太空实验室humint ( human + intelligence) 谍报medicaid (medical + aid)医疗援助计划psywar (psychological + warfare)心理战comsat (communications + satellite)通讯卫星Clipping1. Clipping is a way of making a new word by cutting a part off the original andusing what remains instead.e. g. omnibus – busaeroplane – planeexamination – exambicycle – bike2. Four types of clipping:1) front + clipping telephone – phoneback clipping gentleman – gentfront and back clipping refrigerator – fridgephrase clipping3. a. television b. demonstrations c. nucleard. Vietnamesee. informationf. co-operativesg. high-technology h. EuropeanAcronymy1. EEC = European Economic CommunityOPEC = Organization of petroleum exporting countriesSLAM = Supersonic low altitude missileStrategic low altitude missileELSS = extravehicular life support systemEDVAC = electronic discrete variable automatic computerGEM = ground effect machineNSC= national Security CouncilERDA = energy research and development administrationID = identity card2. SALT: Strategic arms limitation talkslaser: lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeV-Day: Victory DayD-Day: decimalization dayG-man: Government manBack-formation1. a. B b. B c. D d. A2. globe-trotter brainwashingghost-writer sleep-walkerspoon-fed air-conditioningbook-keeping browbeatingcaretaker gatecrasherhousebreaker housekeepermass-production laserproof-reading sightseeingstage-manger merry-makingstreetwalker window-shoppingWord from Proper Namesa. Tb. Tc. Fd. Fe. Tf. Tg. F。

Lectures on English LexicologyMain Sections for the Lectures:Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1What Is a Word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and MeaningA word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to a certain thing with a cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.1.3 Sound and FormIt is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans.In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns.1.4 V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary.The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.1.5 Classification of Words1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Non-basic V ocabularyBasic words have the following characteristics:1.All national character: they denote the most common things and phenomena ofthe world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language.2.Stability: as these words denote the commonest things necessary to life, they arelikely to remain unchanged.3.Productivity:as they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, they caneach be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes4.Polysemy:words of this kind often possess more than one meaning becausemost of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.5.Collocability: most of these words enter quite a number of set expressions,idiomatic usages, and proverbial sayings.“All national character” is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.Non-basic words include the following:1.Terminology（术语）: technical terms used in particular disciplines andacademic areas.2.Jargon（行话）: the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.3.Slang（俚语）4.Argot（黑话）5.Dialectal words（方言词语）6.Archaisms（古语）7.Neologisms（新词）1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsContent words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words（实义词）. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.Functional words do not have notions of their own. They are also called empty words. The chief function of these words is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences. They are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.Content words are numerous and the number is ever growing whereas the functional words which make up a small number of vocabulary，remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words: words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language.Native words have two other features:1.Neutral in style: since native words denote the commonest things in humansociety, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times.Stylistically, native words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.2.Frequent in use: Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech andwriting. The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent.Borrowed word: words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.The loan words can be classified into four classes:1.Denizens（同化词）are words borrowed early in the past and now are wellassimilated into the English language. eg: pork----porc(F) cup---cuppa(L) 2.Aliens（非同化词）are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling. eg: bazzar (per) intermesso( IT)3.Translation loans（译借词）4.Semantic loans（语义借词）Questions and Tasks on P20: 1—6Chapter 2: The Development of the English Vocabulary The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles.A Historical Overview of the English vocabularyThe first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family—Celtic（克尔特语）.The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles and were to occupy the land until about 410.When the Roman empire began to crumble, the Germanic tribes came in. they are Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.2.2.1 Old English (450—1150)The Germanic tribes took permanent control of the land, which was to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. People generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.2.2.2 Middle English (1150--1500)Old English began to undergo a great change when the Normans invaded England from France in 1066. the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9,000 words of French origin poured into English. 75 percent of them are still in use today.2.2.3 Modern English (1500—up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance.In the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion, yet more words are created by means of word-formation.Growth of Present-day English V ocabularyGenerally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages.Modes of V ocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.1.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet thenew need.3.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularlyin earlier times.Questions and Tasks on P33: 3, 4, 10Chapter 3: Word Formation IThough borrowing has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary, vocabulary is largely enriched on an internal basis.boys boy+schecking check+ingchairman chair+manMorphemes（词素）the smallest meaningful unit of language Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g. boys---boy+-s indicates pluralitychecking---check+-ingdisappointment词是由一个或一个以上的词素构成的。

Chapter One Basic Concepts of Words and VocabularyA word is a minimal free form of language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word may be defined as one of the fundamental units of speech and as having a minimum free form. It is a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactical function.The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary and there is no logical relationship between them.The relation between sound and form：the written form of English is an imperfect representation of spoken form, yet in spite of the differences between sound and form, at least 80% of the English words fit consistent spelling pattern.All the words in a language make up its vocabularyAll the words in a language together constitute its vocabulary.Classification of words:By use frequency: basic word stock(natural phenomena/human body and relations/plants and animals/action, size, domain, state/num, pron, prep, conj)non basic word:by notion: content words(实词n. v. adj. adv. Num)functional words( prep, conj, aux. Art)by origin: native wordsborrowed/loan words(Denizens同化Aliens非同化Translation-loans译借词Semantic-loans借义词)Chapter 2 Morphological Structure of English WordsMorpheme: 1.minimal meaningful unit. 2.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsTypes of morphemes:Free morpheme自由词素=free roots彼此之间互相独立的词素叫自由词素，本身具有完整的意义，在句子中可以用作自由的语法单位e.g. man, foot, earthBound morpheme粘着词素:Bound root粘着词根Affix词缀:inflectional affix屈折词缀(语法关系) e.g. -s (es) -er, -est -ed: -ingderivational affix派生词缀(prefix, suffix)Morpheme and word-formation: We know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled as root, stem and affix.1 affix are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or functionAll affixes are bound2 root the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identityStem is used only when we deal with affixes词干是讲到词缀现象时候用的术语Chapter 3 Word FormationAffixation词缀法/ Derivation 派生法Prefixation:Suffixation:Compounding复合法the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Characteristics of compoundsFormation of compoundsConversion转类法:词性活用 e.g. to pocket the moneyBlending拼缀法head+ tail: e.g. motor + hotel=motel smoke + fog=smogchannel+tunnel=chunnel Chocolate+alcoholic=chocoholichead+ head: e.g. Communication+satellite=comsat teleprinter+ exchange=telexSituation+comedy=sitcom American+Indian=Amerindhead +word: e.g. Medical+care=medicare Europe+Asia=EurasiaTelephone+quiz=telequiz automobile+camp=autocampword+ tail: e.g. Work+welfare=workfare Reagan+economics=ReaganomicsTour+automobile=tourmobileClipping截短法Front clipping截前留后: e.g. earthquake →quake helicopter →coptertelephone →phone aerodrome →dromeBack clipping截后留前:e.g. dormitory →dorm memorandum →memodiscotheque →discoFront and back clipping截前后留中间: e.g. influenza →flu refrigerator →fridge pajamas →jamsPhrase clipping截词组: e.g. public house →pub popular music →popzoological garden →zooAbbreviation缩略法Initialisms 首字母缩略词：e.g. VOA BBC A.D B.C UFO CIA IOC VIP p.m. Acronyms 首字母缩拼词（可拼读)e.g. NATOTEFLUNESCOOPECAPECSARSBack-formation 逆构法e.g. edit←editor beg←beggar diagnose←diagnosis enthuse ←enthusiasm sculpt ←sculptor burgle ←burglar babysit←babysitterChapter 4 Word meaningword meaning:Meaning is what the form stands for.reference所指:the relationship between language and the world.Although reference is a kind of abstraction, with the help of context, it can refer to something definite.concept 概念:Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.sense语义the meaning of meaning is perhaps what is termed sense.Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference.e.g. probable, nearly, and , if, but, yesMotivation词义的理据refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1.onomatopoetic motivation拟声理据:words that were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises; their phonetic forms suggest their meaningse.g. crow by cocks, quack by ducks,trumpet by elephants,buzz by bees or flies,croak by frogs2.morphological motivation 形态理据:Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combinede.g. airmail, reading-lamp, miniskirt, hopeful3.semantic motivation语义理据is the mental association bases on the conceptual meaning of a word. It is the figurative sense of the word. 由词的概念意义所暗示的联想意义,语义理据是一种心理联想，指词义的引申和比喻e.g. the mouth of a river the foot of the mountain He is fond of the bottle.4.etymological motivation 词源理据:The origins of words more often than not throw light on their meanings. All the words communized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins.Types of meaning:1.grammatical meaning and lexical meaning 语法意义和词汇意义:如词类、名词的单复数意义、动词的时态意义、词的屈折形式等方面的意义。