The value of SLA theories on foreign language learning

SLA (2)：The role of the first language
在研究学习语言规律的时候，人们又很快发现：学习外 语和学习母语是很不相同的。对一个人来说，外语是一 种陌生的事物，不认真学习就不能掌握，而学习母语的 过程却可以在不知不觉中完成。从牙牙学语开始，每个 人都在母语的环境中学习语言；年龄渐长，他每天读报、 听广播、看电视、与人交谈、发表见解……人们在不知 不觉中学习语言。这种学习是终身的，但又是自发而朦 胧的。所以如果问一个成年人他的母语能力是怎么发展 起来的，绝大多数往往自己也说不清楚。那么，What’s the role of the first language (L1)?
5.2. Language Transfer: The role of the L1 was first seen in the terms of language transfer theory, including positive and negative transfer (p.7). It is a popular belief that the role of the L1 in SLA is a negative one (p.17). According to behaviorist learning theory, old habits get in the way of learning new habits (p.21). Interference was the result of what was called proactive inhibition (旧的知识、经验抑制?). In order to develop learning new habits, the learner has to overcome proactive inhibition (p.22). 负迁移也叫干扰（interference），干扰 又分为阻碍性干扰（preclusive interference）和介入性干 扰（intrusive interference）.

Chapter 11 SLAIntroductionDefinition:1 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2 L2 acquisition can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom.The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others. (Rod Ellis 1985)Connections between FLA and SLAFirst language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.Second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. Interlanguage.Points of comparison for successive foreign language learning paradigms NL: TL comparisons (Contrastive analysis)IL: TL comparisons (Error analysis)NL: IL comparisons (Transfer analysis)The role of native language in SLALanguage transfer: The differences between native and target languages would either lead to positive transfer or negative transfer, also known as interference.迁移是指目标语和其他任何已经习得的（或者没有完全习得的）语言之间的共性和差异所造成的影响。

00Greek that of the eastern half.
00230Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
00240The Roman writer Horace(:e0lQCQMR65-8t^ WlN0) said captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive 0
00The world s first vast interior space.NLu
N,{ Colosseum('Yt珐) is an enormous.2)Yvsb_q_gRb
00410Sculpture(QX) She-wolf(
00; Father of History ! Herodotus ! war(between Greeks and Persians)
00This war is called Peleponicion wars. ZSWTY嬒d 3
00fH[ v^l g_洺0
00; The greatest historian that ever lived. ( geggO'YvS[) ! Thucydides ! war (Sparta Athens and Syracuse)
00200The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
00210The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (Wl_ g ^Jvh)
00220From 146 B.C. Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.

11.2.2 Learner’s factors
• Learner’s factors mainly cover the following aspects:
• Motivation • Language aptitude • Age • Learning strategy
11.2.1 Social factors
Discussing Task
Group work: Have a discussion on the following questions.
1. How does (second) language acquisition take place?
2. How is foreign language learning different from second language acquisition?
The Symbolic Function of Words
Teaching Aims
1. To know what SLA is, and how the theories account for SLA. 2. To understand different factors affecting SLA 3. To know how learner’s language is analyzed 4. To cultivate students’ research awareness and innovative spirit in discovering and solving problems by analyzing the different kinds of errors and individual differeneces in SLA.

外语学习中的社会文化因素——中国环境中的社会文化因素及学习者英语成绩的相关分析外语学习中的社会文化因素——中国环境中的社会文化因素及学习者英语成绩的相关分析湘潭大学硕士学位论文外语学习中的社会文化因素中国环境中的社会文化因素与学习者英语成绩的相关分析姓名谭江竹申请学位级别硕士专业英语语言文学指导教师文卫平20050501摘要第二语言习得简称二语习得的研究于20 世纪60 年代末70 年代初作为一门独立的学科发展起来了从那时起到现在的三十多年里这一领域的研究在各方面都取得了较大的成就一般说来二语习得的研究可以分为三类中介语研究学习者内部因素研究学习者外部因素研究学习者外部因素包括社会环境家庭环境学校环境课堂环境和教学方法总的来说可以归纳为社会文化因素国内外的研究者对二语习得中的社会文化因素做了大量的调查研究但是国外的研究多于国内的研究且多局限于二语习得环境在中国环境里进行的研究则很少国内学者虽然关注社会文化因素和外语学习但他们研究的中心大多是学习动机及其与外语成绩的关系而对于社会文化因素只是附带的研究主要关注中国环境中的社会文化因素及其与外语成绩的相关性研究也相对较少并且在有限的社会文化因素和外语学习研究中大都是理论研究缺乏实证检验此外国内研究者一般将态度和动机看作是一个情感因素涉及学习者态度与成绩关系的研究也很少因此本研究试图在Gardner 社会教育模式的基础上运用定量的方法探讨中国环境中影响学习者态度的社会文化因素及其与外语成绩之间的关系包括学习者态度与成绩的相关性本研究对 339 名湘潭大学非英语专业二年级的学生进行了问卷调查调查所得数据资料利用SPSS120借助描述性统计以及相关检验统计方法进行分析研究发现1社会主导性不同文化民族间的接触未来使用外语的机会文化间的差异说该语言的人的数量社会对外语水平的要求以及外语课堂情境因素包括外语课的质量外语教师外语教材和外语学习氛围会对学习者的语言学习产生影响2 社会主导性不同文化民族间的接触未来使用外语的机会说该语言的人的数量社会对外语水平的要求以及外语教师与学习者的语言成绩的关系呈正相关而外语课的质量与学习者的语言成绩呈负相关3学习者对外语课堂情境因素的态度与学习者的外语成2绩呈正相关而对外国文化外国人的态度与外语学习成绩的相关检测未获得支持这说明了外语情境与二语情境中影响学习者外语学习的社会文化因素存在差异另一方面也说明了社会文化环境影响学习者的态度继而影响学习者成绩的过程中还受其他多种因素的影响该研究具有以下教学启示中国环境中的社会文化因素对学习者的态度产生影响继而作用于学习者的动机并最终影响学习成绩因此激发处于特定社会文化环境中的学习者的语言学习动机很有必要1教师应加强对学生关于社会环境特点的正面宣传教育激发学生的社会责任动机和个人发展动机2教师应通过将西方文化知识融入英语教学提高学生对英语语言文化的内在兴趣具体来说教师在分析课文时应有意识地导入相关的文化知识教师应创造一个高效率的学习环境将学生置身于真实或虚拟的英语文化场景中以提高学生的英语学习效率同时教师应鼓励学生将其对英语的兴趣延伸至课外3教师应帮助建立一个和谐的英语课堂氛围关键词二语习得社会文化因素态度成绩中国环境3AbstractSecond language acquisition SLA research began to be recognized as a discipline in its own right around the end of 1960s and the early1970s and has a history of 35 years so far During this period SLA research has made great achievements which involve a broad range of questions from a wide variety of perspectives In general SLA researchmainly involves three major aspects interlanguage research learners internal factors research and learners external factors research Learners external factors mainly include social context homeenvironment school surroundings classroom and teaching methods all of which can be called socio-cultural factors Both western and domesticresearchers have conducted a great number of researches concerning socio-cultural factors in SLA However western researches far outweighdomestic researches with theories and practice are concerned and mostare confined to the L2 acquisition context while few studies are carriedout in the Chinese context Though domestic researchers have paid attention to socio-cultural factors and foreign language learning theirresearch focus is always on the learning motivation or its relation withachievement with socio-cultural factors as a side research Fewresearches focus on the socio-cultural factors in Chinese milieu and thecorrelation between socio-cultural factors and learners achievements Inthe rare studies that focus on socio-cultural factors and foreign languagelearning most are theoretical illustrations without abase of statisticaldata to support the theory In addition in many domestic researches both attitude and motivation are regarded as one affective factorfewresearches deal with the relation between attitude and achievement So this thesis is to conduct the quantitative study on socio-culturalfactors in Chinese milieu influencing learners in EFL classroom and thecorrelation between socio-cultural factors and learners achievements4including the correlation between learners attitudesand achievementson the basis of Gardners socio-educational model The questionnaire investigation was held among 339 non-English major second yearcollege students randomly selected from Xiangtan university All the data statistics are analyzed and obtained by means of SPSS120 for windows with descriptive statistical method and relevant test method Results of the research show 1 social dominance inter-group contacts cultural difference opportunities of using English in the futurelifenumber of English speakers societal requirement of Englishproficiencysituational factors of EFL classroom including the quality ofEnglishclass the climate of English study the content of English teaching materials and English teachers have effects on learners 2 social dominance inter-group contacts opportunities of using English in the future life number of English speakers societal requirement of Englishproficiency and English teachers have positive correlation with learnersEnglish achievements but the quality of Englishclass have negativecorrelation with learners English achievements 3 attitudes toward situational factors of EFL classroom have positive correlation with learners English achievements while attitudes toward target language culture and native speakers of target language have no correlation withlearners English achievements This indicates that socio-cultural factorsaffecting target language learning in foreign language situation are different from those in second language situation On the other hand this indicates that there are various factors involved in theprocess ofEnglish learningSince the socio-cultural factors in Chinese milieu are causally relatedto students attitudes which in turn influence their motivation whichhave direct effect on English learning outcomes it is necessary to arousethe learning motivation of students in the specific socio-cultural milieuThe study provides some implications for English teaching 1 Teachers5should strengthen the positive publicity and guidance about thesocialmilieu to arouse students social responsibility motivation and individualdevelopment motivation 2 Teachers should elevate students intrinsic interest in English language and culture by integrating culture into theEnglish teaching Firstly teachers should introduce the related culturalknowledge consciously while analyzing a text Secondly teachersshould create a high-efficient learning environment put students in realor virtual English culture scenes to improvestudents efficiency inEnglish learning Thirdly teachers should encourage students toextendtheir interest in English outside classroom 3 Teachers should helptocreate a harmonious atmosphere in the English classroomKey Words second language acquisition socio-cultural factor attitude achievement Chinese milieu6IntroductionSince China has implemented the reform and open policy especially China joined the WTO international association among our country and other countries have become frequent day by dayOpportunities forintercultural communication have been increasingly growing Thus the people who are capable of communicating with both native andnon-native speakers will be in greater demand throughout the society Soforeign language study has become a primary task It is a commonphenomenon that foreign language learners reach the linguistic and communicative competence to different degrees and at different paces for there are many factors involved in the differences To be more exactthe differences are partly caused by psychological factors eglanguageaptitude learning style motivation personality and anxiety etc and also partly determined by socio-cultural factors However in many casesresearchers pay more attention to internal factors in analyzing thedifferences while their researches into external factors are restrainedSecond language acquisition SLA is a complex process by whichpeople develop proficiency in a second or foreign language involving many interrelated factors Second language acquisition research began to be recognized as a discipline in its own right around the end of 1960sand the early 1970s and has a history of 35 years so far Block 2003 During this period SLA research has made great achievements which involved a broad range of questions from a wide variety of perspectivesFor example interlanguage and the natural route of development in second language acquisition individual learner differences and the universal hypothesis etc In general SLA research mainly involves three major aspects interlanguage research learners internal factors research and learners external factors research Wen Wang 20049Learners external factors mainly include social context homeenvironment school surroundings classroom and teaching methodswhich can also be called socio-cultural factors As far as learners external factors research is concerned researchers are always interestedin two aspects one is to investigate their effects on interlanguage theother is about their effects on learners internal factors which may havedirect effect on learners L2 proficiencyLanguages are social mechanism and are learned in social context Spolsky 1989 Hymes 1972 and else where has also continuallystressed the social nature of language Social accounts of second language learning have been primarily concerned with second language proficiency Ellis 1994 Social factors have an important but indirect effect on L2 proficiency Their effect is mediated by a number of variables among which attitudes are one set of important variables Social factors help to shape learners attitudes which in turn influencelearning outcomes Ellis 1994 Then the questions arise What are the socio-cultural factors affecting learners attitudes What is the relationbetween socio-cultural factors and L2 proficiency What about the relation between attitudes and L2 proficiencyGenerally second language acquisition is a general term thatincludes foreign language learning unless there is need todistinguishthe two The term second language acquisition means that thelanguage is not a native language in a country but is widely used as amedium of communication and is usually used alongside anotherlanguage or languages For example English as a second language is learnt in Fiji Singapore and Nigeria In contrast foreign language learning takes place in settings where the language is taught as a subject in schools but not used as a medium of instruction in educationor as a language of communication eg in government business orindustry within the community10In Chinese milieu English is taught and learnt mainly in theclassroom as a foreign language which means that students learn the language mostly by formal instruction and that they have fewopportunities to interact with speakers of target language compared withsecond language learners Foreign language learners will beinfluencedby specific socio-cultural factors Socio-cultural factors in the specificsocial milieu will influence not only the process of language learningbut also the result of language learning language proficiencyachievementThe present study sets out to identify the socio-cultural factors in foreign language learning and tries to explore whether there is a correlation between socio-cultural factors and learners Englishachievements in Chinese milieu including the correlation between learners attitudes and achievements It is mainly to make English teachers more aware of the important role socio-cultural factorsplayinEFL learning and benefit teachers to take effective teaching methods helping learners to improve English achievements and develop high English proficiencyThis thesis consists of five parts The first part is theintroductionabout the background to the present study including the development ofSLA research the social context in which Chinese students learnEnglish and the objective and significance of the present study The second part is a literature review of the major achievementsobtained instudying socio-cultural factors in SLA The third part is anempiricalstudy on socio-cultural factors and their effects on learnersEnglishachievements in Chinese milieu on the basis of Gardnerssocio-educational model The fourth part is implications and suggestionsbased on the analysis The last part is the conclusion includinglimitations of the present study and suggestions for the future research11Chapter 1 Literature Review of the Studies on Socio-culturalFactors in SLA11 Western Researches on Socio-cultural FactorsIn western countries there are a number of researches carried out on L2 learners external factors including the exploration of political social cultural factors influencing second language acquisition Conklin, Lourie 1983 the effect of social economic and political factors on language policy and planning in various contexts Fierman 1991Phillipson 1992 Twine 1991 the relationship between society andsecond language learning with learners age gender social class and ethnic identity involved Ellis 1994 the social models of secondlanguage acquisition Gardner 19791985 Schumann 1978a 1978b1986 Giles , Byrne 1982 and the social conditions for secondlanguage learning Spolsky 1989 In addition the role of attitude in second language learning has been extensively researched by Lambert and Gardner and their associates For exampleGardner and Lambert1972 Gardner 1985 The researches have laid a solid foundation for socio-cultural factors in SLA research In the following are themajorachievements of the researchers such as Gardner R Schumann JSpolsky B Ellis R Lambert W and etc which provide theoreticbasis for the present studycom Socio-educational ModelSince 1958 Gardner began to research on motivational variables from social views in second language acquisition whichwas guided by hisadvisor Wallace E Lambert The socio–educational modelwas firstproposed in 1974 in a final grant report authored by Gardner Smythe12Kirby and Bramwell although it was never published Schumann 1975 observed in an article that the model provides a powerful framework within which the dynamic social and psychological facts involved in second language acquisition can be understood The model hasundergone a series of versions Gardner 1979 1981 1983 1985 totake into account more information involved in the processGardners socio–educational model focuses on four variables social milieu individual differences language acquisition contexts andoutcomes which are causally interplay in second language acquisition process Second language acquisition takes place in a social milieuinwhich the cultural beliefs influence the development of two sets ofattitudinal variablesintegrativeness and attitudes toward the learningsituation –which in turn influence motivation that has directeffecton L2proficiency The following figure Figure 11 is the socio-educational model that emphasizes its major operational characteristicsLANGUAGESOCIAL ACQUISITIONMILIEU INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CONTEXTS OUTCOMESIntegrative motiveIntegrativenessCulturalbeliefs MotivationFormalLinguisticAttitudes towardthe learningsituationNon-Informal linguisticLanguageaptitudeFigure 11 Gardners 1985 socio-educational model13Integrativeness is a cluster of attitudes relating to outgroups and foreign languages in general as well as attitudes toward thespecificlanguage community and integrative orientations to language study Gardner Lalonde and Pierson 1983 While attitudes toward thelearning situation involve two primary aspects evaluation of the language teacher and evaluation of thelanguage course such aslearners attitudes toward teachers L2 class and textbooks etcCompared with other parts this part is more dynamic Gardner 2000 The social and cultural milieu in which learners grow up determines their beliefs about language and culture and influences the extent towhich they identify with the TL culture and also the extent to which theyhold positive attitudes toward the learning situationThe strength of the model explains how setting is related toproficiency one of the primary goals of any social theory of SLAby positing a series of intervening variables attitudes motivation self-confidence and by trying to plot how these are interrelated and howthey affect learning Gardner recognized the need to pay close attentionto the social milieu but he didnt give more account of socio-culturalfactors that determine the attitudinal variables of the modelbesides thetwo 1 importance of language objectives and 2 opportunities to use thelanguage Spolsky 1989In terms of socio-educational model Gardner himself emphasized the fact that his model is empirical and developing So from 1970snumerous researchers and practitioners carried on a series of researchesrelated to Gardners model For example Gardner Lalonde and Pierson 1983 Lalonde , Gardner 1984 and Dornyei 1990 tested thevalidity of the model Tremblay and Gardner 1995 expanded the model by adding three elements ie goal salience valence and self-efficacy One research by Genesee Rogers and Holobow 1983 stressed thesocial context of the relevance of integrativeness and found that L214learners perceptions of the TL Groups support for learning their language is positively correlated with the learners self rated proficiencyin the language and to their reported willingness to belong tosocialgroups that include members of the TL groupcom Other Models concerning Socio-cultural FactorsApart from Gardners socio-educational model there are many other models involving researches on socio-cultural factors and second language proficiency among which thewell-known model isSchumanns acculturation modelSince 1975 John Schumann has been working on the acculturationmodel that tries to clarify the importance of both social and effectivefactors on L2 learning The acculturation model is designed to identifymajor causing variables underlying natural L2 acquisition Gardner 1985 and explain social factors effects on L2 learning in natural setting That is to say the model excludes the learners who receive formal instruction in formal contextAcculturation is defined generally as the process of becomingadapted to a new culture Brown 1980 129 According to Schumann1978a 1978b 1978c learners will acquire the L2 only to the degree that they acculturate and the extent to which learners acculturate depends on two sets of factorssocialpsychological factorsthatdetermine learners levels of social and psychological distance The various social and psychological factors that Schumann identified are ofimportance Social factors are primary Ellis 1994231 whichdetermine social distance including social dominance integration pattern enclosure cohesiveness size cultural congruence attitude and intended length of residenceAs Schumann 1986 acknowledged the acculturation model hasreceived only limited support Maples 1982 study might be taken as15support for the model which found a strong relationship betweensocialdistance and measures of L2 English proficiency Seven out of the eightsocial factors were negatively correlated with proficiency Thesocialfactors in descending area of importance were attitudes social class cohesiveness intended length of residence size of L2 group enclosure and perceived status which were found to have a significant effectonL2 English proficiency It should be pointed out that the subjects werereceiving L2 instruction in classrooms While other studies for exampleStauble 1984 Schmidt 1983 failed to support the model because no relationship between social distance and development was found Oneofthe reasons for the mixed results is the problem of measurement ofacculturation Schumann has ever proposed that the direct effect of thedifferent social factors on L2 acquisition is mediated in terms of theamount of learners contact with TL speakers However the greatest failing of the acculturation model is that there is no explanation abouthow social factors influence the quality of contact that learners experience Ellis 1994Spolsky s 1989 general theory of L2 learning tries to solve theproblem ie Who learns How much of What languageunder Whatconditions It calls on a model to explore how to specify the conditionsunder which learning takes place Spolsky concluded 74 conditions for L2 learning There are a number of conditions described for thesocialcontext such as Number of Speakers condition Great Traditioncondition and Linguistic Convergence condition etc which areconditions that affect attitudes and opportunities for learning The Exposure condition Integrative Motivation condition and Language Values condition etc are conditions relating to attitudes and motivationof second language learnersAccording to Spolsky the conditions described for the social context influence second language learning in two ways one is that they lead to16a learners attitudes which are divisible into those toward the communityspeaking the target language and into those toward the learningsituations These two kinds of attitude are parallel to Gardnersintegrativeness and attitudes toward learning situation insocio-educational model The other lies in the provision of opportunitiesfor language learning which may be grouped into formal and informal situations The variables in the model so far are social context attitudesof various kinds motivation personal characteristics such as age personality capabilities previous knowledge learning opportunities formal or informal and linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes forthelearner The whole process can be showed in the following figureFigure 12AgeLinguisticAttitudes PersonalityAndSocialof various n Learning Non-linguisticoicontext takinds v opportunities outcomesitoMCapabilities For the learnerPreviousknowledgeFigure 12 Spolskys 1989 model of second language learningIn this regard the causal relation that social context leads to attitudeswhich appear in the learner as motivation that joins with other personalcharacteristics and finally the interplay between learner and situationdetermines learners language proficiency is similar to the linear relationof the socio-educational model However its difference from Gardners17model is partly in details of the theory and partly in the implications ofthe preference modelcom Social Context of SLASecond language learning of any kind takesplace in a socialcontext Spolsky 198925 In general the language-learning contexts include formal context and informal context Dulay Burt and Krashen 1982 which are also called educational context and natural context correspondingly In educational contexts formal learning takes place through conscious attention to rules and principles and the emphasis ison mastery of linguistic knowledge While informal learning occurs in natural contexts which is considered to result from direct participationand observation and what is learnt is its social significance aswell as thesubject matter Krashen 1976 1985 claimed that there are twoindependent ways of learning a second language acquisition andlearning ie conscious learning process and subconscious learning process corresponding to what occurs to language learners ineducational and natural contexts separatelyLearners L2 learning is influenced by the context they are in whichhas been shaped by socio-cultural factors Social factors determine thelearning opportunities which individual learners experience Ellis 1994Following Judd 1978 natural contexts can be identified into three typesmajority language context official language context andinternationallanguage context due to the various speakers with whom the L2 learnersmay communicate for example native speakers of the language or other L2 users Skuttnab-Kangas 1986 1988 distinguished four broad types of educational context segregation mother tongue maintenancelanguage shelter submersion and immersion among which L2learners are all in multilingual settings but what occurs in various educational contexts are different which is crucial to learners L218proficiency Ellis 1994 added a fifth type foreign language classroomsas an additional context found in monolingual situations The languageclassroom is a setting where the target language is taught as a subjectonly and is not commonly used as a medium of communication outsidethe classroom It includes both foreign language classrooms andsecond language classrooms With regard to the language classroom the role relationships between teacher and student are likely to be crucialEllis 1994 227 According to Ellis informal learning is not onlypossible but is actively encouraged in classroom learning situation com Researches on Attitudinal Variables in SLAIn exploring the role of attitudes in SLA many researchers madegreat contributions Gardner and Lambert began to research bilingual skill development from the perspective of emotions and attitudes Gardner , Lambert 1959 1972Social factors influence L2 proficiency indirectly and attitudes are one set of important variables involved in the process of L2acquisitionEllis 1994 As far as attitude is concerned L2 learners havedifferentattitudes toward the target language target language speakers the target-language culture the social value of learning the L2particularuses of the target language and themselves as members of their own culture In general positive attitudes toward the target language the target ethnolinguistic group and its culture may enhance learning whilenegative attitudes to impede learning see Gardner , Lambert 1972Gardner , Smythe 1975 Gardner and Smythe 1975 have foundthat persistence in language study and eagerness to interact in languageclasses also hinge on learners attitudes and motivation Gardner 1981 However it does not follow that learners with negative attitudes towardthe target language culture will invariably fail to learn the L2 for thereare other factors affecting the outcomes Ellis 1994210 noted thatthe19relationship between attitudes and L2 learning is almost certainly bi-directional and dynamic and is likely to vary according tosettingLearners attitudes have an impact on their level of L2 proficiency andare themselves influenced by this success The attitudes would become more tolerant as proficiency in the second language increased Lambert1987 While some researchers didnt find neat relation betweenattitudes and second language achievement For example Genesee and Hamayan 1980Another result concerning attitude is about measurement of variouskinds of attitude Among the main characteristics of attitudes providedby Baker 1988 there is one concerning that attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolarthey vary in degree of favorabilityunfavorabilityAttitudes can be measured both directly and indirectly For example theSemantic Differential Technique Spolskys 1969 Identity Scale are indirect measurement while direct measurement of attitudes usually involves self-report questionnaires taking the form of a series of statements to which learners respond on a five-point scale Gardner andLambert 1972 used this kind of question extensively in their studies ofattitudes According to Lambert 1977 the stereotype the feeling and the reaction tendency are three major components of attitude Typical measurement methods are used to reflect mainly one component oranother For example the stereotype component is measured through rating scales the feeling and reaction components are measured throughdirect questioning and multidimensional scaling procedurescom Researches on Situational Factors in Language ClassroomGardners socio-educational model 1985 involves the great socialcontext that may influence learners attitudes and motivation while。

西方和东方道德价值观的雅思英语作文【中英文实用版】**Western and Eastern Moral Values**In the tapestry of global culture, the contrast between Western and Eastern moral values is a subject of immense interest.The West, with its emphasis on individualism, personal freedom, and rights, stands in stark contrast to the East, where collectivism, societal harmony, and responsibilities often take precedence.This essay aims to explore these differences and their implications.Western society promotes a moral framework that centers around the individual.The rights and freedoms of the person are considered sacred, leading to a moral code that prioritizes personal autonomy and self-expression.This is evident in the Western world"s focus on human rights, individual entrepreneurship, and the pursuit of personal happiness.Conversely, Eastern morality is deeply rooted in the collective well-being of society.The emphasis is on maintaining harmony within the community, respecting authority, and fulfilling one"s role in the social order.Concepts like "face" and "filial piety" underscore the importance of maintaining social equilibrium and honor.One key difference is in the interpretation of success.In the West, success is often measured by individual achievements and the ability to stand out from the crowd.Eastern societies, however, tend to value groupsuccess and the ability to contribute to the well-being of the community.Moreover, the concept of truth is another area where these values diverge.Westerners are inclined towards directness and transparency, often valuing the truth above other considerations.In contrast, Eastern cultures may prioritize maintaining harmony and saving face, leading to a more nuanced approach to truth-telling.The implications of these contrasting moral values are far-reaching.They affect international relations, business ethics, and even personal interactions.Understanding and respecting these differences are crucial for fostering mutual understanding and cooperation in our increasingly globalized world.**西方与东方道德价值观**在全球文化的大背景下，西方与东方道德价值观的对立是一个极具吸引力的议题。

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文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢! 并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注! Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practicalproblems. The document can be customized andmodifedafter downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you! In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentenceexcerpts.ancient poems.classic articles.topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copy excerpts,other materials and so on,want toknow different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention! The Value of Justice in SocietyJustice is the cornerstone of a fair and well-functioning society. It ensures that everyone is treated equally and that their rights are protected. When justice prevails, individuals feel secure in their communities and trust in the legal system. Just laws create a sense of order and promote a harmonious coexistence among people from diverse backgrounds. Moreover, justice plays a crucial role in addressing inequalities and righting wrongs. It provides a platform for resolving disputes and holding individuals accountable for their actions. By upholding justice, we not only maintain social stability but also uphold the principles of morality and ethics.In conclusion, the value of justice in society cannot be overstated. It serves as a beaconof hope, guiding us towards a more equitable and compassionate world.。

The Value of Learning Through ChessLearning through chess is a valuable and enriching experience that offers a wide range of benefits for individuals of all ages. Whether it's learning the basics of the game as a child or honing strategic thinking skills as an adult, the value of chess as an educational tool cannot be overstated. From improving cognitive abilities to fostering social skills, the impact of chess on personal development is profound. In this essay, I will explore the various ways in which learning through chess can positively influence individuals, as well as the broader implications of incorporating chess into educational curriculums. One of the most significant benefits of learning through chess is the enhancement of cognitive abilities. The game requires players to think critically, analyze complex situations, and make strategic decisions, all of which stimulate the brain and improve cognitive function. Studies have shown that regular engagement with chess can lead to improved memory, concentration, and problem-solving skills. This is particularly beneficial for children, as their brains are still developing, and exposure to activities that challenge their cognitive abilities can have a lasting impact on their intellectual growth. Furthermore, chess is a game that fosters creativity and originality. In order to succeed at chess, players must think outside the box, anticipate their opponent's moves, and devise innovative strategies. This encourages individuals to think creatively and approach problems from different angles, skills that are invaluable in various aspects of life. By learning through chess, individuals can cultivate a mindset that valuesoriginality and embraces unconventional thinking, qualities that are essential for success in today's rapidly changing world. In addition to cognitive and creative benefits, learning through chess also has a significant impact on emotional and social development. The game teaches individuals how to cope with failure, as losing is an inevitable part of the learning process. This resilience is a crucial life skill that can help individuals navigate challenges and setbacks with grace and determination. Furthermore, chess is a social activity that encourages interaction and communication. Whether playing with friends, family, or in organized tournaments, individuals have the opportunity to develop social skills such as sportsmanship, teamwork, and conflict resolution. From an educationalperspective, the value of learning through chess is increasingly recognized and integrated into school curriculums around the world. Many schools have implemented chess programs as part of their educational offerings, recognizing the numerous benefits that the game provides for students. By incorporating chess into the classroom, educators can support the development of critical thinking skills, enhance academic performance, and promote a positive school culture. Furthermore, chess can be a valuable tool for promoting inclusivity and diversity, as it is a game that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers, providing a common ground for individuals from diverse backgrounds to come together and engage in meaningful and enriching experiences. The value of learning through chess extends beyond individual development and educational settings, as it also has broader societal implications. By promoting the game of chess and providing access to resources and opportunities for individuals to learn and play, communities can foster a culture of intellectual growth, creativity, and resilience. Chess has the power to bring people together, bridge divides, and inspire collaboration and cooperation. In a world that is increasingly interconnected and interdependent, the skills and values cultivated through chess are more relevant than ever, making it a valuable tool for promoting positive social change and collective progress. In conclusion, the value of learning through chess is multifaceted and far-reaching. From cognitive and creative benefits to emotional and social development, the impact of chess on individuals is profound. By incorporating chess into educational curriculums and promoting the game within communities, we can harness itspotential to foster intellectual growth, creativity, and resilience. As we continue to recognize the value of learning through chess, we can empower individuals of all ages to develop the skills and mindset needed to thrive in an ever-changing world.。

The Value of Cultural Exchange Cultural exchange is an invaluable aspect of human interaction that has the power to shape our understanding of the world and foster mutual respect and appreciation for different traditions, customs, and ways of life. The value of cultural exchange cannot be overstated, as it enriches our lives in countless ways and contributes to the promotion of peace, understanding, and collaboration on a global scale. From the sharing of art, music, and cuisine to the exchange of ideas and beliefs, cultural exchange serves as a bridge that connects people from diverse backgrounds and facilitates meaningful connections that transcend borders and boundaries. One of the most significant benefits of cultural exchange is the opportunity it provides for individuals to gain a deeper understanding of and appreciation for different cultures. When we engage in cultural exchange, we have the chance to learn about the history, traditions, and values of others, which can broaden our perspectives and challenge our preconceived notions. This exposure to new ways of thinking and living can be incredibly enriching and can inspire us to embrace diversity and celebrate the unique contributions of every culture. Moreover, cultural exchange fosters a sense of empathy and compassion as we come to recognize the common humanity that unites us all. By engaging with people from different cultural backgrounds, we are reminded of our shared experiences and aspirations, and we develop a greater sense of empathy for the challenges and triumphs of others. This empathy can serve as a powerful catalyst for social change and can motivate us to work towards creating a more inclusive and equitable society. Furthermore, cultural exchange has the potential to promote economic growth and development by fostering international cooperation and collaboration. When different cultures come together, there is an opportunity for the exchange of goods, services, and ideas, which can lead to economic benefits for all parties involved. Additionally, cultural tourism and the sharing of cultural products can contribute to the economic prosperity of communities and regions, creating opportunities for sustainable development and growth. From a global perspective, cultural exchange plays a crucial role in promoting peace and understanding among nations. By fostering open dialogue and mutual respect, cultural exchange can help to bridge divides and mitigate conflicts that arise from misunderstandings andignorance. When people from different cultures come together to share their stories, traditions, and values, they create a foundation for peaceful coexistence and cooperation, laying the groundwork for a more harmonious and interconnected world. In addition to its social and economic benefits, cultural exchange can also have a profound impact on individual development and personal growth. When we engage with different cultures, we have the opportunity to challenge our own assumptions and biases, which can lead to personal transformation and self-discovery. By stepping outside of our comfort zones and embracing new experiences, we can cultivate a greater sense of resilience, adaptability, and open-mindedness, all of which are essential qualities for navigating an increasingly interconnected and diverse world. Finally, cultural exchange has the power to inspire creativity and innovation by exposing us to new perspectives and ways of thinking. When we encounter different cultural traditions and artistic expressions, we are often inspired to incorporate elements of these influences into our own creative pursuits, leading to the development of new and exciting forms of artistic expression. This cross-pollination of ideas and influences can lead to the creation of innovative solutions to complex challenges and can contribute to the enrichment of global cultural heritage. In conclusion, the value of cultural exchange is immeasurable, as it enriches our lives in countless ways and contributes to the promotion of peace, understanding, and collaboration on a global scale. From fostering empathy and compassion to promoting economic growth and inspiring creativity and innovation, cultural exchange has the power to shape our understanding of the world and foster mutual respect and appreciation for different traditions, customs, and ways of life. As we continue to engage in cultural exchange, it is essential that we embrace the diversity of the world and celebrate the unique contributions of every culture, recognizing that our shared humanity unites us all.。

The Value of Cultural Exchange In an increasingly interconnected world, cultural exchange has become an essential aspect of human civilization, fostering understanding, cooperation, and progress. The value of cultural exchange lies not merely in the appreciation of diverse traditions and perspectives but also in its potential to bridge dividesand create a more inclusive and harmonious global community. One of the primary benefits of cultural exchange is the broadening of horizons and the enrichment of perspectives. When individuals engage with cultures different from their own, they are exposed to new ideas, beliefs, and ways of life. This exposure challenges preconceived notions, encourages critical thinking, and fosters a deeper understanding of the world's complexities. By stepping outside the confines ofone's own cultural bubble, individuals can develop empathy and appreciation forthe diversity of human experience. Cultural exchange also serves as a powerful catalyst for economic growth and development. By facilitating the sharing of knowledge, technology, and best practices, cross-cultural collaborations can stimulate innovation and create new opportunities for trade and investment. For instance, the exchange of ideas between scientists from different countries hasled to groundbreaking discoveries in medicine, engineering, and other fields. Moreover, tourism, driven by the desire to experience different cultures, has become a major industry, generating revenue and creating jobs worldwide. Furthermore, cultural exchange plays a vital role in promoting peace and diplomacy. By fostering dialogue and understanding between people from different backgrounds, it helps to break down barriers and build bridges of trust. Cultural diplomacy initiatives, such as art exhibitions, music festivals, and educational exchanges, provide platforms for people to connect on a human level, transcending political differences and promoting cross-cultural understanding. However, it is important to approach cultural exchange with sensitivity and respect. The goal should not be to homogenize cultures but rather to appreciate their uniqueness and value.Cultural appropriation, which involves the exploitative use of elements from another culture without proper acknowledgement or respect, should be avoided. Genuine cultural exchange requires a spirit of reciprocity and a willingness to learn from and engage with different perspectives. In conclusion, culturalexchange is an invaluable asset in our interconnected world, enriching our perspectives, fostering economic growth, promoting peace, and contributing to a more inclusive and harmonious global community. By embracing diversity, engaging in meaningful dialogue, and approaching cultural exchange with respect and sensitivity, we can harness its power to create a brighter future for all.。

The Value of Practicing GratitudeAs we come to the end of another year, it is a natural time to reflect on the past twelve months and consider what we have achieved, experienced, and learned. It is also a time to look ahead to the future and set new goals and aspirations for the coming year. In this process of reflection and planning, one important practice that can greatly enhance our sense of well-being and satisfaction is gratitude.Gratitude is the practice of acknowledging and appreciating the good things in our lives, both big and small. It is about recognizing the positive aspects of our experiences, relationships, and circumstances, and expressing thanks for them. While it may seem like a simple and perhaps even trivial practice, the act of practicing gratitude has been shown to have numerous benefits for our mental, emotional, and physical well-being.One of the key benefits of practicing gratitude is thatit helps us to focus on the positive aspects of our lives, rather than dwelling on the negative. In a world that is often filled with stress, uncertainty, and challenges, it can be easy to get caught up in what is going wrong and overlook what is going right. By intentionally cultivating a sense of gratitude, we can shift our perspective andtrain our minds to notice and appreciate the good things that are present in our lives.In addition to helping us focus on the positive, practicing gratitude has also been shown to improve our overall sense of well-being and happiness. When we take the time to reflect on the things we are grateful for, we are reminded of the abundance and richness of our lives, which can lead to feelings of contentment, joy, and fulfillment. Studies have shown that people who regularly practice gratitude report higher levels of happiness, optimism, and life satisfaction, as well as lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.Furthermore, practicing gratitude can also have a positive impact on our relationships with others. When weexpress gratitude to those around us, whether it be friends, family, colleagues, or strangers, we strengthen our connections and foster a sense of mutual appreciation and support. Gratitude can help to build trust, deepen relationships, and create a positive and uplifting atmosphere in our interactions with others.As we look back on the past year and consider all that we have experienced and achieved, it is important to takethe time to acknowledge and appreciate the good things that have come our way. Whether it be moments of joy, accomplishments at work, acts of kindness from others, or simply the beauty of nature, there is always something tobe grateful for. By practicing gratitude, we can cultivatea sense of abundance, positivity, and fulfillment in our lives, and set the stage for a new year filled with hope, optimism, and gratitude.In conclusion, the value of practicing gratitude cannot be overstated. By taking the time to acknowledge and appreciate the good things in our lives, we can cultivate a sense of well-being, happiness, and fulfillment. Gratitudecan help us to focus on the positive, improve our relationships with others, and create a more positive and uplifting outlook on life. As we move forward into the new year, let us make a commitment to practice gratitude regularly, and reap the many benefits that it has to offer.。

《应用语言学》课程教学大纲课程代码：ENGL2049课程类别：专业选修课授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：秋（第7学期）学分： 2主讲教师：王宇指定教材：1.《应用语言学》（第二版），乐眉云主编，南京师范大学出版社，2004年。

2.《第二语言习得研究与外语学习》，丁言仁，上海外语教育出版社，2004年。

教学目的（含课程内容和考核方式）应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。

狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学，特别是指第二语言教学或外语教学。

广义的应用语言学则涵盖所有与语言和语言学应用有关的学科，包括第二语言习得、社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学等等。

本课程将重点选取与学生英语学习密切相关的领域——即第二语言习得和第二语言教学——进行分析和讨论。

本课程是面向英语和英语教育专业所有学生的一门专业选修课，其教学目的为：●帮助学生了解第二语言习得和第二语言教学方面的基本理论和主要论题，培养学生的研究兴趣和一定的批评能力；●引导学生自觉地运用应用语言学原理指导和促进英语学习；●掌握基本的应用语言学研究方法，为撰写毕业论文打下基础。

本课程分三个模块，主要内容包括：模块一：第二语言习得，包括学习者语言/中介语、影响第二语言习得的外在因素、第二语言习得的内在机制、学习者个体差异、二语习得理论、课堂教学与第二语言习得等。

模块二：第二语言教学，包括语言技能（包括听、说、读、写）的教学和语言评估。

模块三：应用语言学的研究方法和论文写作。

考核方式：课堂讨论（20%），课外文献阅读（30%），以小组为单位的项目报告（50%）。

第一课 Orientation课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容：第一节What is applied linguistics?The Role of Applied LinguisticsThe Nature of Applied Linguistics第二节Why should we study applied linguistics?Applied Linguistics and the Language Teacher思考题:1.What is the relationship between Linguistics and applied linguistics:hierarchy or partnership?2.Can there be a unitary theory of applied linguistics, or indeed dotheories of applied linguistics exist at all?3.Should applied linguists be theoretical?模块一（第2课——第8课）：Essential Concepts and Theories in SLA第二课 Puzzles in SLA & The Influence of Behaviorism课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容第一节SLA as a Field of LearningIssues for Exploration第二节The “Interference” of L1The behaviorist Understanding of SLAContrastive AnalysisCriticism from Empirical Research思考题：1.Think of more features on which students make errors sometimes butdo fairly well other times. Describe the conditions under which they tend to err and those under which they tend to get it correct.2.Think of a few areas of difficulty for advanced Chinese learners ofEnglish. Do there areas represent features that are overtly or slightly different from their Chinese counterparts?第三课 The “Chomskyan Revolution”课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容第一节Chomskyan LinguisticsCriticisms of Chomskyan Linguistics第二节Interlanguage HypothesisError analysis思考题：1.Give examples of errors young children make when they are learningto speak Chinese. You may recall the errors you yourself made when you were little.2.Sometimes sentences may look similar, but their functions can be verydifferent. Compare “Jack comes here”with “Here comes Jack.”What are their differences? Think of situations in which you can use one but not the other.第四课 Natural Order and comprehensible Input课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容第一节Natural Order HypothesisMorpheme Studies and Their findings第二节Problems with Error Analysis and Morpheme StudiesComprehensible Input Hypothesis思考题：1.If you know any international students or any other non-nativespeakers of Chinese, carefully observe their speech. Do they make errors that are similar to those you once made when you were a child?2.What are the flaws in Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis?第五课 Variability in Performance and Acquisition课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容第一节Variability in L1 UseVariability in L2 Language Learner第二节Role of Variability in SLALearner Variation思考题：1.Discuss the possible reasons for the L2 performance variation foundin the Foster and Skehan study and Zhu Lingzhi’s study.2.Think of as many categories as you can that would characterize yourcurrent and former classmates, such as extroverts, introverts, bookworms, athletes, loners, born leaders, social butterflies, teachers’pets, to name a few. Discuss, in small groups, how different character traits affect language learning differently, and what traits are associated with good language learning and why.第六课 Input and Interaction课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容第一节Input and Interaction in L1 AcquisitionInput and Interaction in Natural SettingsInput and Interaction in Classroom SettingsEffects of Input and Interaction on SLA第二节Criticism of the Interaction HypothesisSwain’s Output HypothesisEmpirical Studies on the Role of Interaction思考题：1.In China, we use Chinese all the time, but we may still suddenly failto recall a term (or name of a person) we want to use. What do you do if this happens to you when you are (1) shopping, (2) visiting a university president, or (3) delivering a speech to a large audience?2.Recall one of your encounters with a person from overseas who was usingChinese as his or her L2. How soon did you become aware that this person might have trouble following you? What did you do to modify your speech so that you could be correctly understood?第七课 Learner Strategies课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容第一节Production StrategiesCommunication Strategies第二节Learning StrategiesThe Role of Memorization Strategies思考题：1.Presumably, production strategies will help us with production andcommunication, but will they also help us with L2 learning? Are there any strategies that do not facilitate our learning?2.Go over the list of cognitive strategies in Table 7.1 (P.167-170) again.Of the 15 strategies listed, how many of them have to do with understanding the auditory or printed material? How many of them have to do with memorizing words and phrases? How many of them have to do with learning and applying syntactic rules?第八课 Noticing the Native Speaker Selection课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容第一节The Noticing HypothesisEffects of the Noticing Hypothesis第二节Noticing the Native Speaker SelectionA New Model of Language思考题：1.How would you compare Schumann’s research with Schmidt’s? Which ofthem is closer to your own experience of learning English or another foreign language?2.Give an example of a situation in which you yourself succeeded inunderstanding or communication even though you did not have the necessary vocabulary.模块二（第9课——第13课）：Language Skills and Assessment第九课 Listening课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is listening?Issues in listening第二节How do we gain insights in listening?From Theory to Practice: Issues in Teaching L2 Listening思考题：1.What do you think are the difficulty factors in listening?2.In many Chinese ESL classrooms, teachers are mostly “testing”ratherthan teaching listening. What is your opinion about this phenomenon?What can the teachers do to “teach” the students how to listen?第十课 Speaking and Pronunciation课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容第一节What are Speaking and Pronunciation?Issues in SpeakingIssues in Pronunciation第二节Implications for Pedagogy思考题：1.Should speaking activities focus on texts or sentences?2.What procedures are there specifically for pronunciation teaching?第十一课 Reading课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is Reading?Reading in a Second LanguageL2 Reading vs L1 Reading第二节Issues in L2 ReadingImplications of L2 Research for Instruction思考题：1.Discuss the contributing role of vocabulary knowledge for L2 readingabilities.2.It is generally agreed that extensive reading should be a componentof almost any reading program. To what extent should extensive reading be balanced with an intensive reading program containing well-considered reading instruction (for example, in reading strategies, in vocabulary, etc.)?第十二课 Writing课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容第一节Demystifying WritingAspects of Writing第二节Second Language Writing: Theory, Research, and Pedagogy思考题：ment on the three L2 writing approaches: controlled composition,the paragraph pattern approach and the process approach.第十三课 Assessment课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is Language Assessment?Fundamental Issues in Language Assessment第二节Language Assessment and Language Teaching思考题：1.Define the term “validity”.2.Discuss the relationship between language assessment and languageteaching.模块三（第十四周——第十八周）: Research Methods and Thesis Writing第十四课 Research Methods in Applied linguistics课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is research?Developing research questionsSelecting research designs第二节A survey studyAn experimental studyA case study思考题：1.What tasks does a researcher have to accomplish if a piece of researchis conducted effectively?2.What are the important differences between quantitative andqualitative designs?第十五课 Writing Up a Research Report课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容第一节The structure of a thesis / research reportWriting an introductionWriting a literature reviewDescribing methodologyReporting results and discussionWriting the conclusion chapter第二节Academic writing styleAPA writing format思考题：1.Try to get a copy of an undergraduate thesis or an MA thesis. Work witha group to comment on its structure, language, format, etc. Reading Week (第十六周)第十七课 Project Report (1)第十八课 Project Report (2)主要参考文献：1.《英语语言学纲要》，丁言仁、郝克，上海外语教育出版社，2001年。

摘要维果茨基是苏俄心理学的奠基者，社会文化历史学派的创始人。

20世纪80年代以来，国际出现“维果茨基研究热"，各国心理学家纷纷研究维果茨基的理论，挖掘理论所蕴藏的价值。

列昂捷夫和达维多夫是苏俄时期著名的心理学家，社会文化历史学派的主要成员。

在完善与发展维果茨基的理论过程中，列昂捷夫创立了“活动心理学理论”，达维多夫形成了独特的“发展性教学理论”，这些理论对苏俄心理学起了巨大的推动作用，在国际心理学界也产生了很大的影响。

社会文化历史学派的认知发展理论内涵丰富，影响深远，对教育教学有重大的指导意义。

本文是对维果茨基认知发展理论的发展及教育启示的述评：一是从心理起源与心理发展、活动、教学与发展、儿童心理发展阶段这四个方面论述了维果茨基的认知发展理论和列昂捷夫与达维多夫对维果茨基认知理论的发展；二是详细阐明了维果茨基的“最近发展区理论"和“教学最佳期理论"，列昂捷夫的“活动理论"和达维多夫的“发展性教学理论’’对教育教学的启示；三是介绍了在社会文化历史学派认知发展理论影响下形成的现代教学模式——支架式教学、合作式教学和交互式教学。

对社会文化历史学派的理论进行探究和评析，可以为我国当今倡导素质教育、实行教学改革提供理论依据。

希望本文在改进教学方法、促进教学实践方面能够提供有益的启示。

关键词：活动；教学与发展；最近发展区；教学最佳期；心理发展AbstractVygotsky is o n e of t11e found erS of。

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The Value of ToleranceTolerance is a value that is often overlooked in today's society. It is the ability to accept and respect others despite their differences in beliefs, culture, and lifestyle. The value of tolerance is crucial in promoting harmony, peace, and understanding among individuals and communities. In this article, we will explore the importance of tolerance and how it affects our lives.Firstly, tolerance promotes diversity and inclusivity. When we are tolerant of others, we create an environment that encourages individuals to express their unique qualities and perspectives. This, in turn, fosters creativity, innovation, and growth. When people are free to be themselves, they are more likely to contribute positively to society. Tolerance also helps to break down barriers between different groups, promoting understanding and acceptance.Secondly, tolerance is essential in promoting peace and reducing conflict. When people are intolerant of others, it often leads to conflict and violence. Tolerance, on the other hand, encourages peaceful coexistence and understanding. It allows us to see beyond our differences and focus on our similarities. Tolerance helps to create a sense of unity and shared purpose, which can lead to more harmonious relationships and communities.Thirdly, tolerance helps to build strong relationships. When we are tolerant of others, we show them that we value and respect them as individuals. This creates a sense of trust and mutual understanding, which is essential in building strong relationships. Tolerance also allows us to learn from others, as we are more open to different perspectives and ideas.Fourthly, tolerance promotes personal growth and development. When we are tolerant of others, we are more likely to be tolerant of ourselves. This means that we are more accepting of our own flaws and imperfections, which can lead to personal growth and development. Tolerance also encourages us to step outside of our comfort zones and try new things, which can help us to learn and grow as individuals.Fifthly, tolerance is essential in promoting social justice and equality. When we are intolerant of others, it often leads to discrimination and inequality. Tolerance, on the other hand, encourages us to treat everyone with respect and dignity, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. This helps to create a more just and equal society, where everyone has the opportunity to succeed.In conclusion, the value of tolerance cannot be overstated. It promotes diversity, inclusivity, peace, strong relationships, personal growth, and social justice. Tolerance is essential in creating a society that is accepting, respectful, and understanding of others. As individuals, we can all strive to be more tolerant of others, and in doing so, we can make the world a better place.。

Setting achievable goals is an important aspect of personal and professional development. When we set achievable goals, we provide ourselves with a clear direction, motivation, and a sense of accomplishment. Whether it’s in our personal lives, careers, or relationships, setting achievable goals can lead to positive outcomes and growth.One of the primary values of setting achievable goals is the sense of direction and purpose it provides. When we have clear and achievable goals, we know exactly what we want to accomplish and can create a plan to reach our objectives. This sense of direction can help us stay focused and motivated, especially when faced with challenges or obstacles. It gives us a roadmap to follow, which can be reassuring and empowering.Furthermore, setting achievable goals can help us improve our motivation and drive. When we have clear objectives that are within our reach, we are more likely to stay committed and focused on the tasks at hand. Achieving these smaller, attainable goals can provide a sense of accomplishment and motivation to continue striving for larger goals. As we accomplish each goal, we gain confidence in our abilities and are motivated to take on new challenges.Setting achievable goals also provides us with a clear understanding of our progress and achievements. By breaking down larger goals into smaller, more attainable tasks, we can track our progress more effectively. This allows us to celebrate our successes along the way, which can boost our confidence and keep us on track. Additionally, achieving these smaller goals provides a sense ofsatisfaction and fulfillment, which can be a powerful motivator.Another value of setting achievable goals is the ability to adapt and adjust our plans as needed. When we set realistic and attainable goals, we can better assess our progress and make necessary adjustments. This flexibility allows us to navigate unforeseen challenges and make changes to our approach without feeling overwhelmed or discouraged. It encourages us to be resourceful and creative in finding alternative ways to achieve our goals.Moreover, setting achievable goals can also help us manage our time and resources more effectively. When we have clear objectives, we can prioritize tasks and allocate our time and resources efficiently. This can prevent us from feeling overwhelmed or burnt out, as we are able to focus on the most important tasks and make progress in a manageable manner. It also helps us avoid wasting time and energy on unattainable or unrealistic goals.In addition, setting achievable goals can foster a sense of accountability and responsibility. When we commit to achieving specific, realistic goals, we hold ourselves accountable for our progress and success. This can encourage us to take ownership of our actions and decisions, which can lead to personal growth and development. It also helps us to develop a strong work ethic and resilience that can serve us well in all areas of our lives.Moreover, setting achievable goals can help us build a sense of confidence and self-efficacy. When we consistently achieve our goals, no matter how small, we develop a sense of competence and belief in our abilities. This can lead toincreased self-esteem and a positive outlook, as we know that we are capable of facing and overcoming challenges. It also enables us to see ourselves as capable individuals who are capable of achieving success in our endeavors.Ultimately, setting achievable goals is a valuable practice that can lead to personal and professional growth. By providing us with direction, motivation, and a sense of accomplishment, achievable goals can help us navigate challenges, improve our confidence and resilience, and ultimately achieve success in our chosen pursuits. Whether it’s in our careers, relationships, or personal development, setting achievable goals can be a powerful tool for growth and fulfillment.。

功能翻译理论 的第二 个里程碑 式人物 是汉斯 - 威密 尔 (H ans J. V erm eer)。他是赖斯的学生, 但是他对以文本 为中 心的等值论的决裂要比他的老师彻底得多。他创立了功能翻 译理论的核心理论: 翻译目的论 ( Skopostheory )。威密尔的这 种摆脱翻译的语言学方法的想法在他的《普通翻译理论框架》 ( 1978: / Fram ewo rk for a General T ransla tion Theory 0)一书表露 无遗。他认为仅仅靠语言学是不能建立翻 译理论的, 因 为翻 译不仅仅是一个语言过程, 因此必须探寻 其他方法。威 密尔 认为翻译是将一种语言中的语言和非语言交际符号转移到另 一种语言中去的活动。因此, 翻译是一种 人类行为。威 密尔 认为人类行为是有目的的、发生在一定情境下的行为, 所以翻 译是一种有目的、应达到一定结果的行为。由此, 威密尔确立 了他的 /翻 译目的论 0。 Skopo s是一 个希腊 词汇, 意思是 目 的。在翻译中决定翻译目的的一个重要因素是受众或称为预 期的目的语接受者或听众。每一个翻译作品都是针对预期中 的听众的。很显然, 原语 文本在目的论中的地位比在等 值论 中的地位要低得多。
功能翻译属 于一种自 上而下 ( top- down) ( N ord, 1997: 67)的翻译, 而传统的翻译属于一种自下而上 ( bottom - up) ( N ord, 1997: 68)的翻译, 因此功能翻译更具有前瞻性。
翻译是一个涉及多方面的复杂过程, 译文是翻译过 程中 多种因素共同作用的结果, 翻译发起者虽然很重要, 但决不是 唯一的因素。另外, 文学翻译比较特殊, 功能翻译理论对其的 指导作用还有待进一步探讨。
而翻译中使用的语言就是一种符号。 5) 功能翻译认为翻译是 一种跨文化的行为, 因为语言是文化的一部分, 两种语言的相 遇就意味着两种文化的碰撞。 6) 功能翻译认为翻译是一种对 文本进行处理的行为。翻译是基于某种文 本的行为, 但 是原 语文本只是译者可用 的多源信息中的一个, 译者只选取 原语 中他们认为有用或适合翻译目的信息。

四川师范大学硕士学位论文ｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓ…………………………………………………………………………………………………．．２１３．１．１ＴｈｅＦｅａ［ｕｒｅｓａｎｄＰｕ印ｏｓｅｏｆＤａ王１１’ｓＢｏｏｋ……………………………………．．２１３．１．２ＴｈｅＯｒｉｇｉｎａ】Ｗｂｒｋ：ＣｈａｒｌｉｅａｎｄｔｈｅＣｈｏｃ０１ａｔｅＦａｃｔｏｒｙ………………２２３．１．３ＴｈｅＴｗｏＣｍｎｅｓｅＶｅｒｓｉｏｎｓＤｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄ……………………………………………２３３．１．３．１ＲｅｎＲｏｎＦｏｎｇ：ｓＶｅｒｓｉｏｎ………………………………………．２４３．１．３．２ＤｅｎｇＹｏｎｇｑｉａｎｇ：ｓＶｅｒｓｉｏｎ……………………………………．．２５３．２Ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｆｔｈｅ１、ｖｏＣｈｍｅｓｅＶｅｒｓｉｏｎｓＢａｓｅｄｏｎＲｅｃｅｐｔｉｏｎＡｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｓ…２５３．２．１ＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃＬｅＶｅｌ………………………………………………………２６３．２．１．１Ｐｈｏｎ０１０９），………………………………………………………２６３．２．１．２Ｗｏｒｄｓ………………………………………………………………………………２８３．２．１．３Ｓｙｎｔａｘ…………………………………………………………．３０３．２．２ＲｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｌＬｅｖｅｌ…………………………………………………………………………３２３．２．２．１Ｐａｒａ】】ｅ】ｉｓｍ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．３２３．２．２．２Ｒｈｙｍｅ…………………………………………………………．３４３．２．２．３Ｓｉｍｉｌｅ…………………………………………………………………………３７３．２．３ＣｕｌｔｕｒａｌＬｅｖｅｌ……………………………………………………………………………３８Ｃｈ印ｔｅｒＦｏｕｒＳｕｇｇｅｓｔｉＶｅＴａｃｔｉｃｓｆｏｒＣｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ‘ｓＬｉｔｅｒａ＿ｍｒｅＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ……………４３４．１ＣｏｌｌｏｑｕｉａｌＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃＳ哆ｌｅｓ…………………………………………………４３４．２ＳｉｍｐｌｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＳｅｎｔｅｎｃｅＰａｎｅｍｓ…………………………………………４４４．３ⅥｓｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆＥｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓ…………………………………………………４５４．４ＲｅｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆＣｕｌｔｕｒａｌＧａｐｓ…………………………………………………４７Ｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ……………………………………………………………………………………………………．４９Ｂｉｂｌｉｏｇｒ印ｈｙ…………………………………………………………………………５１Ａｃｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅｍｅｎｔｓ………………………………………………………………………………５５ＶＩ四川师范大学硕士学位论文Ｉｎ吐ｌｅｒｅａｄｉｎｇｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｊｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｕ１１ｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇａｎｄａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆｗｏｒｋｓｎｏｔｏｍｙｄｅｐｅｎｄｏｎ也ｅｉｒｆｏｎｎｅｒａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅ：ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｏｎｔｈｅｉｒｏ、Ⅷｂａｃｋ伊ｏｕＩｌｄｓｕｃｈａｓｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎｂａｃｋ伊ｏｕｎｄ：ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｊｌｉｆｅｅｘｐ＿ｅ而硼ｃｅ锄ｄｓｏ０１１．ＲｅａｄｅｒＳ！‰—润ｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａ士ｉｏｎｓ‘？ｃａｎｂｅｍｅＬｍｏｄｉｆｉｅｄａｎｄｅＶｅｎｃｈａｎｇｅｄｗｈｅｎｔｈｅ），ｒｅａｄ．Ｗｈｅｎｗｏｒｋｓａｒｅｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｗｉｔｈｒｅａｄｅｒｓ：“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ”ｊｔｈｅｙｃａｎｂｅｕｎｄｅｒｓｔｏｏｄｑｕｉｃｋ】ｙａｎｄｅａＳｉｌｙｂｙｒｅａｄｅｒｓ．Ｏｎｔｈｅｃｏｎ订ａｒｙ，ｉｔｍａｙｃａｕｓｅｂ秭ｅｒｓｗｈｅｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｓａｎｄｓ奄ｒｌｅｓｏｆｗｏｒｋｓａｒｅｂｅｙｏｎｄｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ”．ＴｈｅｒｅａｕｒｅｔｗｏｒｅｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｓｉｎＥ·Ｃｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ协ｃｂｊｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｔｌ】ｒｅ．Ｏｎｅｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏ打ａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’岫ｄｅｒｓ伽１ｄｉｎｇｔｏｔ１１ｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｗｏｒｋｓ！ａｎｄｔｈｅｏ也ｅｒｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｃＭｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓｒｅｃ印ｔｉｏｎｔｏｗａｒｄｓｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｗｏｒｋｓ．Ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ：“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ’？ｉｎｃｌｕｄｅｓ也ｅｉｒｏｍｌｏｏｋｏｎ１ｉｆｅ！ｃｕｌｎｌｒａｌａｃｌｌｉｅＶｅｍｅｎｔａｎｄａｅｓｔｌｌｅｔｉｃａｂｉｌｉｔ），ｗｈｉｃｈａｒｅｖｅｒｙｄｉｆｒｅｒｅｎｔ仔ｏｍｃ１１ｉｌｄｒｅｎ．Ｓｏｉｔｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｓ仃ａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｔａｋｅｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ’ｓ“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ’？ｆｕｌｌｙｉｍｏｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎ２．２．３ＡｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃＤｉｓｔａｎｃｅＡｅｓ也ｅｔｉｃｄｉｓ切ｎｃｅｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｔｈｅｇ印ｂｅ似ｅｅｎｒｅａｄｅｒｓ“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ？‘ａｎｄｔｈｅｎｅｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｅｘｔ．Ｉｔｍｕｓｔｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｃｅｒｔａｉｎａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅ、撕ｔｈｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎ、ｖｈｅｎａｎｅｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｗｏｒｋｉｓｃｒｅａｔｅｄ．Ｔｌｌｅｄｉｓｔａｌｌｃｅｍａｋｅｓｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓｆｅｅｌｕｎｆａ越ｌｉａｒａｎｄｓｕｒｐｒｉｓｅｄｗｈｅｎｔｈｅｙｆｌｒｓｔｒｅａｄｔｈｅｎｅｗｗｏｒｋ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｏｆｒｅａｄｉｎｇ，ｒｅａｄｅｒｓｎｅｅｄｔ０ａ由ｕｓｔｔｈｅｍｓｅｌＶｅｓｎｏｗａｎｄｔｈｅｎｔｏａｄ印ｔｔｈｅｎｅｗｗｏｒｋｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄａｎｄａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｅｉｔＭｌｙ．Ｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｏｒｉｇｉｌｌａｌ“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ？：ａｌｓｏｃｈａＩｌｇｅｓｑｕｉｅｔｌ＞，．Ｗｈｅｎｔｈｅａｅｓ也ｅｔｉｃｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅｎａｒｒｏｗｅｄｏｒｒｅｍｏＶｅｄ，ｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌ“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ’’晰ＵｃｈａｎｇｅａｎｄｆＩｏ肋ａｎｅｗ“ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ？’ａｔ１ａｓｔ．Ｓｏｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｏｆ１ｉｔｅｒａｒｙｒｅｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｉｓａｄｙｎ锄ｉｃｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＪａｕｓｓ，“ｍｅｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅｂｅ铆ｅｅｎｔｈｅ‘ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎｏｆｅｘｐｅｃｔａｔｉｏｎｓ’ａｎｄ也ｅｗｏｒｋｊｂｅ铆ｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｈｍｉｌｉ撕ｔｙｏｆｐｒｅＶｉｏｕｓａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅａｎｄｔｈｅ‘ｈｏｒｉｚｏｎ伽ｃｈａｎｇｅ？ｄｅｍａｎｄｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｒｅｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｌｌｅｎｅｗｗｏｒｋ，ｄｅｔｅｎｎｉｎｅｓｔｈｅａＩｔｉｓｔｉｃｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｏｆａ１ｉｔｅｒａ巧’：（２５）．Ｉｔｓｈｏｗｓｔ１１ａｔｍｅａｅｓｍｅｔｉｃｄｉｓｔａｌｌｃｅｐｌａｙｓａ１１ｉＩｎｐｏｒ胁ｔａＩｌｄｄｅｃｉｓｉＶｅｒ０１ｅｔｏｊｕｄｇｅａｌｉｔｅｒａ巧ｗｏｒｋ’ｓａｅｓｍｅｔｉｃＶａｌｕｅ．ＩｆｔｈｅｄｉｓｔａＩｌｃｅｉｓｓｈｏｒｔ，ｔ１１ｉｓｗｏｒｋｃａ工１ｍｅｅｔｔｈｅｇｅｎｅｒａ】ｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｎｅｅｄｓｆｏｒａｒｏｕｓｉｎｇｍｅｆＩ鼬ｉｌｉａｒｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅｓａｎｄｅｍｏｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｌｌｅｍ．Ｉｆｔｈｅｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅｉｓｔｏｏ１０ｎｇ，四川师范大学硕士学位论文３．１．３．１ＲｅｎＲｏｎ争ｏｎｇ’ｓＶｅｒｓｉｏｎＲｅｎＲｏｎＦｏｎｇｉｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｐｒｏｍｉｎｅｎｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｆｏｒｅｉｇｎｃｂｊｌｄｒｅｎ’ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｎ】ｒｅ．Ａｓａ仃ａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ，ｈｅｃａｌｌｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｗｏｒｋｓ矗ｏｍＲｕｓｓｉａｎ，Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ，ＪａｐａｎｅｓｅａｎｄＩｔａｌｉａｌｌＲｅｎＲｏｎ目ｏｎｇｈａＳｄｅＶｏｔｅｄＭｍｓｅｌｆｔｏｔｈｅｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ自ｏｍ１９４５．Ｈｉｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｓｅｔａｇｏｏｄｅｘ锄ｐｌｅｆｏｒｏｔｈｅｒｃｍｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓｌｉｔｅｒａ臼Ⅱｅｔｒａｌｌｓｌａｔｏｒｓ．ＭａＬｉｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｓｏｎｍｍ：“Ｄｕｒｉｎｇｔｈｅ１７ｙｅａｒｓａＲｅｒ１９４９：Ｒｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ３０ｂｏｏｋＳｏｆｃｍｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ锄ｏｕｎｔｉｎｇ８ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆ也ｅｔｏｔａｌｎｕｍｂｅｒｏｆｃＫｌｄｒｅｎ：ｓ１ｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ订ａ１１ｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｔｔｈａｔｔｉｍｅ’’（１３）．ＡＲｅｒＣｕｌｔｕｒｅＲｅＶｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ，Ｒｅｎｔ啪ｓｈｊｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏＥｕｒｏｐｅａｎａｎｄＡｍｅｒｉｃａｎ１ｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅａｎｄＲｏａｌｄＤａｈｌｃａｔｃｈｅｓＭｓｅｖｅｓ．ＨｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｓｅｉｍｌｔｗｏｒｋｓｏｆＲｏａｌｄＤａｍｉｎｗｍｃｈＣ乃口厂抛口，２ｄｆ抛Ｃ饧Ｄ∞肠阳凡ｚｃ，Ｄ∥ｗｏｎｈｉｍＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｏｆＨｏｎｏｒｂｙＩＢＢＹ（１１１ｔｅｍａｔｉｏｎａｌＢｏａｒｄｏｎＢｏｏｋｓｆ．ｏｒＹｂｕｎｇＰｅｏｐｌｅ）ｉｎ２００６．ＲｅｎｔＭｎｋｓｔ１１ｅｒｅａｒｅｔｈｒｅｅｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓｉｎｃｍｌｄｒｅｎ’ｓｌｉｔｅｒａ＿ｎｌｒｅ眦ｌｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．ＦｉｒｓｔｌＸ仃ａｊｌｓｌａｔｏｒｓｓｈｏｕｌｄｐｕｔｃｈｊｌｄｒｅｎ’ｓｒｅａｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｎ也ｅｆｌｒｓｔｐｌａｃｅ：ｗｍｃｈａｇｒｅｅｓ州ｔｈＪａｕｓｓａｎｄＩｓｅｒ‘ｓＲｅｃｅｐｔｉｏｎＡｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｓｆｏｒｂｏｔｈｏｆｔｈｅｍｐｕｔｅｍｐｈａｓｉｓｏｎｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｏｆｒｅａｄｅｒｓ．Ｒｅａｄｅｒｓ？ｄｅｌｉｇｈｔｉｓＶｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｎ．ａ１１ｔｉｎｍｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ‘ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ．Ｓｅｃｏｎｄｌ），－ｃｏｌｌｏｑｕｉａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅａｄｏｐｔｅｄｗｈｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ？ｓｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ．Ｒｅｎｃｌａｉｍｓｔ１１ａｔｏｒａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓａｒｅｅｘｔｒｅｍｅｌｙｈｅｌｐｆｕｌｉｎ１１ｉｓｔｒａｌｌｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．ＴｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｗｎｔｅｒｓｕｓｅｏｒａＪｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓ，ｓｏｄｏｅｓｈｅｎｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｏｆｔｒａｎＳｌａｔｉｏｎｊｕｓｔｌｉｋｅｆｏｒｅｉｇｌｌ、酒ｔｅｒＳｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｓｔｏ＾ｅｓｔｏＣｈｍｅｓｅｃｈｊｌｄｒｅｎｔｈｒｏｕ曲廿ａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ．ＴＫｒｄｌＶ．ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ、析１１ｈｅｌｐｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓａｃｈｉｅＶｅｔ１１ｅｓ锄ｅｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｓａｓｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｒｅａｄｅｒｓ．Ｒｅｎｔｈｉｎｋｓｔｈａｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｆ．ｏｒｃ１１ｉｌｄｒｅｎｉｓｄｉａ’ｅｒｅｎｔ仔ｏｍｔｒａｎｓｌａ七ｉｏｎｆ．ｏｒａｄｕｌｔｓｂｅｃａｕｓｅｙｏｕ：ｄｂｅｔｔｅｒｎｏｔａｄｄｎｏｔｅｓｉｎｔ１１ｅｗｏｒｋｓ．Ｉｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｃｏｍｅａｃｒｏｓｓｔｈｊｓｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｙ？ｄｂｅｔｔｅｒｔｈｉｎｋｏｆｏｔｈｅｒｗａｙｓｔｏｅｘｐｌａｉｎ，ｓｕｃｈａＳｗｏｒｄｇａｍｅｓｔｏｍａｋｅｙｏｕｎｇｒｅａｄｅｒｓｆｅｅｌｆｍｍｙ．ｎｌｉｓｓ０１ｕｔｉｏｎｃａｎｂｅｃａｌｌｅｄｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ．Ｒｅｎｏｎｃｅｓａｉｄ，“ＩａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｔｅｌｌｃｍｌｄｒｅｎｗｈａｔｔｈｅｆｏｒｅｉｇｎｗｎｔｅｒｗａＪｌｔｓｔｏｔｅＵ．Ｈｅｕｓｅｓｗｉｔｔ），ｒｅｍ砌（ｓ，ｓｏｄｏＩ．Ｈｅｕｓｅｓｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｗｏｒｄｓ，ｓｏｄｏＩ．Ｈｅｐｌａｙｓｗｏｒｄｇ锄ｅｓｗｉｔｈｃｈｊｌｄｒｅｎｉｎｆｏｒｅｉｇｎ１ａｎｇｕａｇｅｓ，ｓｏｄｏＩｉｎＣＭｎｅｓｅ．Ｉｎｏｎｅｗｏｒｄ，Ｉｔｅｌｌ也ｅｓａｍｅａｓｍｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｗ而ｔｅｒａｎｄＩｐａｙ撒ｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｙｏｕｎｇｒｅａｄｅｒｓ’ｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｏｎ’’（马力４６）．Ｉｎｆａｃｔ，ｔｌｌｅｓｅｔｈｒｅｅｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓｗｏｒｋｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒｆｏｒｔ１１ｅｃｏｍｍｏｎｐｕ叩ｏｓｅｍａｔｉｓｔｏｅｒｎｐｈａｓｉｚｅ也ｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅｏｆｒｅａｄｅｒｓｉｎ也ｅ１ｉｔｅｒａｒｙａｃｔｉＶｉｔｙ．２４ＡＣａｓｅＳｔｕｄ、’ｏｆＴｗｏＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＶｅｒｓｉｏｎｓｏｆ（Ｍ口厂ｆｊＰ口ｎｄｆＡＰ（孙ｏｃＤＺ口印Ｆ’口ｃｆｏ，ｙＴｈｅ１ａｎｇｕａｇｅｏｆＲｅｎ？ｓＣＪｉ２口厂，ｆＰ口Ｍｄｆ办ＰＣ饧ＤｃＤＺ口，Ｐ凡ｃｆＤ，），ｉｓＶｉＶｉｄ，ｃｏｌｌｏｑｕｉａｌ，ｃｏｈｅｒｅｎｔａｎｄｍｕｓｉｃａｌ．Ｒｅｎｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｃｂｊｌｄｒｅｎ？ｓｐｓｙｃｈ０１０百ｃａｌｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓａ１１ｄｔｈｅｉｒｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｏｎ，ｍａｌ（ｅｃＭｌｄｒｅｎｆｅｅｌｔＵｉＩｌｇｔｏｔｅｌｉＳｔｏ＾ｅｓ矗ｏｍａｃ址ｌｄ‘ｓｐｅｒｓｐｅ＆ｉＶｅ．Ｔｈｅｎｅｘｉｂｌｅａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｅｓｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｍｅｂｏｏｋ３．１．３．２ＤｅｎｇＹｏｎｇｑｉａｎｇ’ｓＶｅｒｓｉｏｎｏｆ劬口眺口，２ｄ妇Ｔｈｅｒｅｌｅｖ狃ｉｎｆｏｍａｔｉｏｎａｂｏｕｔＤｅｎｇＹ０ｎｇｑｉａｎｇｊｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｅ锄ｅｄ１１ｉｓＣ幻ｃｏｆ口陀凡ｚｃ，Ｄ∥ｉｓｄｉ伍ｃｕｌｔｔｏａｃｑｕｉｒｅ．ＷｅｋｎｏｗｈｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｄｉｎＥｎｇｌａｌｌｄａｎｄｄｏｃｔｏｒａｔｅｉｎｐｍｌｏｓｏｐｈｙｉｎＣ锄ｂｒｉｄｇｅＵｎｉＶｅｒｓｉｔｙａｎｄｔａｕｇｈｔＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ１ｉｔｅｒａＣｕｒｅａｎｄｐｍ】ｏｓｏｐｈｙｉｎＢｅｉｊｉｎｇＵｎｉＶｅｒｓｉ哆血１９８３ａｎｄ１９８４．ＩｎｔｈｅｐｒｅｆｋｅｏｆＤｅｎｇ’ｓＶｅｒｓｉｏｎ，Ｄａｈｌｓａｉｄ，“Ｉ、Ｖｒｏｔｅｔｈｉｓｂｏｏｋ２２ｙｅａｒｓａｇｏ．Ａｌｏｔｏｆｃｏｕｎ埘ｅｓｉ１１ｔｈｅｗｏｒｌｄｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄｍｅｂｏｏｋｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｏ、ｖｎ１ａｎｇｕａｇｅｓｅｘｃｅｐｔＣｈｊｎａ．ＮｏＷＩｈｅａｕｒｄｍａｔｙｏｕｒｃｏｕｎ廿ｙａｌｓｏｈａｄｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄｔ１１ｅｂｏｏｋｉｎｙｏｕｒ１ａｎｇｕａｇｅ，Ｉｃｏｕｌｄｎ’ｔｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｈｏｗｈａｐｐｙ１ｗａＬＳ．？ｊＤｅｎｇｔｒａＩｌｓｌａｔｅｄｔｍｓｂ。