The collection of spoken language resources in car environments

1. F. de. Saussure is a (n) __________linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianSwiss linguist. The founder of structural linguistics, he declared that there is only an arbitrary relationship between a linguistic sign and that which it signifies. The posthumously published collection of his lectures,Course in General Linguistics (1916), is a seminal work of modern linguistics.索绪尔，费迪南德·德：(1857-1913) 瑞士语言学家，结构主义语言的创始人，他声称在语言符号和其所指含义之间仅有一种模糊的关系。

他死后，他的讲演集出版为《普通语言学教程》（1916年），是现代语言学的开山之作2.N. Chomsky is a(n) ______linguist.Canadian B. American C. French D. SwissAmerican linguist who revolutionized the study of language with his theory of generative grammar, set forth inSyntactic Structures (1957).乔姆斯基，诺阿姆：(生于1928) 美国语言学家，他在《句法结构》（1957年）一书中所阐述的关于生成语法的理论曾使语言学研究发生突破性进展3.___________is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference totheir distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A.PhonologyB. Lexicography 词典编纂C. lexicology词典学D.Morphology词态词态学音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布，包括某一特定语言里的语音和音位分部和结合的规律。

瞧不起的英文短语Condescending English PhrasesIt is a common experience for many individuals, particularly those from marginalized or minority backgrounds, to encounter condescending language in their daily lives. These condescending English phrases, often used unintentionally or subconsciously, can have a significant impact on the recipient's self-esteem, sense of belonging, and overall well-being. In this essay, we will explore the prevalence of such phrases, their underlying societal biases, and the importance of being mindful of our language choices.One of the most prevalent condescending English phrases is "You're so articulate." This phrase, often directed towards individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds, carries the implication that the speaker is surprised by the person's ability to communicate effectively in English. The subtext suggests that the speaker had low expectations or preconceived notions about the individual's linguistic capabilities, which can be deeply offensive and perpetuate harmful stereotypes.Another commonly used condescending phrase is "You're so brave." This statement is frequently directed towards individuals with disabilities, LGBTQ+ individuals, or those who have overcome significant challenges. While the intention may be to express admiration or support, the phrase can be perceived as patronizing, implying that the individual's existence or accomplishments are somehow extraordinary or remarkable, simply because they defy societal norms or expectations.The phrase "You're so exotic" is another example of a condescending English expression. This term is often used to describe individuals from non-Western or non-mainstream cultural backgrounds, reducing their identity to a mere novelty or curiosity. Such language objectifies the individual and fails to recognize their unique cultural heritage, experiences, and personhood.One particularly insidious condescending phrase is "You're so inspirational." This statement is commonly directed towards individuals with disabilities or those who have overcome adversity, with the implication that their mere existence or accomplishments are inherently inspiring, simply because they differ from the societal norm. This phrase can be problematic as it places the burden of inspiration on the individual, rather than acknowledging the systemic barriers and challenges they have faced.Another condescending English phrase that is often used is "You're so well-spoken." Similar to the "You're so articulate" example, this phrase suggests that the speaker is surprised by the individual's ability to communicate effectively, particularly when the individual is from a marginalized or minority background. This phrase perpetuates the harmful stereotype that individuals from certain backgrounds are inherently less capable of articulate speech.The phrase "You're so passionate" can also be considered condescending, particularly when directed towards individuals who are advocating for social justice or speaking out against oppression. This phrase can be perceived as dismissive, implying that the individual's emotions or convictions are excessive or unreasonable, rather than acknowledging the legitimate concerns they are raising.Finally, the phrase "You're so strong" can be condescending when used in certain contexts. While this statement may be intended as a compliment, it can be perceived as minimizing the individual's struggles and the emotional toll they have endured. It can also imply that the individual is expected to be perpetually resilient, without acknowledging the need for support or vulnerability.These condescending English phrases, while often used unintentionally, can have a profound impact on the individuals who encounter them. They can reinforce societal biases, undermine therecipient's sense of self-worth, and perpetuate harmful stereotypes. It is crucial for individuals to be mindful of their language choices and to strive to use more inclusive, respectful, and empowering language.By recognizing the prevalence of condescending phrases and the underlying biases they reflect, we can work towards creating a more equitable and inclusive society. This involves challenging our own assumptions, actively listening to the experiences of marginalized individuals, and making a conscious effort to use language that affirms and empowers, rather than diminishes or patronizes.In conclusion, the use of condescending English phrases is a pervasive issue that requires our attention and collective effort to address. By being mindful of our language choices and striving to create a more inclusive and respectful communication environment, we can contribute to the dismantling of systemic biases and the promotion of genuine understanding and respect for all individuals, regardless of their background or identity.。

Spoken Language and Written Language外国语学院英语11-2201101080218潘玉婷[Abstract]:Spoken language and written language are different in essence. In general, in my opinion, spoken language is informal, written language is formal. They are used in different occasions.[Key words]:Spoken language written language[The introduction of language]:Language is a tool of communication. In some degree, we can divide it into two types: spoken language and written language. It is generally believed that spoken language is a communicative tool of listening and speaking, written language is written or printed to convey information.“Language is a tool of communication.In some degree, we can divide it into two types: spoken language and written language. It is generally believed that spoken language is a communicative tool of listening and speaking, written language is written or printed to convey information.”From Russell Hunt:The Language of Print and the Language of talk [The introduction of spoken language]:T.S.Eliot said, an identical spoken and written language would be practically intolerable. If we spoke as we write we should find no one to listen; and if we wrote as we speak we should find no one to read. The spoken and written language must not be too near together, as they must not be too far apart. In my opinion, spoken language is informal. It sometimes called oral language, which is produced in its spontaneous form, as opposed to written language. In spoken language, it is an efficient way for social or phatic communication. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into syntactically organized sentences and phrases. And the vocabulary and grammar together with the speech sounds it used define its identity as a particular natural language.[The introduction of written language]:Written language refers to communication in its written form-specifically skills contributing to and including reading and writing. The sentence is more obvious as a grammatical unit in writing, although certainly not in all kinds of writing: signs and notices, small ads, notes, forms, tickets, cheques, all contain frequent examples of “non-sentences.”The written language can be significantly more precise. Written words can be chosen with greater deliberation and thought, and a written argument can be extraordinarily sophisticated, intricate, and lengthy. These attributes of writing are possible because the pace of involvement is controlled by both the writer and the reader. The writer can write and rewrite at great length, a span of time which in some cases can be measured in years. Similarly, the reader can read quickly or slowly or even stop to think about what he or she has just read. More importantly, the reader always has the option of re-reading; even if that option is not exercised, its mere possibility has an effect upon a reader's understanding of a text. The written word appeals more to a contemplative, deliberative style.[The relationship between spoken language and written language]: The relationship between spoken language and written language is complex. Within the field of linguistics the current consensus is that speech is an innate human capability while written language is a cultural invention. However some linguistics, argue that written and spoken language possess distinct qualities which would argue against written language being dependent on spoken language for its existence.As English leaners, we should have an idea of what the differences between spoken and written language. Spoken language and written language are now seen as alternative, “equal” systems of linguistic expression, and research has begun to investigate the nature and extent of the differences between them. Referring to the research, first, spoken language and written language differ in the way of how they are produced; second, they fit for different occasions, which indicate their occurrences are different; third, the differences of structure and use between spoken language and written language are inevitable. These three points will be talkedabout specifically in the following essay.From the point of view of production, it is clear that spoken language and written language make somewhat different demands on language-producers. Generally speaking, spoken language is time—bound, dynamic, and transient while written language is space—bound, static and permanent.The communicative systems the speaker controls the production differs from that the writer does. The speaker must monitor what it is that he has just said, and determine whether it matches his intentions. While he is saying his current words, he must plan his next phrases simultaneously . He has no permanent record of what he had said earlier. Therefore, the speaker would he under great pressure to keep on talking during the period of time given to him. In contrast, the writer may take a long time choosing a particular word, with no fear of his interlocutor interrupting him, for he is distant from his interlocutor. The writer may take a longtime finishing his work, during which he can consult the dictionary, refer to his notes and even change his mind freely. There is no pressure from his interlocutor.The speaker can notice his interlocutors’ reaction immediately, which is an advantage for him. He can observe his interlocutor get the direct feedback from them. If he finds something wrong in his interlocutor’s reaction, he modify what what he is saying to make it more accessible or acceptable to his hearer. On the contrary, the writer has no access to immediate feedback and he has to imagine the readers’ reaction, which, of course may guess wrong at times. [Conclusion]:From above we can see there are many obvious differences between spoken language and written language. Spoken language is transmitted by means of voice and sounds, while written language is transmitted by letters and grammar, thus spoken language can use “voice quality” while written language does not have this advantage. Speaker is under great pressure but can get immediate response from his interlocutor whereas the writer has no pressure from his interlocutor but can not have the immediate feedback from them.。

高中选修一英语第四单元重点单词1. Bilingual: Adjective - being able to speak two languages fluently. Example: Growing up in a multicultural family, Maria became bilingual in English and Spanish.2. Dialect: Noun - a particular form of a language that is specific to aregion or social group.Example: The dialect spoken in the southern part of the country is quite different from the one in the north.3. Fluency: Noun - the ability to speak or write a language smoothly, quickly, and accurately.Example: Through regular practice, Sarah gained fluency in French within a year.4. Idiom: Noun - a group of words established by usage as having a meaningthat can't be derived from the individual words.Example: "It's raining cats and dogs" is an idiom that means it is raining heavily.5. Linguistics: Noun - the scientific study of language and its structure. Example: As a linguistics major, Alex enjoyed analyzing the syntax and semantics of various languages.6. Native: Adjective - being born and raised in a particular country or place. Example: She is a native speaker of Mandarin because she was born and raisedin China.7. Polyglot: Noun - a person who speaks or understands multiple languages. Example: Being a polyglot, Tom can communicate with people from various countries during his travels.8. Proficient: Adjective - having a high level of skill or expertise in a particular subject or activity.Example: After years of practice, James became proficient in playing the piano.9. Pronunciation: Noun - the way in which a word or language is spoken, using the correct sounds and stress patterns.Example: Language learners often struggle with the correct pronunciation ofcertain words.10. Vocabulary: Noun - a collection of words within a language that an individual knows and uses.Example: Reading books regularly can significantly improve your vocabulary.11. Colloquialism: Noun - a word or phrase used in everyday, informal language. Example: The colloquialism "chill out" is often used to tell someone to relax.12. Conjugation: Noun - the change in the form of a verb to express different tenses, aspects, moods, or voices.Example: Spanish verb conjugation can be challenging for English speakers due to the many irregular verbs.13. Grammar: Noun - the rules that govern the structure and use of a language. Example: Understanding grammar is crucial for writing clear and coherent sentences.14. Homophone: Noun - a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in spelling or meaning.Example: "Sea" and "see" are homophones that can sometimes cause confusion. 15. Morphology: Noun - the study of the structure and formation of words. Example: Morphology helps us understand how prefixes and suffixes can change the meaning of a word.16. Phonetics: Noun - the study of speech sounds and their physical properties. Example: Phonetics is important for language learners to understand thecorrect production of sounds.17. Syntax: Noun - the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.Example: Understanding syntax is essential for constructing sentences that make sense.18. Tone: Noun - the quality of a person's voice that conveys their feelings and attitudes.Example: The tone of his voice indicated that he was serious about the matter.19. Verb: Noun - a word used to describe an action, occurrence, or state. Example: "Run," "jump," and "eat" are all examples of verbs.20. Accent: Noun - a particular way of pronouncing words that is typical of a particular country, region, or social class.Example: The actor worked hard to perfect his British accent for the role.21. Alliteration: Noun - the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" is a sentence thatuses alliteration.22. Cliché: Noun - a phrase or opinion that is overused and lacks original thought.Example: The phrase "break a leg" is a cliché used to wish someone good luck before a performance.23. Diction: Noun - the choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing.Example: A poet carefully considers diction to convey the desired meaning and emotion.24. Elision: Noun - the omission of a sound or syllable when speaking, often to make speech flow more smoothly.Example: In everyday speech, elision often occurs, such as saying "gonna" instead of "going to."25. Jargon: Noun - specialized or technical language that is used by people ina particular profession or group.Example: Legal jargon can be difficult for laypeople to understand.26. Metaphor: Noun - a figure of speech that compares two unlike things without using the words "like" or "as."Example: Describing someone as a "shining star" is a metaphor for their exceptional talent.27. Onomatopoeia: Noun - the formation of a word from a sound that is associated with what the word refers to.Example: "Buzz" and "crash" are examples of onomatopoeia that imitate the sounds they describe.28. Punctuation: Noun - the marks used in writing to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to indicate their structure and meaning.Example: Proper punctuation is essential for clarity and understanding in written communication.29. Register: Noun - the level of formality or informality in language, often determined by the context or audience.Example: Knowing when to use formal register is important in professional settings.30. Slang: Noun - very informal language that is typically used by aparticular group of people.Example: Slang terms often evolve over time, with new words and phrases being created.31. Semantics: Noun - the study of meaning in language.Example: Semantics helps us understand how words and phrases convey meaning in different contexts.32. Simile: Noun - a figure of speech that compares two unlike things using the words "like" or "as."Example: "She runs like the wind" is a simile that compares someone's speed to that of the wind.33. Stative Verb: Noun - a verb that describes a state rather than an action. Example: "Be," "have," and "belong" are examples of stative verbs.34. Stress: Noun - the emphasis given to a particular syllable or word in speech.Example: Word stress can change the meaning of a sentence, such as in the word "record" (noun) versus "record" (verb).。

语言学名词解释1.(7-8)Language: language is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal symbols used for human communication. ( Language is a system; language is arbitrary; language is vocal; language is human –specific.)2.(15)phonetics语音学: a branch of linguistics语言学which is studies the characteristic of speech sounds语音and provides methods for their description ，classification and transcription.3.(62)semantics语义学: it can be defined as the study of meaning which is central to the study of communication.4.(77)pragmatics语用学: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect产生，引起successful communication.（It’s also the study of language in use or language communication, the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.）5.(42)syntax: is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation结构，组成of sentences.6.(31)morphology形态学: it refers to the study of the internal 内部的structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.7.(66)synonymy同义词: refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.(66)reference指称: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,真实physical world物质; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world（非语言世界，即real，physical world）of experience.9.(66)sense词义: is concerned with the inherent固有的，内在的meaning of a linguistic form, the collection集合of all its features（语言形式所有特征的集合）; it’s abstract and de-contextualized去情景化. I t’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers编辑者are interested in.10.(9)duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. A large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words are found at the higher level of the system. The duality of structure of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.11.(112-113)dialect: dialects vary. A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.12.(114)accent: it’s an important marker of sociolect. Regional accents and RP took on social implications, becoming in effect social accents.13.(87)conversational maxim会话准则: It has 4 maxims: the maxim of quantity(make your contribution as informative as required;don’t make your contribution more informative than is required),the maxim of quality(don’t sa y what you believe to be false;don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence),the maxim of relation(be relevant) and the maxim of manner(avoid obscurity of expression;abvoid ambiguity;be brief;be orderly).14.(78-79)context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.)15.(5)competence: it’s the ideal(best) user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.16.(5)performance: it’s the actual realization of thisknowledge in linguistic communication.17.(117)register 语域:refers to a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations, such a register of medical English, legal English.18.(81)locutionary act 言外行为:is the act of uttering words,phrases,and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal字面meaning by means of syntax, 句法lexicon词汇and phonology.音韵学19.(69)hyponymy: 下义关系，上下义refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive宽泛word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate上义词,and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.下义词20.(22)phonology: 音位学it relates to the study of sound and aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21.(照片)speech community :the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.22.(17-18)transcription:it includes the transcription with letter-symbols only and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcripton which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter is called narrow transcription which is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.23.(33)bound morpheme黏着词素: a morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme, whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one isa bound morpheme.24.(24-25)minimal pair:when two different forms are identical完全一致in every way except for one sound segment一个音段which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.25.(27)stress: the syllable consists of three parts: onset起音, peak, coda收尾.26.(38)compounding: it’s a new way to form new words,or compou nd words, and is by string words together.27.(百度)affixation词缀: it’s the process whereby new words are formed from existing words or bases.28.(23-24)allophone音位变体:the phones can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments。

英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。

简明语言学整理笔记精品文档第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <="">Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。

从英语名词看语言的有界与无界1. 引言1.1 引言Languages are complex systems of communication that play a crucial role in human society. They are characterized by a combination of structure, rules, and vocabulary that allow individuals to convey their thoughts and ideas to others. One interesting aspect of language is the distinction between bounded and unbounded categories, which has been widely studied in linguistics.The concept of language boundedness refers to the limitations imposed by a finite set of linguistic elements that individuals can use to construct meaningful utterances. This idea suggests that language is composed of discrete units that have clear boundaries and can be categorized into distinct groups. On the other hand, language unboundedness suggests that there are no strict boundaries between different linguistic elements, allowing for greater flexibility and creativity in communication.In the field of English linguistics, the study of nouns provides valuable insights into the bounded and unbounded nature of language. Nouns are a fundamental part of language thatrepresent people, places, things, or concepts. By examining the characteristics of English nouns, researchers can better understand how language categories are structured and how they contribute to communication.The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of language boundedness through the analysis of English nouns. By examining the specific features of English nouns and categorizing them into bounded and unbounded categories, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language systems are constructed and how they shape our communication abilities. This research aims to contribute to the broader field of linguistics by shedding light on the intricate relationship between language structure and communication processes.1.2 研究背景语言是人类交流和表达思想的工具，而名词作为语言中最基本、最常见的词类之一，在语言中起着至关重要的作用。

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编25(总分：72.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、填空题(总题数：5，分数：10.00)1.There has been a maxim in 1which claims that "You are what you say". (中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：quantity）解析：解析：格莱斯的数量准则指1．使你的话语如(交谈的当前目的)所要求的那样信息充分；2．不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

即说你该说的。

2.The theory of conversational implicature was proposed by 1. (中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Grice）解析：解析：格赖斯认为一定存在一些管理话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称为合作原则，在这个大原则下有四条准则，它们分别为数量、质量、关系和方式准则。

3. 1were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. （分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Performatives）解析：解析：施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。

4.In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the 1principle proposed by J. Grice.（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Cooperative）解析：解析：通常在对话中，所有的参与者都被希望能够遵守由格莱斯提出的合作原则，这样就不会有会话含义的产生。

语料库语言学简史语料库语言学及语料库方法的作用在今天已不容忽视，但是语料库语言学的发展却经历了一段长期曲折的过程。

以1957年Chomsky《句法结构》的发表为界，此前的语料库研究被语言学界广泛称为“早期的语料库语言学”；从上世纪50年代至80年代语料库语言学进入低谷；从80年代开始，语料库语言学迎来了它的“复苏期”。

1 早期的语料库语言学利用真实语言资料进行研究，是词汇学家和语法学家的优良传统。

早在1747年英语词典编纂的鼻祖Samuel Johnson就发表了Plan of an English Dictionary，将前人收集资料的最好方法作了总结，他所编的英语词典含15万条以上的引证说明，可见其所收集的资料库已相当可观。

Oxford English Dictionary于1928年完成，所用的引证达400多万条，卡片1100多万张，还专门出版了中古英语手稿与文章350册，供编写OED时参考。

Webster’s New International Dictionary第二版的编写参照了100多万条引证，第三版于1961年付印时，新旧引证共达1000多万条。

英语语法大师Jesperson在编写《英语语法大全》（1909-1949）时，所使用的卡片数目多达30至40万张。

（王建新，1998：52）20世纪40年代，美国的语言学家Boas在研究美洲印第安语言时就使用了语料库的方法（corpus-based methodology），后来的结构主义语言学家更是如此。

只不过当时还没有出现一个专门叫“语料库语言学”的词汇而已。

下面是早期语料库语言学的一些主要研究领域：1．1 语言习得研究19世纪70年代，语言学家就系统地对幼儿语言习得进行了研究。

这些研究都基于父母对幼儿话语及时记录的日记材料。

即使在现代，基于原始语料的语言习得研究也没有停止（Ingram，1978）。

在以日记材料为语料的研究风行过后（通常认为从1876年至1926年），语言习得的研究主要表现为下面两种方式：（1）以大量的、不同年龄段的儿童为语言素材的来源（informant），进行语言发展和成熟的研究；（2）以少量的儿童为语言素材的来源，长期跟踪记录他们使用的语言而进行的历时研究（McEnery，Wilson，2001：3）。

《英语语言学概论》配套练习题（二）（判断题）Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics1. Duality is one of the charateristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.3. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.6. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.7. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.8. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.2. Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.3. The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modificaiton to acquire the quality of a speech sound.4. [p] is voiced bilabial stop.5. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.6. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.7. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.8. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.2. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.3. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all infletional affixes are removed.4. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.5.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.6. The word, whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomapoeia.7. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.8. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Application of the transformational rules yields deep strucutre.2. Move-a rule itself can rule out ungrammatical forms and result in grammatical strings.3. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronounn.4. A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is a morpheme, and a construction which is not at the same time a constituent is a sentence.5. IC analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures.6. A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of diacourse.7. Syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.8. S-structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.Chapter 5 Semantics1.Interrogative and imperative sentences do not have truth value.2.The raltionship between “human body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.ponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into menaing components, called semantic features.4.One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.5.Hyponymy is a matter of class membership, so it is the same as meronymy.6.“Either it is raining here or it isn’t raining here” is empirically true.7.Two sentences using the same words may mean quite differently.8.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.2. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.3.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.4.The utterance meaning of the sentence variees with the context in which it is uttered.5.While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly.6.Inviting, suggesting, warnign, ordering are instances of commissives.7.Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and thehearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implications arise.8.Of three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.Chapter 7 Language Change1.Pre-Indo-European languages are not attested whereas Proto-Indo-Europeanlanguages are attested.2.Some modern words come from the morphological change of the Old English. Forinstance, move comes form movement and teach comes from teachable.3.With the semantic broadening or narrowing, the meaning of a word is beingchanged constantly, although with one generation such difference is hardly obvious.4.The sentence I hate thee not was considered normal form of negation in OldEnglish.5.Both Chinese and Japanese have a logographic writing system; English and Greekhave an alphabetic writing system.6.In Old English, the affixation of the prefix Yan- to an adjective would change theword into a causative verb.7.In 1200, the official language in England was Old English.8.All case forms of Old English nouns have been lost in Modern English.9.In Old English, a verb precedes the subject instead of following it.Chapter 8 Language and Society10.In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situationsknown as domains.11.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety ofthat language.12.A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.13.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he isconverting one mode of thinking into the other.14.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.15.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker’sperceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.16.The sentences “He crazy”and “He be sick all the time”are both acceptible inblack English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English.17.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regionaldialects.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisitionnguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation.2.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.3.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA.4.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.5.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification.6.Children’s grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult’s grammar.7.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical.8.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1. The right ear advantage (REA) is true no matter whether people have the left hemispheric dominance for speech or the less common right hemispheric dominance.2. In general, the left hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.3. The left hemisphere is superior to the right hemisphere.4. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantly from child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.5. At the multiword stage, simple prepositions, especially those that indicate positions such as “in”, “on” and “up”, begin to turn up in children’s speech.6. Children acquiring their first language simply beyond the critical age are hardly successful, such as the case of “Genie.”7. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.8. Modern linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.。

语言学期末复习资料整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Terms of English Literature蒲度戎编写下列术语编排依据教材《新编英国文学选读》中的出现顺序。

1.epic 史诗a long narrative poem, grand in style, about heroes and heroic deeds, embodyingheroic ideals of a nation or race in the making. Beowulf is the English national epic that was passed from mouth to mouth and written down by many unknown hands.2.caesura 停顿a break or pause in a line of poetry, dictated by the natural rhythm of the languageand sometimes enforced by punctuation. In Old English verse, such as Beowulf, the caesura is used rather monotonously to indicate the half line.3.alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound or sounds at the beginning of two or more words that are close to each other. It is a feature of Beowulf and other Old English poems.4.alliterative verse 头韵诗poetry written in alliteration. Nearly all Old English verse, including Beowulf, is heavily alliterative, and the pattern is fairly standard –with either two or three stressed syllables in each line alliterating.5.accentual verse 重音诗In this verse only the beat of the strong stresses counts in the scanning, while the number of intervening light syllables is highly variable. Usually there are four strong-stressed syllables in a line, whose beat is emphasized by alliteration. This is the meter of Old English poetry and many Middle English poems, for example, Beowulf.6.kenning 隐喻语a metaphor usually composed of two words and used for description andassociation. Beowulf is full of kennings, such as “helmet bearer” for “warrior” and “swan road” for “sea”.7.protagonist 主角the principal character of a drama or fiction. Hamlet is the protagonist of William Shakespeare’s drama Hamlet.8.antagonist 反角In drama or fiction the antagonist opposes the hero or protagonist. In Hamlet Claudius is antagonist to Hamlet.9.romance 传奇a type of literature that was popular in the Middle Ages, usually containingadventures and reflecting the spirit of chivalry. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a great verse romance, but its author remains unknown.10.poet’s corner 诗人角a part of Westminster Abbey, London, which contains the tombs or monuments ofsome famous English poets, such as Geoffrey Chaucer and John Milton.11.heroic couplet 英雄偶句诗two successive lines of rhymed poetry in iambic pentameter. Geoffrey Chaucer’s masterpiece The Canterbury Tales is written in heroic couplet.12.ballad meter 民谣体traditionally a four-line stanza containing alternating four-stress and three-stress lines, usually with a refrain and the rhyme scheme of abcb. Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose” is a great love ballad.13.refrain 叠句，副歌a phrase, line or lines repeated at intervals during a poem and especially at the endof a stanza. It is very often found in English ballads, such as Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose”.14.English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴the literary flowering of England in the late 16th century and early 17th century, with humanism as its keynote. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is considered the summit of this renaissance.15.Elizabethan literature 伊丽莎白时代的文学the English literature produced during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603).The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is a masterpiece of this period.16.sonnet 十四行诗a fixed form consisting of fourteen lines of 5-foot iambic verse. It first flourishedin Italy in the 14th century. William Shakespeare is a great English sonnet writer famous for his 154 sonnets.17.meter 格律the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse. In English verse a line may have a fixed number of syllables and yet have a varying number of stresses;the commonest meter is iamb. William Shakespeare’s sonnets are written in iamb.18.foot 音步a group of syllables forming a metrical unit. We measure feet in terms of syllablevariation: long and short syllables, stressed and unstressed. The commonest foot in English verse is iamb; the commonest line is five-foot line, called pentameter.William Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18” contains fourteen iambic pentameter lines. 19.iambic pentameter 五步抑扬格the basic line in English verse, with five feet in a line, usually an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. It was probably introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer and certainly established by him in The Canterbury Tales.20.rhyme scheme 押韵格式the pattern of end-thymes in a stanza or poem, generally described by using letters of the alphabet to denote the recurrence of rhyming lines. For example, heroic couplets are “aabbcc” and so on.21.quatrain 四行诗节a stanza of four lines, rhymed or unrhymed. It is the commonest of all stanzaicforms in English poetry. Robert Burns’ “A Red, Red Rose” has four quatrai ns.22.image 意象a mental picture made out of words to represent an object or sensory experience.Images are either “literal” or “figurative”. Literal images are especially concrete and involve little or no extension of the obvious meaning of the words used to express them. Figurative images do not follow the literal meaning of the words exactly. Images in literature are usually visual. The rose in Robert Burns’ poem “A Red, Red Rose” is a n image of love and beauty.23.symbol 象征a word or phrase that signifies something beyond itself, i.e., the scales, the dove,the rose, the Cross, the Stars and Stripes. A literary symbol combines an image with a concept. A symbol can be public or private, universal or local. In the poem “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns, the poet wrote the image of the rose into a symbol of passionate love.24.poetic license 诗的破格the liberty allowed to the poet to wrest the language according to his needs in the use of figurative speech, archaism, rhyme, strange syntax, etc. An example is the last se ntence of “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns –“Tho’ it were ten thousand mile!”25.verse drama 诗剧drama written in the form of verse. It was most widely used in the Elizabethan Age. William Shakespeare’s dramas are all verse dramas, Hamlet being the most famous.26.blank verse 无韵诗，素体诗unrhymed iambic pentameter, the most widely used of English verse forms and usually used in English dramatic and epic poetry. William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet is written in blank verse.27.Globe Theatre 环球剧场one of the most famous of all theatres in history, it was built in 1599, with three stories. The roof was thatched, with the centre open to the sky. Many of William Shakespeare’s plays were performed in it. It was destroyed by fire in 1613, rebuilt the next year and finally demolished in 1644. Again it was rebuilt in 1997.28.essay 散文，随笔a composition, usually in prose, which may be of only a few hundred words or ofbook length and which discusses, formally or informally, a topic or a variety of topics. It is one of the most flexible and adaptable of all literary forms. Francis Bacon is a great essayist; his “Of Studies” is a model of good essay.29.English Romanticism 英国浪漫主义a literary trend that aimed at free expression of the writer’s ideas and feelings andprevailed in England during the period 1798-1832. The English Romantics expressed a revolt against or an escape from the sordid daily life. A great representative of the movement is Percy Bysshe Shelley, the author of “Ode to the West Wind”.ke poets 湖畔诗人the three romantic poets who lived in the Lake District of England and wrote poems about nature. William Wordsworth is the most famous of the lake poets, his famous poems being “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, etc.31.poet laureate 桂冠诗人a poet honored for his artistic achievement or selected as most representative ofhis country or era; in England, a court official appointed by the sovereign to compose odes in honor of the sovereign’s birthday and in celebration of state occasions of importance. William Wordsworth became poet laureate in 1843. 32.Victorian literature 维多利亚时代的文学the English literature produced during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). In the Victorian era the novel became the leading form of English literature. William Makepeace Thackeray’s Vanity Fair is a masterpiece of this period.33.English Critical Realism 英国批判现实主义a literary trend that flourished in the mid-19th century England, aiming at aportrayal of life with fidelity and without idealization. The English critical realists powerfully exposed the ugliness of the bourgeois world and showed sympathy for the common people. The greatest representative of the movement is Charles Dickens, the author of David Copperfield.。

The Definition of LanguageWhen used as a general concept, "language" refers to the cognitive faculty that enables humans to learn and use systems of complex communication. And from the dictionary, language is defined as “The system of spoken or written communication used by a particular country, people, community, etc., typically consisting of words used within a regular grammatical and syntactic structure.”According to the study of Mr Pan Wenguo, the famous language reseacher in China, he concluded that all the definitions of language by the domestic and foreign linguists could be divided into four types — the natural essence of language and the theory of “self-sufficiency” represented by Saussure; the social essence and the theory of “communication tool” represented by Stalin; the theory of “innation” represented by Chomsky; and the theory of “world outlook” represented by Humboldt.Based on the learning of these theories about “what is language”, I think that primarily language as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour plays the role of media to deliver our own ideas, feelings, emotions, etc. to other people. It is created by humans to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment. So it has the communication function. What’s more, language is also a formal symbolic system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. It can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings. So we can say language is a strict and sophisticated system, the vehicle of information, history, culture, science and so on. It is crucial to the development of our civilization and all the production activities to improve the society.1语言是什么1.1语言的定义据潘文国先生的研究，自十九世纪初以来的两百年间，古今中外学者给语言下过六十多种定义。

.. .. .. Chapter one Introduction1.1 什么是语言学1.1.1 定义语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2一般语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics .（语音学）The study o f how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology . （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology . （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics . （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics . （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics成对的观点辨析差别必考P3（1 ） Prescriptive and descriptive规定与描绘......If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said tobe descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and whatthey should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptivewhile modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe thelanguage people actually use, whether it is“ correct” or not.规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for” correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描绘性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.（2 ） Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time .共时语言学 Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time .（3 ） Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are:1.Speech precedes writing;2. There are still many languages that have only thespoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4 ） Langue and parole语言和语言必考名解 P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure madethe distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of studyof linguistics.语言 langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.语言 parole（详细）The realization of langue in actual use.（5 ） Competence and performance语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’ s.He defines competence as the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Hebelieves the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力 Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言运用 performance（详细）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言社交中的详细表现。

语料集英文Language Data Collection: An Essential Tool for Natural Language ProcessingLanguage data, also known as corpora, is the fundamental building block for natural language processing (NLP) technologies. These datasets are collections of written or spoken language samples that serve as a basis for training and testing various NLP models. The importance of language data cannot be overstated, as it underpins the development of applications ranging from machine translation and text summarization to sentiment analysis and chatbots.The process of collecting and curating language data is a crucial yet often overlooked aspect of the NLP ecosystem. It requires meticulous planning, careful consideration of ethical and legal implications, and a deep understanding of the target language and its nuances. Effective language data collection can make the difference between a successful NLP system and one that falls short of its goals.One of the primary challenges in language data collection is the need for diversity and representativeness. Natural language isinherently complex, with variations in syntax, vocabulary, and contextual usage across different domains, genres, and demographics. To create robust NLP models, researchers and developers must gather a wide range of language samples that reflect this diversity. This may involve sourcing data from various online and offline sources, such as social media platforms, news articles, books, and transcripts of spoken conversations.Another key consideration in language data collection is the issue of data privacy and ethical concerns. Many language samples, particularly those derived from online sources, may contain sensitive personal information or copyrighted material. Researchers must navigate these legal and ethical hurdles to ensure that the collected data is used in a responsible and ethical manner, respecting the privacy of individuals and adhering to relevant intellectual property laws.The process of language data collection often involves a combination of automated and manual techniques. Automated web scraping tools can be used to gather large volumes of text data from the internet, while manual curation and annotation may be necessary to ensure the quality and accuracy of the collected data. This can include tasks such as removing irrelevant or redundant content, correcting grammatical and spelling errors, and labeling specific linguistic features or entities.Once the language data has been collected and curated, it must be preprocessed and formatted in a way that is suitable for use in NLP applications. This may involve tasks such as tokenization, lemmatization, and part-of-speech tagging, which help to convert the raw text into a structured format that can be readily consumed by machine learning algorithms.The value of high-quality language data cannot be overstated. Accurate and representative language data is essential for the development of robust and reliable NLP models, which in turn power a wide range of applications that have a significant impact on our daily lives. From language translation to sentiment analysis, the ability to understand and process natural language is fundamental to the advancement of human-computer interaction and the acceleration of technological progress.In conclusion, the collection and curation of language data is a critical component of the NLP ecosystem. By embracing the challenges and complexities of this process, researchers and developers can create the foundation for the next generation of AI-powered technologies that enhance our ability to communicate, understand, and interact with the world around us.。