Sentence generation as a planning problem

第一章绪论填空题或选择题1. A symbol consists of two parts : a concrete form and the meaning which it conveys.一个符号由两个部分组成：一个具体的形式和它所表达的意思。

2.By saying language is arbitrary ,we mean we can’t give a sound reason why such a form ispronounced in this way rather than in that way, and why a particular meaning should be indicated by this form rather than by that form..当说语言是任意的，我们指我们不能合理地解释为什么这个音以这种形式而不是以那种形式发音。

并且为什么以这种形式而不是以那种形式来表明某种特殊的意义。

3. Language has two levels .They are grammatically meaningful level and sound meaninglesslevel.语言有两个层次：语法上有意义的层次和声音上无意义的层次。

4.Human languages have such design features asproductivity ,discreteness ,displacement ,arbitrariness ,cultural transmission ,duality and interchangeability . 人类语言具有以下的甄别性特征：能产性，离散性，不受时空限制的特性，任意性，文化传递性，双重性和互换性。

nguage is a system because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’sactual speech or writing .语言是一种体系，因为每种语言都是由一套规则组成的，这些规则表明了人们的真正语言或书面形式。

现代语言学自考题-23(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、(总题数：0，分数：0.00)二、{{B}}Ⅰ.Directions:Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false{{/B}}(总题数：21，分数：21.00)1.Just as life continues in a process of change, all living languages change with time.（分数：1.00）A.正确√B.错误解析：[解析] 正如生命要在变化中延续一样，所有活的语言也在随着时光的流转变化着。

除了那些在社会中不为大多数人所使用的语言之外，如拉丁语，语言的变化都是不可避免的。

2.The division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English is nonconventional and not arbitrary.（分数：1.00）A.正确B.错误√解析：[解析] 大家都能接受英语被划分为古英语、中世纪英语和现代英语3个历史阶段的划分方法。

这种划分是随意的、约定俗成的。

历史语言学家们之所以把语言划分为不同的历史时期，是因为他们想有一个更方便的、更切合实际的研究语言变化的方法。

这绝不意味着古英语是在某一特定的时间阶段转化成中世纪英语的。

改正：The division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English is conventional and somewhat arbitrary.3.The Anglo-Saxons were migrants from the northern parts of Europe, so the words that they originally used and the words that the English vocabulary has later taken in from other languages are regarded as loan words.（分数：1.00）A.正确B.错误√解析：[解析] 古英语可以追溯到公元5世纪中叶，当时说英语的盎格鲁-撒克逊人从北欧入侵了不列颠群岛。

北京理工大学博士研究生入学考试英语试题附答案和详解北京理工大学20XX年博士研究生入学考试英语试题Part ⅠReading Comprehension (40 points)Directions：In this part there are four passages for you to read. After each passage there are five questions, below each of whom there are four answers marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best answer and mark the corresponding letter with a pencil on the MA CHINE-SCORING ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the center.Passage OneI was introduced to the concept of literacy animator in Oladumi Arigbede's (1994) article on high illiteracy rates among women and school dropout rates among girls. According to Arigbede, literacy animators view their role as assisting in the self-liberating development of people in the world who are struggling for a more meaningful life. Animators are a family of deeply concerned and committed people whose gut-level rejection of mass human pauperization compels them to intervene on the side of the marginalized. Their motivation is not derived from a love of literacy as merely another technical life skill, and they accept that literacy is never culturally or ideologically neutral.Arigbede writes from her experiences as an animator working with women and men in Nigeria. She believes that literacy animators have to make a clear choice about whose culture and whose ideology will be fostered among those with whom they work. Do literacy educators in the United States consider whether the instruction they pursue conflicts with their students' traditional cultures or community, or fosters illiteraciesin learners' first or home languages or dialects and in their orality?Some approaches to literacy instruction represent an ideology of individualism, control, and competition. Consider, for example, the difference in values conveyed and re presented when students engage in choral reading versus the practice of having one student read out loud to the group. To identify as a literacy animator is to choose the ideology of “sharing, solida rity, love, equity, co-operation with and respect of both nature and other human beings.” Liter acy pedagogy that matches the animator ideology works on maintaining the languages and cultures of millions of minority children who at present are being forced to accept the language and culture of the dominant group. It might lead to assessment that examines the performance outcomes of acommunity of literacy learners and the social significance of their uses of literacy, as opposed to measuring what an individual can do as a reader and writer on a standardized test. Shor (1993) describes literacy animators as problem-posing, community-based, dialogic educators. Do our teacher-education text books on reading and language arts promote the idea that teachers should explore problems from a community-based dialogic perspective?1．A literacy animator is one who ______.A．struggles for a more meaningful lifeB．frees people from poverty and illiteracyC．is committed to marginalize the illiterateD．is concerned with what is behind illiteracy2．The author suggests that literacy educators in the US in a way ______.A．promote students' home languagesB．force students to accept their cultureC．teach nothing but reading and writingD．consider literacy as of non-neutral nature3．Arigbede worked with Nigerians probably to ______.A．teach American customs and ideologyB．make a choice of culture to be fosteredC．reject the values of the dominant classD．help maintain Nigerian language and culture4．According to the author, “choral reading” may represent ______.A．individualism B．collectivismC．competition D．immersion5．Animator ideology emphasizes more on ______.A．the social function of literacyB．students' performance in testsC．the dominant group’s languageD．the attainment of life skillsPassage TwoAccording to one survey of 12,000 people, about 30 percent of those making New Year'sresolutions say they don't even keep them into February. And only about 1 in 5actually stays on track for six months or more, reports ediets．com, a consumer diet and fitness Web site.But don't let those odds make you reach for the nearest bag of potato chips. Experts say you can keep those resolutions long term, even if you're struggling now.“The motivation comes from within, and so when you find that you're declining in your healthy eating program, and then just ask yourself, ‘Is this going to get me the results that I want?',” says Leslie Stewart, a registered dietitian and licensed nutritionist．“And if you're doing something every day to eat heal thy, then that's going to pay off in the long run.”Stewart advises to use what she calls the 90-10 eating rule.“If you're eating healthy 90 percent of the time, then 10 percent of the time, you can cut yourself some slack and eat pleasurably.”She says s he believes that “healthy eating is evolution instead of resolution.”The same principle can be applied to a lagging exercise resolution, too.Staying motivated is key to long-term success, and reviewing original goals can help strengthen a weakening workout program.Adding variety to a fitness regime also can prevent you from hanging up those exercise shoes. After a few weeks of well-intentioned workouts, boredom may be creeping you're your routine.Setting goals too high is another common mistake. “If you're not running a marathon at the end of the month, don't worry,” say Mayo Clinic experts. A too intense workout—and the resulting pain and stiffness—is discouraging and may force most to abandon a pro gram. Starting slowly is key.But if your goals already have fallen by the wayside，Uria says to start up again immediately.“A little setback is OK; get back on the horse and ride...drive toward that goal,” he says.6．According to the author, only about 20% people keeping their resolutions does not necessarily mean that ______.A．the figure is rather depressing and unexpected as wellB．those who have made their resolution should give up their effortC．whoever keep their resolutions should start eating potato chipsD．long-term resolutions are not important for those facing troubles7．What is the idea behind the 90-10 eating rule according to the passage?A．You should keep eating healthy 90% of the time.B．You should feel free to eat 10％of the time.C．You should learn to eat healthy gradually.D．Sudden change will be more efficient and effective.8．Which of the following you should avoid to keep yourself interested in exercise?A．Hanging up your exercise shoes if you feel tired.B．Keeping boredom away from your daily activity.C．Making a schedule with too high goals in it.D．Running a marathon at the beginning of the month.9．How many suggestions at least have been introduced concerning the exercise resolution?A．Four. B．Five. C．Six. D．Seven.10．What is critically important in making long-term resolutions successful?A．You should be struggling with yourself all the time.B．You should constantly evaluate the results you want.C．You should try to keep yourself motivated.D．You should try your best to diversify your fitness practice.Passage ThreeOur present generation of cultural critics, arriving after the assault of postmodernism and the increasingly widespread commercialization of culture, has been cast adrift, with out any firm basis for judgments. Publications and institutions to supportserious criticism, in this view, either no longer exist or are few in number.Critics today, it is also claimed, are too cozy behind the ivied walls of academe, con tent to employ a prose style that is decipherable only to a handful of the cognoscenti. The deadly dive of university critics into the shallow depths of popular culture, moreover, reveals the unwillingness of these critics to uphold standards. Even if the reasons offered are contradictory, these Jeremiahs huddle around their sad conclusion that serious cultural criticism has fallen into a morass of petty bickering and bloated reputations.Such narratives of declension, a staple of American intellectual life since the time of thePuritans, are misplaced, self-serving, and historically inaccurate and difficult to prove. Has the level of criticism declined in the last 50 years? Of course the logic of such an opinion depends on the figures that are being contrasted with one another. Any number of cultural critics thriving today could be invoked to demonstrate that cultural criticism is alive and well.But many new and thriving venues for criticism and debate exist today, and they are not limited solely to the discussion of literary works. Actually, they became so encrusted with their own certitude and political judgments that they became largely irrelevant. Today the complaint is that literary culture lacks civility. We live in an age of commercialism and spectacle. Writers seek the limelight, and one way to bask in it is to publish reviews that scorch the landscape, with Dale Peck as the fatuous, but not a typical, case in point. Heidi Julavits, in an essay in The Believer, lamented the downfall of serious fiction and reviewing. She sur veyed a literary culture that had embraced “snark”, her termfor hostile, self-serving reviews.The snark review, according to Julavits, eschews a serious engagement with literature in favor of a sound-bite approach, an attempt to turn the review into a form of entertainment akin to film reviews or restaurant critiques. A critic found cultural criticism to be in “critical condition.” For him, the postmodern turn to, theory, in its questioning of objectivity, cut the critical, independent ground out from under reviewers. The rise of chain bookstores and blockbuster best sellers demeaned literary culture, making it prey to the commercial values of the market and entertainment.The criticism does not seem discontinuous. Nor should we forget that civility rarely reigned in the circles of New York intellectuals. The art critic Clement Greenberg physically pummeled the theater critic Lionel Abel after Abel rejected the view that Jean Wahl, the French philosopher, was anti-Semitic. Though Robert Peck has the reputation of a literary hatchet man, so far as I know his blows thus far have all been confined to the printed page.Cultural criticism has certainly changed over the years. The old days of the critic who wielded unchallenged authority have happily passed. Ours is a more pluralistic age, one not beholden to a narrow literary culture. The democratization of criticism—as in the Amazon system of readers' evaluating books—is a messy affair, as democracy must be. But the solution to the problems of criticism in the present is best not discovered in the musty basements of nostalgia and sentiment for the cultural criticism of a half-century gone. Rather the solution is to recognize, asJohn Dewey did almost a century ago, that the problems of democracy demand more democracy, less nostalgia for a goldenage that never was, and a spirit of openness to what is new and invigorating in our culture.11．What is the possible connection between cultural critics and publications and institutions?A．Cultural critics attack postmodernism and commercialization cherished by publications and institutions.B．Postmodernism and commercialization are attacked by the serious publications and institutions.C．Cultural criticism is short of judgments and will not exist without the support of publications and institutions.D．Publications and institutions show almost no interest in serious cultural criticism.12．How do the university critics like the serious cultural criticism?A．Cultural criticism is not serious enough when the articles are written in the cozy prose style.B．Popular culture is so prevailing that serious critics are not willing to keep to the shallow standards.C．Serious cultural criticism is full of insignificant quarrels and the public do not real ly trust it.D．Cultural critics have become so serious as to tell the stories imbued with American intellectual Puritanism.13．What is the author's opinion of the current complaint about the literary expansion into the other fields?A．When literary critics discuss issues with political judgments, their views are likely to be meaningless.B．It is reasonable for writers to seek limelight since we are living in the age of com mercialism.C．Critics should be encouraged to write and publish poignant articles which would scorch the landscape.D．It is the critics' responsibility to lament the downfall of serious fiction and reviewing.14．What does “the snark review” refer to according to Heidi Julavits?A．Cultural reviews which are unfriendly and selfish.B．Literary reviews avoiding serious criticism.C．Entertainment reviews in the film industry.D．Postmodern reviews independent of objectivity.15．In order to find a way out the current dilemma for the cultural criticism, the author suggests that ______.A．we should return to the old days when the critics passed their judgments without challengesB．pluralism should be held back, reinforcing the unchallenged authority in the literary criticismC．democratic criticism should not be adopted because it is rather messy as proved in the Amazon systemD．we should encourage more democracy, dismiss nostalgia and cultivate an open attitudePassage FourIn July, almost unnoticed by the national press, a deadly bird virus arrived on a pheasant farm in Surrey. Experts from the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) identified Newcastle disease, a virus usually mortal to turkeys and geese but not humans, in a flock of 9,000 pheasant chicks imported from France ahead of the shooting season.Within hours of the diagnosis, veterinary experts had swung into action, throwing up a 3 km exclusion zone around the farm near Cobham and culling 10,000 birds. The carcasses were burned and premises cleaned to stop the virus escaping. It was four weeks before Defra's Veterinary Exotic Diseases Division feltit was safe for poultry movements in the area to resume．This weekend, with the news that H5N1, a far more deadly bird virus, has reached Turkey, similar emergency plans are being readied by officials from Defra and other agencies. The scenario they are preparing for is that the H5N1 virus, which so far has led to the culling of billions of chickens in south-east Asia and 60 human deaths, will soon arrive on these shores.What happens next depends on where the outbreak occurs, whether it can be contained and—most important of all—whether it mutates to become infectious between people. So far, only poultry workers or those directly exposed to chicken faeces or blood are thought to be at risk, though direct human-to-human transmission cannot be ruled out. “Eve ry time a new person getsinfected with the virus there is a small chance that person will trigger a pandemic,” said Neil Ferguson, a scientist at Imperial College, who has been running simulations on what might happen were H5N1 to reach Britain. “It's a v ery small chance, probably 1 in a 1,000, 1 in 10,000 or less. ”Should diseased birds reach Britain, the first step for veterinary officials would be to contain the outbreak as they did with Newcastle disease. An amber alert would be sounded and samples sent to the Veterinary Laboratory Agency (VLA) in Weybridge, Surrey. If Ian Brown, the head of avian virology there, confirms the cause of death as H5N1, the alert level will be raised to red and a whole series of emergency procedures, from quarantine, restriction of poultry movements to culling, will swing into action. Other agencies, such as the Department of Health, the Health Protection Agency and the Ministry of De fence, would be brought into the loop. In the event that theoutbreak cannot be contained, Defra may have to consider mass culling programmes and the possibility of vaccination.At this point, with the risk of the virus spreading to human populations, the Department of Health would appoint a UK national influenza pandemic committee to coordinate the response of hospital trusts and local authorities. The Civil Contingency Secretariat (CCS) of the Cabinet will also be alerted and Cobra, the emergency committee which coordinates Whitehall's response to terrorism, readied for a possible breakdown in civil order.The Department of Health's pandemic preparedness plan published in March envisages as many as 54,000 Britons dying in the first few months of a flu pandemic. But in June, CCS officials warned that that could be an underestimate. The more likely figure, they said, was 700,000—projection the Department of Health is expected to take on board when it updates its pandemic preparedness plan later this month.In the most serious case, officials estimate there would be as many deaths in the 12weeks of an epidemic as there usually are in a year. At the peak of the pandemic, 19,000people would requite hospital beds, prompting councils to requisition schools to accommodate the sick.To treat the dying, the government would begin drawing down its stockpiles of Tamiflu (药名), an anti-viral drug that treats flu. But with only 14 courses, enough for a quarter of the population, likely to be available, sooner or later rationing would have to be imposed, with health professionals and essential civil servants the first in line. The government would also come under pressure to release stores of its precious flu vaccine. At present there are contingency plans for justtwo to three million doses. But there is no guarantee that vaccines which protect against annual human flu strains will also work against H5N1．The consequences hardly bear thinking about. Earlier this year, in a dress rehearsal in the East Midlands codenamed, Operation Arctic Circle, officials quickly concluded that mass mortuaries would be needed to bury the dead. But no one knows whether, in the event of a pandemic, any of these measures will prove effective. John Avizienius, senior scientific officer at the RSPCA and a member of Defra's avian influenza stakeholder group,said: “All you can do is plan for the worst case scenario.”The fear is that wild geese moving from western China to Siberia may have spread the virus to several species of ducks and gulls that briefly visit British shores on their annual migration north. These ducks, many of which may not show signs of illness, may be passing on the virus to poultry on British farms.In the hope that they are not, Defra and the Wildfowl and Wetland announced last week that they would be conducting tests on 11,000 wild birds—three times the normal level. “The risk of avian influenza spreading from eastern Russia to the UK via migrating birds is still low,” said Defra's chief vet, Debby Reynolds. “Howe ver, we have said all along that we must remain on the look out.”16．What does the “scenario” in Paragrap h 2 mean to Turkey?A．Turkey will be exposed to the nationwide aggression of the deadly virus as the most severely attacked country on these shores.B．Turkey must kill billions of chicken and other kinds of poultry.C．Turkey has to be responsible for the arrival of H5N1 on these shores.D．All the veterinary experts in Turkey will soon swing into action.17．What is, according to Neil Ferguson, the possible risk of bird flu if one gets infected?A．Anyone's infection will trigger pandemic though it is probably one in ten thousand.B．Each time a person gets infected with the virus will cause an enormous pandemic bird flu.C．The person infected with the virus will do great harm to people around him. D．It is impossible that the virus infection of a certain persons will cause a national bird virus spreading.18．The change of alert colors from amber to red implies that__.A．all poultry workers must leave their working places as soon as possibleB．the officials in the Department of Health must call for much more of international assistanceC．the most serious situation of bird flu has appearedD．the change of the color functions greatly as the weather reports do19．What are the steps taken by the Department of Health of UK with the risk of the virus spreading to human population?A．The Department of Health required Civil Contingency Secretariat to publish documents for the pandemic preparedness.B．The Department of Health required the UK national committee to co-work with hospital trusts and local authorities.C．The Department of Health required Civil Contingency Secretariat to make a pandemic plan as soon as possible.D．The Department of Health requires every hospital to store Tamiflu, the precious flu vaccine.20．British government's fear of the wild geese from western China to Siberia is due to ______.A．the domestic ducks and gulls infected by the imported geese to BritainB．the poultry on British farms has been infected by the immigrated wild geeseC．the migration of the wild geese every winterD．British shores infected by the geese virusPart ⅡTranslation (40 points)Section A Directions: Translate the following short paragraphs into Chinese. (20 points) 21．Everyone has something they are ashamed of, afraid of or that they feel guilty about.Each of us, in our own way, has devised a neat little method of handling our dark side. We may know how to hide it. Few of us know how to heal it. When we refuse to admit what we have done in the past, we block our path to the future. No matter how terrible we think we are, how bad we believe we have been, how low we think we have fallen, we can clean our minds and begin again.22．We expend so much energy trying to fix who we are, we rarely get to know our selves. If werealized how precious the gift of life is, we would not waste a moment trying to improve it. If we really understood how precious we are to the gift of life, we would not waste time trying to fix ourselves.23．We cannot draw to us more than we believe we are worth.Everything that happens to us and every choice we make is a reflection of what we believe about who we are. Our inspiration comes from our self-acceptance. Our motivation comes from our self-reliance. When we accept ourselves and rely on ourselves, we feel good about ourselves. When you feel good about something, you believe in it. When you believe in it, it will work for you !24．It is of little consequence what your past has been. What matters to you and for you is right now. It is not your concern what others may be saying or doing. When you are taking care of yourself, you have very little time to pay attention to others. People can love you or hate you, ignore you or dote on your every word. No matter what anyone else may think or do or say, it has very little impact on who you really are. It is only in your mind that you build or destroy the esteem for your “self”. Self-esteem begins and ends with you, the self. When you have it, you have it and no one can take it away from you.Section BDirections：Translate the following paragraph into English．(20 points)现在，成千上万的美国人沉湎于对身材苗条的追求之中。

2020智慧树知到《主题英语》章节测试题【完整答案】2020智慧树知到《主题英语》章节测试答案第1章单元测试1、听力训练有精听和泛听之分。

下面属于精听的是( )答案：B.听出文段所有细节，包括时态、单复数、第三人称2、练好口语的第一步是( )答案：练好音标3、英语学习离不开听说读写。

其中，哪一部分是最难掌握和精进的一项，也是一个人英语综合能力的体现。

( )答案：写4、背单词有死背和活背之分。

下面属于活背的是 ( )答案：把复杂单词拆分，了解前缀、后缀含义，掌握搭配用法。

5、下面哪个自我介绍最让人印象深刻? ( )答案：我叫小红，来自深圳，我很喜欢音乐，因为音乐能在我低落消沉之时让我如沐春风，透过音乐，还可以了解到不同国家的文化。

第2章单元测试1、Please choose the right answer which reflects the right meaning of the underlined words.It is not your aptitude, but your attitude that decides your altitude.答案：对2、How to express“use”in another English word?3、How to express“ think” in another English word?答案：Ponder4、Please choose the right answer which reflects the right meaning of the underlined word. University should, adjust the curriculum into a broad and balanced one.答案：课程表5、Please select a word to replace the underlined one. Doing homework is important, but it”s not always enough .答案：Adequate第3章单元测试1、Please choose the right description about the language of two.答案：The language of Two is to divide the world.2、What is the function of Language of Three?答案：For completeness, wholeness, and roundness.3、Please observe the following sentence and select the correct answer which reflects the numbers of language according to the sentence sequence. Many different types of self-help books advise the reader to develop the skills, goals, and attitudes that will both promote success and provide for a healthy life style.4、Please observe the following sentence and select the correct answer which reflects the numbers of language according to the sentence sequence. Hope is the essence of life. A man without hope is nothing but a dry river.答案：15、Please observe the following sentence and select the correct answer which reflects the numbers of language according to the sentence sequence. The color of green always gives me the impression of being full of vitality and vigor. When somebody is called an“evergreen tree”, the appreciation and the admiration of others are showed from the words. The color green symbolized hope.答案：2,2,1.第4章单元测试1、What is the meaning of“You have to go cold turkey?答案：你要立即放弃坏习惯2、Please fill the blanks of the following sentence from Russel. Three , simple but overwhelmingly , have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for _, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.3、What”s the characteristic of the English sentence based on the left-to-right pattern?答案：abstract to specific4、What”s the different ways to start a topic?答案：Subject +what、Subject +how、Subject+ why、Subject + example5、Please fill the blanks of the following sentence from William Arthur Ward.The mediocre teacher . The good teacher . The superior teacher _. The great teacher _.答案：This is At Your Service, Sakula speaking 、 How may I assist you 、 The people in the room next door are talking so loudly that I cannot sleep 、 I am so sorry and apologize for the noise 、 I have a really important meeting in Hangzhou International Business center tomorrow morning 、 I”m sorry to bother you, but I received a complaint about very loud talking in your room 、 you could lower your voice due to the late hour 、 May I reserve a table in our coffee shop for the meeting in the morning 、Thank you again for your understanding 、 Is there anything else I can do for you 第5章单元测试1、What is the meaning of“aspire”?答案：have an ambitious plan or lofty goal.2、What is the meaning of“conspire”?答案：act in agreement and in secret towards a deceitful purpose.3、Who proposed that translation should be like imitating paintings. It should not pursue on the appearance but on spirit, which is so-called Spirit Resemblance.答案：傅雷4、Which one is the appropriate expression to replace“I think”?答案：I”m convinced that…、I cling to a belief that…、I suppose that is rooted in my belief …、I hold the view that…5、Which one is the merit of the computer?答案：keep in touch with our friends and family members through video chat.、efficiently find the information through search engine、teachers can utilize online resources to make a supplement to their teaching contents、Dthe employees have more freedom, and more flexible work schedules.第6章单元测试1、Which of the following is a prefix?答案：bi-2、Which of the following is a root?答案：happy3、Which of the following is a suffix?答案：–ly4、What does the prefix“Penta-” mean?答案：Five5、What is“bilingual education”?答案：双语教育第7章单元测试1、Which of the following means“ marriage ” ?答案：Matrimony、Wedlock2、Which of the following is not a cultural word?答案：Wedlock3、What does“ lobola ” mean?答案：彩礼4、In which style shouldn”t passive voice be encouraged?答案：Imaginary essays5、Which of the following about the passive voice is true?答案：The passive voice is a grammatical construction.、The subject of a sentence or clause featuring the passive voice typically denotes the recipient of the action (the patient)rather than the performer (the agent).、The passive voice in English is formed periphrastically: the usual form uses the auxiliary verb be (or get) together with the past participle of the main verb.、“Be given” is a passive voice structure.第8章单元测试1、In which of the following sentences,“ deposit ” is used as a noun?答案：The shop promised to keep the goods for me if I paya deposit.2、Which of the following is not the correct meaning of “ deposit ” ?答案：岩石3、In banking, the verbs“_” and“withdrawal” mean a customer paying money into, and taking money out of, an account.答案：该问题答案暂未收录，请手动搜索。

高等教育自学考试文学类模拟题2020年(17)(总分100,考试时间150分钟)一、单项选择题1. 1.A ________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position．( )A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle2. 2.The open，back and long vowel is ________．( )A.B.C. [a:]D. [u:]3. 3.An embedded clause functions as a ________unit in its matrix clause．( )A. structuralB. grammaticalC. lexicalD. linear4. 4.Phrase structure rules have ________properties．( )A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. doubleD. many5. 5.Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ________dialects．( )A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional6. 6.________resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics，especially that of semantics．( )A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism7. 7.Grammatical changes may be explained，in part，as analogic changes，which are ________ or generalization．A. elaborationB. simplificationC. external borrowingD. internal borrowing8. 8.Black English is a kind of ________ dialect．( )A. regionalB. standardC. ethnicD. situational9. 9.The critical period for language acquisition refers to the short period of ________ years old in one’s life，during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language．( )A. 1 - 2B. 2 - 12C. 1 - 12D. 13 - 1810. 10.In a sense．humans can be said to be biologically programmed to acquire at least one language．What is meant by this ________ view of language acquisition is that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use．( )A. behavioristB. nativistC. mentalistD. empiricist二、填空题11. nguage is a system consisting of two s________ of structures，or two levels．12. 12.English is an i________ language．13. 13.The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p________．14. 14.Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic c________．15. 15.P________ structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences，and so on．16. 16.C________ is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer．17. 17.The major phonological change in the history of English known as the Great Vowel Shift involves seven long，or t________，vowels of Middle English．18. 18.Certain words in all societies are considered t________一they are forbidden or to be avoided．19. 19.To satisfy the needs of the phoneticians in the study of speech sounds，a set of symbols called d________ are added to broad transcription to show the more subtle differences between similar sounds．20. 20.C________ speech refers to the simple，modified speech used by parents，baby-sitters，etc.when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language．三、判断题21. 21.( )Both phonology and phonetics are studies of sound though they have different emphases．A. 正确B. 错误22. 22.( )Case condition，like adjacency condition，is one of the general principles of universal grammar．A. 正确B. 错误23. 23.( )According to Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts，speech acts fall into five general categories．They are representatives，**missives，expressives and declarations．A. 正确B. 错误24. 24.( )Generally speaking，the standard language is more effective in expressing ideas than any other dialect co-existing with it．A. 正确B. 错误25. 25.( )The error analysis approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in which different L2 learners acquire a new language．A. 正确B. 错误26. 26.( )Language change is different from the change in the grammar．A. 正确B. 错误27. 27.( )An acronym is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents **plete form．A. 正确B. 错误28. 28.( )British English and American English are the two geographical varieties of the English language．A. 正确B. 错误29. 29.( )Research findings have shown that language processing centers are situated in a single area of the left hemisphere．A. 正确B. 错误30. 30.( )In Black English，when the verb is negated，the indefinite pronouns something，somebody，and some become the negative indefinites nothing，nobody，and none，such as He don’t know nothing．Such double negation constructions indicate that speakers of Black English are deficient because they use language“illogically”．A. 正确B. 错误四、名词解释31. 31.cultural transmission(as a defining feature of human language)32. 32.free morpheme33. 33.hierarchical structure34. 34.co-hyponyms35. 35.utterance meaning36. 36.the naming theory37. plementary antonyms38. 38.conversational implicature39. 39.high variety40. 40.right ear advantage五、论述题41. 41.New words can be formed in many ways．Please illustrate **pounding，blending and back-formation，each with two examples．42. 42.State briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study？。

高中英语作文主题句与支撑句构建单选题40题1.Which of the following is the topic sentence? In a science fair, there are many interesting projects. Some are about physics, some are about chemistry, and some are about biology.A.In a science fairB.there are many interesting projectsC.Some are about physicsD.some are about chemistry答案：B。

本题主要考查对主题句的识别。

整段话都是围绕“有很多有趣的项目”展开，其他选项都是对项目具体内容的描述，而B 选项概括了主要内容，是主题句。

2.Which of the following is the topic sentence? My favorite season is summer. It is very hot and sunny. I can go swimming and enjoy the beach.A.My favorite season is summerB.It is very hot and sunnyC.I can go swimmingD.I can enjoy the beach答案：A。

这里整段话是在阐述“我最喜欢的季节是夏天”，后面的内容都是对夏天的具体描述，A 选项符合主题句特征。

3.Which of the following is the topic sentence? Sports are important for our health. They can make us strong and fit. We should play sports regularly.A.Sports are important for our healthB.They can make us strong and fitC.We should play sports regularlyD.None of the above答案：A。

Improving Your Sentence StructureProblems with Sentences1. Sentence FragmentsA sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. It usually lacks either a subject or averb, or both, or contains only a dependent clause.Example:a. For example, three dogs and a goat.b. Studying too hard on weekends. (no subject – who was studying?)c. Because I couldn’t find my shoes. (contains a subject and verb, but is adependent clause)2. Run-on Sentences: Fused sentences and comma spliceExample 1:The experiment failed it had been left unobserved for too long.Example2:The experiment failed, it had been left unobserved for too long.To correct a fused sentence or a comma splice error, you can use either a period, semi-colon, colon, coordinating conjunction, or subordinating conjunction.Revision:The experiment failed. It had been left unobserved for too long.The experiment failed; it had been left unobserved for too long.The experiment failed: it had been left unobserved for too long.The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, so it failed.The experiment failed because it had been left unobserved for too long.∙∙∙ A comma splice also occurs when commas are used before conjunctive adverbs (therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover, etc.) connecting two sentences.Example 3:NO:The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, therefore it failed.YES:The experiment had been left unobserved for too long; therefore, it failed.YES:He wasn’t prepared to defend a client who was guilty; however, he could bepersuaded to accept a bribe.NOTE: When the conjunctive adverb is within the clause rather than at the beginning, place it between commas.Example:He wasn’t prepared to defend a client who was guilty; he could be persuaded,however, to accept a bribe.Correct the following run-on/comma splice sentences using the method indicated.a. A newly arrived international student faces several challenges, for example, he or she has tocope with a new culture.b.New York City is very cosmopolitan, people from many cultures and ethnic groups live there.3. Loose SentencesA loose sente nce may result if you use too many “and ” connectives when otherconjunctions would convey a more precise meaning.Example:John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school.No:Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon, and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the weekend.Yes:Many students attend classes all morning and work all afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend.OR: Because many students attend classes all morning, work all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend.TaskImprove these stringy sentences.1. He enrolled in an intermediate calculus class, but he found it too easy, so he dropped it, and hesigned up for the advanced class.2. First-born children in a family often have more responsibility than their younger siblings, andthey feel pressure to set a good example, so they often become superachievers.3. Last-born children, on the other hand, often have little responsibility, and they may bepampered as the "baby" of the family, but they are the smallest, and they have to get people to like them, so they often develop superior social skills.4. The students in my engineering class could not do the homework, so we got together andworked for several hours, and we finally solved all the problems.5. The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to conserve water everyday, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse water, but the situation is improving.∙∙ A loose sentence also results from weak sentence construction and the inclusion of many phrases and clauses in no particular order.Example:In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled for February 12.The discipline of telecommunications engineering, including the designing and installation overseeing of telecommunications equipment and facilities, such as complex electronic switching systems, copper wire telephone facilities and fibre optics, is the enhancement of telecommunication systems through the bringing together of electrical engineering and computer science, from basic circuit design to strategic mass developments.Revised:Telecommunications engineering is a discipline that brings together electrical engineering and computer science in order to enhance telecommunications systems. The work involved ranges from basic circuit design to strategic mass developments. The work of a telecommunications engineer includes designing and overseeing the installation of telecommunications equipment such as complex electronic switching systems, copper wire telephone facilities and fibre optics.NOTE: Writing the previous passage as several sentences would be more effective.4. Choppy Sentences(Short sentences can be effective in certain situations.For instance, when you want to make an impact, use a short sentence.Despite countless doctors' warnings, news stories, and magazine articles about the importance of eating a nutritious, balanced diet, many people resistdeveloping healthy eating habits. Some people just like junk food.(A sentence of 25 words is followed by one of 6 words. The second sentence hasgreater impact because it is so short.)Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. However, overuse of short sentences is considered poor style in academic writing.e.g. Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source.Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new.Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three short sentences to make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a complex sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the short sentences are equal or whether one idea is dependent on the other.1.If the sentences express equal ideas, use coordination (并列) to combine them.e.g.No:Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source.Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new.Yes:Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. Dams have producedhydraulic power for a long time, but windmills are relatively new.Task:Revise the following paragraphs:a.We should not rely so heavily on oil. Coal and uranium are also overused. Wehave a substantial energy resource in the moving waters of our rivers. Smaller streams add to the total volume of water. The resource renews itself. Oil andcoal are irreplaceable. Uranium is also irreplaceable. The cost of water doesnot increase much over time. The costs of coal, oil, and uranium risedramatically.Suggested answer:We should not rely so heavily on oil, coal, and uranium, for we have a substantial energy resource in the moving waters of our rivers and streams. Oil, coal, and uranium are irreplaceable and thus subject to dramatic cost increases; water, however, is self-renewing and more stable in cost.b.Many chronic misspellers do not have the time to master spelling rules .Theymay not have the motivation. They may rely on dictionaries to catchmisspellings. Most dictionaries list words under their correct spellings. Onekind of dictionary is designed for chronic misspellers. It lists each word underits common misspellings. It then provides the correct spelling. It also providesthe definition.Suggested revision:Many chronic misspellers do not have the time or motivation to masterspelling rules. They may rely on dictionaries to catch misspellings, but mostdictionaries list words under their correct spellings. One kind of dictionary isdesigned for chronic misspellers. It lists each word under its commonmisspellings and then provides the correct spelling and definition.2.If the sentences express unequal ideas, that is, if one sentence expresses a lessimportant idea than the other, use subordination to combine them.No:We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are decreasing.Solar energy is a promising new source of energy. Solar energy is energy from the sun.Yes:We must find new sources of energy because natural sources of energy aredwindling. Solar energy, which is energy from the sun, is a promising new source.NO:Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. We need to talk to Paul Davis. We will ask him to review the program.YES:We will ask Paul Davis to review the program because it produced inconsistent results.TaskImprove the following choppy sentences by combining them.1.Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars.Smaller cars use less gasoline.ernment and private agencies have spent billions of dollars advertising the dangersof smoking. The number of smokers is still increasing.3.Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. Some students go to college toearn a degree.4.The grading system at our college should be abolished. The students do not like gettinggrades. The instructors do not enjoy giving grades.cation in a free society teaches children how to think. Education in a dictatorshipteaches children what to think.Key:1.When gasoline became more expensive, automobile manufacturers began to producesmaller cars because they use less gasoline. (Or: Because gasoline became moreexpensive:.. automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars, which use lessgasoline.)2.5. Excessive SubordinationExcessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.Example:NO:Doug thought that he was prepared but he failed the examination which meant that he had to repeat the course before he could graduate which he didn’t want to do because it would conflict with his summer job.YES:Doug thought that he was prepared, but he failed the examination. Therefore, he would have to repeat the course before he could graduate. He did not want to do that because it would conflict with his summer job.The discipline of telecommunications engineering, including the designing and installation overseeing of telecommunications equipment and facilities, such as complex electronic switching systems, copper wire telephone facilities and fibre optics, is the enhancement of telecommunication systems through the bringing together of electrical engineering and computer science, from basic circuit design to strategic mass developments.Telecommunications engineering is a discipline that brings together electrical engineering and computer science in order to enhance telecommunications systems. The work involved ranges from basic circuit design to strategic mass developments. The work of a telecommunications engineer includes designing and overseeing the installation of telecommunications equipment such as complex electronic switching systems, copper wire telephone facilities and fibre optics. 6. Parallel StructureParts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same grammatical or structural principle.Example:NO:I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.YES:I like to swim, to sail, and to row.YES:I like swimming, sailing, and rowing.NO:This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and how they were solved.YES:This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and the solutions devised.。

托福阅读真题第199篇CognitiveMapsinAnimals••Paragraph 1：A central hypothesis of animal cognition is that many animals make use of cognitive maps—internal representations or codes—of the spatial relationships among objects in their surroundings. In a broad sense, most animals that migrate probably have some internal map of the way external objects are arranged.••••••Paragraph 2：The most extensive studies of cognitive maps have been made for animals exhibit seasonal migration, the regular back-and-forth movement of animals between two geographic areas at particular times of the year. Seasonal migration enables many species to access rich food resources throughout the year and to breed or winter in areas that favor survival. One long-distance traveler is the gray whale. During summer, these giant aquatic mammals feast on small, bottom-dwelling invertebrates that abound in northern oceans. In the autumn, they leave their northern feeding grounds and begin a long trip south along the North American coastline. Arriving in warm, shallow lagoons off Baja California (Mexico) in the winter months, they breed, and pregnant females give birth to young before migrating back north. The yearly round-trip, some 20,000 kilometers, is the longest for any mammal.•••1. The word “exhibit” in the passage is closet in meaning to••O display••O prefer••O initiate••O enjoy••••2. Paragraph 2 mentions all of the following as reasons that animals engage in seasonal migrations EXCEPT••O to have access to rich food resources throughout the year ••O to spend the winter months in more favorable locations ••O to escape from other animals that feast on them••O to reproduce in areas that make the survival of their young possible•••••Paragraph 3：Among insects, the monarch butterfly has one of the most remarkable seasonal migrations. During winter, these insects decorate certain trees at the western tip of Cuba, in a few mountain valleys of central Mexico, and at a few sites along the California coast. All monarchs alive at the end of summer fly south to reach their wintering sites. With the onset of spring, monarchs mate at the wintering sites and begin migrating northward. As they arrive at summer destinations, they lay eggs and then die. two or more generations are produced during the summer, repopulating the United States and southern Canada. With the approach of fall, the summer’s last generation of monarchs flies south to the wintering grounds. They migrate as far as 4,000 kilometers and end up at a specific site, although they have not flown the route before.••••3. According to paragraph 3, what is remarkable about the monarch butterfly’s seasonal migrations?••O The ability of monarchs born 4,000 kilometers away from the species’ wintering sites to migrate to those sites ••O The ability to come back from wintering sites to summer destinations before laying eggs••O The ability to locate wintering sites in various parts of North America••O The ability to fly 4,000 kilometers without stopping to reach their wintering sites••••••Paragraph 4：Researchers have found that migrating animals stay on course by using a variety of environmental cues. Gray whales, for instance, seem to use coastal landmarks to pilot their way north and south. Migrating south in the autumn, they orient with the North American coastline on their left. Migrating north in the spring, they keep the coast on their right. Whale watchers sometimes see gray whales stick their heads straight up out of the water, perhaps to obtain a visual fix on land. Many birds migrate at night, navigating by the stars the way ancient human soldiers did. In contrast, monarch butterflies migrate during the day, resting in trees and bushes at night, genetic programming may enable them to use the Sun as a compass.••••4. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as possible ways that animals stay on course during migration EXCEPT••O observing the position of the coast relative to the direction of migration••O observing the migration patterns of other animals••O navigating by the stars••O relying on their genetic programming••••5. Which of the following is a “contrast” implied in paragraph 4?••O Many birds, unlike monarchs, migrate over water.••O Ancient sailors, unlike monarchs, were unable to navigate during the day.••O Butterflies, unlike many birds, need to rest during migrations.••O Monarchs, unlike many birds, are unable to navigate by the stars.••••••Paragraph 5：Navigating by the Sun or by stars requires an ability to keep track of compass direction. Many migrators also must have an internal timing mechanism that compensates for the continuous daily movement of Earth relative to celestial objects. The timing mechanism must also allow for the apparentchange in position of celestial objects as the animal moves over its migration route. Almost nothing is known yet about the nature of these timing mechanisms. At least one night-migrating bird, the indigo bunting, seems to avoid the need for a timing mechanism by fixing on the North Star, the one bright star in northern skies that appears almost stationary. Researcher have found that buntings learn a star map and fix on a stationary star when navigating at night.•••6. Which of the following facts demonstrate that migrating birds need a “timing mechanism”?••O Sometimes a migrating bird’s internal compass does not function correctly.••O The Sun is visible to migrating birds in the east in the morning, but in the west in the evening.••O Most birds migrate either during the day or during the night, but not both.••O Some stars, for example the North Star, do not appear to change position during a single night or even during the course of a long migration.••••••Paragraph 6：Another interesting, and more or less open, question about migration is how birds continue navigating when the Sun or stars are obscured by clouds. These is strong evidence that some birds can orient to Earth’s magnetic field. Magnetite, the iron-containing mineral once used by sailors as a crude compass, is probably involved in sensing the field. The mineral has been found in the heads of pigeons, in the abdomens of bees, and in certain bacteria that orient to a magnetic field. Future research may show that magnetic sensing is a widespread, important part of a complex navigation mechanism in many animals.••••7. The word “crude” in the passage is closet in meaning to••O effective••O temporary••O reliable••O primitive••••8. The discussion of bird migration in paragraph 6 implies that••O birds that can navigate by sensing Earth’s magnetic field cannot navigate using the Sun or stars••O pigeons can navigate when the Sun or stars are obscured by clouds••O magnetite is likely to be part of the navigational system of only a few species of birds••O birds’ navigation using magnetite is n ot as accurate as their navigation based on the Sun or stars••••••Paragraph 2：The most extensive studies of cognitive maps have been made for animals exhibit seasonal migration, the regular back-and-forth movement of animals between two geographic areas at particular times of the year. ■Seasonal migration enables many species to access rich food resources throughout the year and to breed or winter in areas that favor survival. ■One long-distance traveler is the gray whale. ■During summer, these giant aquatic mammals feast on small, bottom-dwelling invertebrates that abound in northern oceans. ■In the autumn, they leave their northern feeding grounds and begin a long trip south along the North American coastline. Arriving in warm, shallow lagoons off Baja California (Mexico) in the winter months, they breed, and pregnant females give birth to young before migrating back north. The yearly round-trip, some 20,000kilometers, is the longest for any mammal.••••9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where th e following sentence could be added to the passage.••For a variety of animals, there are two clear purposes for this behavior.••Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.••••••10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.••Animals that migrate seasonally seem to have formed cognitive maps.••••Answer Choices••O Important aspects of animals’ use of cognitive map s are not understood since the operation of cognitive timing mechanisms remains a mystery.••O When navigating by the Sun and the stars, animals need to keep track of compass direction as well as adjust to other relative changes in Earth’s movement and chan ges in the position of objects in the sky.••O It has been suggested that under cloudy conditions, certain animals that navigate using the Sun and stars are able to sense Earth’s magnetic field.••O During seasonal migrations, animals use environmental signs, the Sun, and stars to navigate to wintering sites and back.••O Some animals migrate during the day while others migrate during the night, depending on their genetic programming.••O Future research is likely to show that magnetic sensing alone does not explain how birds navigate when objects in the sky are not visible.。

2024年教师资格（初级中学）-英语知识与教学能力（高中）考试历年真题摘选附带答案第1卷一.全考点押密题库(共100题)1.(单项选择题)(每题2.00 分)His___________in alcohol mined his whole life.A. indulgenceB. habitC. engagementD. addiction2.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)Mr. Woods, I am here just in case anything out of the ordinary__________.A. happensB. happenC. would happenD. will happen3.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Which of the following activities is the most suitable for group work?______.A. guessing gameB. story tellingC. information-gapD. drama performance4.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Which of the following activities can be used to get the main idea of a passage?A. Reading the passage in detail.B. Reading to sequence the events.C. Reading to fill in the charts.D. Reading the first and last sentences of the passage and the paragraphs.5.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) To our surprise, the stranger______to be an old friend of my mother’s.A. turned outB. turned upC. set outD. setup6.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) new buildings will be built in my hometown.A. A great deals ofB. A lots ofC. A plenty ofD. A great number of7.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) 请阅读Passage2,完成下列小题.Passage 2We had been wanting to expand our children‘s horizons by taking them to a place that was unlike anything wed been exposed to during our travels in Europe and the United States. In thinking about what was possible from Geneva,where we are based, we decided on a trip to Istanbul a two-hour plane ride from Zurich.We envisioned the trip as a prelude to more exotic ones, perhaps to New Delhi or Bangkok later this year, but thought our 11- and 13-year-old needed a first step away from manicured boulevards and pristine monuments.What we didn’t foresee was the reaction of friends, who warned that we were putting our children “in danger",referring vaguely, and most incorrectly, to disease, terrorism or just the unknown. To help us get acquainted with the peculiarities of Istanbul and to give our children a chance to choose what they were particularly interested in seeing, we bought anexcellent guidebook and read it thoroughly before leaving. Friendly warnings didn’t change our planning:although we might have more prudently checked with the U.S. Department’s list of troublespots. We didn’t see a lot of children among the foreign visitors during our six-day stay in Istanbul, but we found the tourist areas quite safe, veryinteresting and varied enough even to suit our son, whose oft-repeated request is that we not see “every single” church and museum in a given city.Vaccinations werent needed for the city, but we were concerned about adapting to the water for a short stay. So we used bottled water for drinking and brushing our teeth, a precaution that may seem excessive, but we all stayed healthy.Taking the advice of a friend, we booked a hotel a 20-minute walk from most of Istanbul’s major tourist sites. This not only got us some morning exercise, strolling over the Karakoy Bridge, but took us past a colorful assortment of fishermen, vendors and shoe shiners. From a teenager and preteens view. Istanbul street life is fascinating since almost everything can be bought outdoors. They were at a good age to spend time wandering the labyrinth of the Spice Bazaar, where shops display mounds of pungent herbs in sacks. Doing this with younger children would be harder simply because the streets are so packed with people; it would be easy to get lost.For →our two←, whose buying experience consisted of department stores and shopping mall boutiques, it was amazing to discover that you could bargain over price and perhaps end up with two of something for the price of one. They also learned to figure out the relative value of the Turkish lira, not a small matter with its many zeros.Being exposed to Islam was an important part of our trip. Visiting the mosques, especially the enormous Blue Mosque, was our first glimpse into how this major religion is practiced. Our children’s curiosity already had been piqued by the five daily calls to prayer over loudspeakers in every comer of the city, and the scarves covering the heads of many women. Navigating meals can be troublesome with children, but a kebab, bought on the street or in restaurants, was unfailingly popular. Since we had decided this trip was not for gourmets, kebabs spared us th e agony of trying to find a restaurant each day that would suit the adults’ desire to try something new amid children’s insistence that the food be served immediately. Gradually, we branched out to try some other Turkish specialties. Although our son had studied Islam briefly, it is impossible to be prepared for every awkward question that might come up, such as during our visits to the Topkapi Sarayi, the Ottoman Sultans9 palace, no guides were available so it was do-it-yourself, using our guidebook, which cheated us of a lot of interesting history and anecdotes that a professional guide could provide. Next time, we resolved to make such arrangements in advance.On this trip, we wandered through the magnificent complex, with its imperial treasures, its courtyards and its harem. The last required a bit of explanation that we would have happily left to a learned third party.Whom does“our two”in PARAGRAPH 5 refer to? ______ .A. the coupleB. the kidsC. the gourmetsD. local-style markets8.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Which of the following statements is NOT a way of presenting new vocabulary?____.A. definingB. using real objectsC. writing a passage by using new wordsD. giving explanations9.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Exceptional children are different in some significant ways from others of the same age, for the same age, for these children to develop to their full adult potential; their education must be adapted to those differences.Although we focus on the needs of exceptional children, we find ourselves describing their environment as well. While the leading actor on the stage captures our attention, we are aware of the importance of the supporting players and the scenery of the play itself. Both the family and the society in which exceptional children live are often the key to their growth and development. And it is in the public schools that we find the full expression of society5s understanding the knowledge, hopes, and fears that are passed on to the next generation.Education in any society is a mirror of that society. In that mirror we can see the strengths, the weaknesses, the hopes, the prejudices, and the central values of the culture itself. The great interest in exceptional children shown in public education over the past three decades indicates the strong feeling in our society that all citizens, whatever their special conditions, deserve the opportunity to fully develop their capabilities.“All men are created equal.” We’ve heard it many times, but it still has important meaning for education in a democratic society. Although the phrase was used by this countrys founders to denote equality before the law, it has also been interpreted to mean equality of opportunity. That concept implies educational opportunity for all children—the right of each child to receive help in learning to the limits of his or her capacity, whether that capacity be small or great. Recent court decisions have confirmed the right of all children—disabled or not —to an appropriate education, and have ordered that public schools take the necessary steps to provide that education. In response, schools are modifying their programs, adapting instruction to children who are exceptional to those who cannot profit substantially from regular programs.From its passage we learn that the educational concern for exceptional children______.A. is now enjoying legal supportB. disagrees with the tradition of the countryC. was clearly stated by the country’s foundersD. will exert great influence over court decisions10.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)What stage can the following grammar activity be used at?The teacher asked students to arrange the words of sentences into different columns marked subject, predicate, object, object complement, adverbial and so on.A. Presentation.B. Practice.C. Production.D. Preparation.11.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)According to Britain linguist F. Palmer, there are no real synonyms. Though"cast" and"throw" are considered synonyms, they are different in__________.A. styleB. collocationC. emotive meaningD. regions where they are used12.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)What advantage do the new generation Latino writers have over LatinAmericanwriters according to the passage?A. The former are able to write in two different languages.B. The former can translate their works into different languages.C. The former are able to express ideas from a bi-cultural perspective.D. The former can travel freely across the border between two countries.13.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) It is not so much the language______the cultural background that makes the book difficult to understanD.A. asB. butC. likeD. nor14.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)Which inference in the brackets of the following sentences is apresupposition?A. Ede caught a trout. (Edecaught a fish.)B. Don' t sit on Carol' s bed. (Carol has a bed.)C. This blimp is over the house. (The house is under the blimp.)D. Coffee would keep me awake all night. (I don' t want coffee.)15.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) There are many different ways of presenting grammar in the classroom. Among them, three are most frequently used and discusseD. Which one does not belong to them?______.A. deductive methodB. inductive methodC. guided discovery methodD. productive method16.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) When a teacher teaches young learners English pronunciation, he should______.A. listen as much as possibleB. input regardless of students5 abilityC. tolerate small errors in continuous speechD. read more English materials17.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Which of the following activities is the best for training detailed reading?A. drawing a diagram to show the text structureB. giving the text an appropriate titleC. transforming information from the text to a diagramD. finding out all the unfamiliar words18.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Which of the following teacher‘s instruction could serve the purpose of eliciting ideas?A. Shall we move on?B. Read after me, everyoneC. What can you see in this picture?D. What does the world "quickly" mean?19.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)Which of the following is suggested in the last paragraph?A. The quality of writing is of primary importance.B. Common humanity is central to news reporting.C. Moral awareness matters in editing a newspaper.D. Journalists need stricter industrial regulations.20.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分)What is the best title for this passage?A. Creativity. and InsightsB. Insights and Problem SolvingC. Where Do Insight Moments Come?D. Where Do Creativity Moments Come?21.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) —Where did you find the wallet?—It was at the stadium______I played football.A. thatB. whereC. whichD. there22.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) Water problems in the future will become more intense and more complex. Our increasing population will tremendously increase urban wastes, primarily sewage. On the other hand, increasing demands for water will decrease substantially the amount of water available for diluting wastes. Rapidly expanding industries which involve more and more complex chemical processes will produce large volumes of liquid wastes, and many of these will contain chemicals which are poisonous. To feed our rapidly expanding population, agriculture will have to be intensifieD. This will involve even increasing quantities of agriculture chemicals. From this, it is apparent that drastic steps must be taken immediately to develop corrective measures for the pollution problem.There are two ways by which this pollution problem can be lesseneD. The first relates to the treatment of wastes to decrease their pollution hazarD. This involves the processing of solid wastes prior to disposal and the treatment of liquid wastes, or effluents, to permit the reuse of the water or best reduce pollution upon final disposal.A second approach is to develop an economic use for all or a part of the wastes. Farm manure is spread in fields as a nutrient or organic supplement. Effluents from sewage disposal plants are used in some areas both for irrigation and for the nutrients containeD. Effluents from other processing plants may also be used as a supplemental source of water. Many industries,such as meat and poultry processing plants, are currently converting former waste production into marketable byproducts. Other industries have potential economic uses for their waste products.The phrase “prior to”（ParA. 2） probably means______.A. afterB. duringC. beforeD. beyond23.(单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) 请阅读passage2，完成下列小题。

2024年教师资格考试高中英语学科知识与教学能力模拟试卷与参考答案一、单项选择题（本大题有30小题，每小题2分，共60分）1、The sentence “They have been working on the project for three weeks now.” is an example of a(n)__________sentence.A. simpleB. compoundC. complexD. compound-complex答案：C解析：This sentence contains a main clause (“They have been working on the project”) and one or more subordinate clauses (“for three weeks now”). This structure is characteristic of a complex sentence.2、In the following dialogue, which sentence is a question?A. “I think we should start the meeting now.”B. “Where are we going for lunch?”C. “We should all bring our laptops to the meeting.”D. “Please make sure the presentation is ready by tomorrow.”答案：B解析：The sentence “Where are we going for lunch?” is asking for information about the location of the lunch, which makes it a question. The other sentences are statements.3、The following sentence is a sentence error. Which one is it?A. He isn’t working as a teacher because he doesn’t like teaching.B. She was able to finish the project on time because she worked hard.C. They don’t know what to do, so they’re asking for advice.D. We went to the beach on the weekend, but it rained all day.Answer: DExplanation: The correct sentence should be “We went to the beach on the weekend, but it rained all day.” The phrase “all day” should be followed by “and,” making the correct sentence “We went to the beach on the weekend, and it rained all day.”4、Choose the correct word form to complete the following sentence.The student’s performance in the class (improve/improving) over the past few months.Answer: has improvedExplanation: The correct answer is “has improved” because the sentence is referring to a change that has taken place over a period of time, which is indicated by “over the past few months.” The present perfect tense is used to describe past actions that have a present result.5、The following sentence contains a grammatical error. Which underlinedword should be corrected?A. I have always admired herB. I admire her alwaysC. Always, I admire herD. I admire her alwaysAnswer: CExplanation: The correct placement of the adverb “always” should be after the subject “I” and before the verb “admire” to modify the verb, not the subject. Therefore, option C is the correct answer.6、In the sentence “She spent a fortune on her new car,” “fortune” is a(n)__________word.A. abstractB. concreteC. countableD. uncountableAnswer: AExplanation: “Fortune” in this context is a noun referring to a large amount of money, which is an abstract concept. Abstract words are ideas, concepts, or qualities that cannot be perceived by the senses. Therefore, the correct answer is A.7、The following sentence is an example of which tense structure?A)Present perfect continuousB)Present perfect simpleC)Present perfect continuous with “already”D)Present perfect simple with “for”Answer: B) Present perfect simpleExplanation: The sentence “He has finished his homework” is an example of the present perfect simple tense. It is used to describe an action that started in the past and is completed at an unspecified time before now.8、In the following dialogue, what is the most suitable response to the question “How do you usually spend your weekends?”?A)“I usually go shopping on Saturdays and visit my friends on Sundays.”B)“I often watch movies on weekends and then go out for dinner with my family.”C)“I usually spend my weekends at home, either reading books or cooking.”D)“On weekends, I usually attend workshops or take part in community activities.”Answer: A) “I usually go shopping on Saturdays and visit my friends on Sundays.”Explanation: The question “How do you usually spend your weekends?” is asking about a regular pattern of behavior. Answer A provides a clear and consistent pattern of weekend activities, which is appropriate for the question. The other options either do not give a clear pattern or do not address the question directly.9.The teacher is using a realia (real object) to illustrate the use of the present perfect tense in a lesson. Which of the following realia would be most appropriate to demonstrate the concept of “has/have + past participle”?A) A calendar showing the date of a school eventB) A map of the school groundsC) A collection of textbooksD) A clock showing the current timeAnswer: A) A calendar showing the date of a school eventExplanation: The present perfect tense is used to describe actions that have a present result, often with a past cause. Using a calendar to show the date of a school event can illustrate this concept, as it represents an action that started in the past and has a present outcome (e.g., “The school play has already been performed”). The other options do not directly relate to the present perfect tense in the same way.10.In a lesson on cause and effect, the teacher wants to encourage students to use a variety of sentence structures. Which of the following sentence structures would best demonstrate the difference between a cause and an effect?A)Simple present tense: “The weather is sunny.”B)Simple past tense: “The sun shone yesterday.”C)Present perfect tense: “The flowers have bloomed.”D)Future perfect tense: “The flowers will have bloomed by the time the sun sets.”Answer: C) Present perfect tense: “The flowers have bloomed.”Explanation: The present perfect tense is often used to describe an effect that has occurred as a result of a cause that started in the past. In this case, “The flowers have bloomed” suggests that there was a cause (such as the ar rival of spring) that led to the effect (the blooming of the flowers). The other options do not explicitly demonstrate cause and effect relationships. The simple present tense (A) and simple past tense (B) are used for actions without a specific timereference, while the future perfect tense (D) is used to describe an action that will be completed at some point in the future.11.The following sentence is an example of which of the following sentence structure?A)SimpleB)CompoundC)ComplexD)Compound-ComplexAnswer: C) ComplexExplanation: A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The sentence “Although he studied hard, he still failed the exam” contains an independent clause (“he still failed the exam”) and a dependent clause (“Although he studied hard”).12.What is the main purpose of the following sentence in the context of teaching English?“The weather today is perfect for a picnic.”A)To provide weather informationB)To encourage students to engage in outdoor activitiesC)To set the scene for a storyD)To explain the importance of weather forecastingAnswer: B) To encourage students to engage in outdoor activitiesExplanation: The sentence is used to create a positive atmosphere and encourage students to think about outdoor activities, which is useful for alesson that focuses on vocabulary related to weather or outdoor activities.13.The teacher is demonstrating a new grammar point to the students. Which of the following is the best way to ensure the students understand the concept?A)Explain the grammar point using only the target language.B)Provide a detailed translation into the students’ first language.C)Use a simple, everyday example in the target language.D)Ask the students to translate the new grammar point into their first language.Answer: CExplanation: Using a simple, everyday example in the target language helps students to connect the new grammar point with their own experiences and understand it in a more practical context. This approach reduces the potential confusion that can arise from translating directly into their first language and allows for the development of language proficiency.14.In a lesson on American culture, the teacher wants to engage the students in a discussion about famous American authors. Which activity would be most appropriate for this purpose?A) A multiple-choice quiz about the authors.B) A role-play activity where students create their own dialogue between two of theauthors.C) A solo presentation by each student on one of the authors.D) A lecture about the authors’ biographical information.Answer: BExplanation: A role-play activity where students create their own dialoguebetween two of the authors is the most engaging and interactive choice. This allows students to practice speaking and listening skills, develop their creativity, and deepen their understanding of the authors’ works and personalities. The other options are less interactive and may not promote the same level of engagement and language skills development.15.Which of the following sentence structures is commonly used to express future actions?A. Present perfect tenseB. Future perfect tenseC. Simple future tenseD. Present perfect continuous tenseAnswer: CExplanation: The simple future tense is commonly used to express future actions. It is formed by using the base form of the verb followed by “will” or “shall.”16.In the sentence “The students are discussing the topic in the classroom,” which word functions as the main verb?A. DiscussingB. TopicC. ClassroomD. StudentsAnswer: AExplanation: In this sentence, “discussing” is the main verb because it is the action that the subject (“students”) is performing. The other words in the sentence, “topic” and “classroom,” are nouns that provide additional context, and “students” is the subject of the verb.17.In the following sentence, the word “enlightened” is used as an adjective. Which of the foll owing is the correct definition of “enlightened”?A. Educated and well-informed.B. Ignorant and uneducated.C. Lazy and unmotivated.D. Crazy and unpredictable.Answer: AExplanation: The word “enlightened” means educated and well-informed. It refers to someone who has a deep understanding of a subject or a wide range of knowledge.18.Choose the word that does not belong in the following list:A. GrammarB. VocabularyC. SyntaxD. TechnologyAnswer: DExplanation: Grammar, vocabulary, and syntax are all related to the study of language and how it is used. Technology, on the other hand, refers to theapplication of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, and it is not directly related to the study of language.19、Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of effective language teaching in high school English classes?A) Student-centered learningB) Over-emphasis on grammar rulesC) Authentic language materialsD) Encouragement of communicationAnswer: BExplanation: Effective language teaching in high school English classes emphasizes student-centered learning, where students are actively engaged in the learning process. It utilizes authentic language materials that reflect real-life communication and encourages students to communicate in English. Over-emphasis on grammar rules, without proper context and communication practice, is not considered an effective teaching strategy as it often leads to rote memorization rather than actual language use.20、In designing an English language arts lesson for high school students, which of the following is an essential element to incorporate?A) Sole reliance on textbooksB) Integration of technology and multimediaC) Limited exposure to different cultural perspectivesD) Heavy emphasis on standardized test preparationAnswer: BExplanation: When designing an English language arts lesson for high school students, it is essential to incorporate various elements that enhance learning and engagement. Integration of technology and multimedia can greatly enrich the learning experience by providing students with access to a wide range of resources, interactive tools, and authentic language samples. Relying solely on textbooks or limiting exposure to different cultural perspectives can limit students’ learning. Similarly, while standardized test preparation is important, it should not be the sole focus of instruction as it often prioritizes rote memorization over critical thinking and communication skills.21、Which of the following is an example of a modal verb that expresses ability?A)CanB)MustC)ShouldD)WouldAnswer: A) CanExplanation: Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission, or ability. In this case, “can” is used to express ability, such as in the sentence “She can speak three languages.” “Must” is used for strong obligation, “should” for advice or recommendation, and “would” for hypothetical situations or polite requests.22、When teaching reading comprehension, which of the following strategieswould best help students understand the main idea of a text?A)Asking students to memorize new vocabulary from the text.B)Encouraging students to focus on the details of each paragraph.C)Guiding students to identify the topic sentence and supporting details.D)Having students read the text aloud to practice pronunciation.Answer: C) Guiding students to identify the topic sentence and supporting details.Explanation: Identifying the topic sentence, which often states the main idea, and its supporting details, is a key strategy in comprehending the central theme of a text. This approach helps students to see the structure of the text and to distinguish between the main points and the finer details. Memorizing vocabulary (A), focusing on details (B), and practicing pronunciation (D) are all useful activities but do not directly aid in understanding the main idea of the text.These types of questions test the candidate’s knowledge of English grammar and pedagogical strategies for effective teaching.23、In the following sentence, which verb tense is used to express an action that began in the past and continues to the present?A. Present PerfectB. Simple PresentC. Present Perfect ContinuousD. Past ContinuousAnswer: C. Present Perfect ContinuousExplanation: The correct answer is C because the Present Perfect Continuoustense is used to describe actions that started in the past, continue up to the present, and may continue into the future. For example, “I have been teaching English for ten years.”24、Which of the following sentence structures is used to express a condition that is true in the present?A. If + past tense, would + verbB. If + past perfect, would + have + past participleC. If + present tense, would + verbD. If + present perfect, would + have + past participleAnswer: C. If + present tense, would + verbExplanation: The correct answer is C because the “If + present tense” structure is used to express a condition that is true in the present. This structure is used to talk about real a nd possible situations. For example, “If it rains, we will cancel the game.”25、Which of the following is NOT a strategy for teaching vocabulary in high school English classes?A) Using context clues to infer word meaningsB) Memorizing vocabulary lists without contextC) Encouraging students to use new words in their own sentencesD) Utilizing word associations and synonymsAnswer: BExplanation: Option B, “Memorizing vocabulary lists without context,” isgenerally not considered an effective strategy for teaching vocabulary in high school English classes. Memorizing words without understanding their use in context can lead to a shallow understanding of their meaning and how to appropriately use them in communication. Effective vocabulary instruction often involves using context clues, encouraging students to apply new words in their own sentences, and utilizing word associations and synonyms to deepen their understanding.26、In a lesson aimed at improving students’ listening comprehension, which of the following activities would be most beneficial?A) Having students read a passage silently and answer comprehension questionsB) Playing a recording of a conversation and asking students to summarize the main pointsC) Asking students to write an essay on a given topicD) Providing students with a list of vocabulary words to memorizeAnswer: BExplanation: Option B, “Playing a recording of a conversation and asking students to summarize the main points,” is the most beneficial activity in a lesson aimed at impro ving students’ listening comprehension. This activity directly addresses the skill of listening by engaging students in the process of actively listening to a recording and then analyzing and summarizing the information they heard. In contrast, option A focuses on reading comprehension, option C on writing skills, and option D on vocabulary memorization, all of whichare important but less directly related to improving listening comprehension.27、Which of the following sentences uses the subjunctive mood correctly?A)If he were here, he would help us.B)If she was younger, she could join the team.C)If they had known, they would have come.D)If I was rich, I would travel the world.Answer: A) If he were here, he would help us.Explanation: The correct form of the subjunctive mood is used in option A, where “were” is used instead of “was” for the present unreal condition. Options B and D should use “were” instead of “was,” and C is actually in the past perfect subjunctive which is correct but does not match the present hypothetical context of the question.28、Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject in the following sentence:“Either the judge or the defendants_______to appear in court tomorrow.”A)hasB)haveC)is havingD)are havingAnswer: A) hasExplanation: When the subject consists of two or more nouns connected by “or” or “either…or,” the verb agrees with the subject nearest to it. Here, “the defendants” is nearer but the singular “the judge” determines the ve rbform. Therefore, the singular form “has” is correct as “the judge” is singular.29.The teacher is about to introduce a new topic in the English class. Which of the following phrases would best signal the introduction of a new topic?A. “Let’s continue where we left off.”B. “Today, we are going to explore a new topic.”C. “Now, we need to wrap up our discussion.”D. “We’ll take a quick break before we move on.”Answer: BExplanation: The phrase “Today, we are going to explore a new topic.” clearly signals that the teacher is introducing a new topic in the lesson.30.In the context of teaching high school English, which of the following is the most effective way to encourage student participation in group discussions?A. Assigning each student a specific role in the group to avoid free-riding.B. Allowing students to choose their own topics for discussion.C. Providing detailed guidelines for the discussion, including the objectives and time limits.D. Allowing students to raise their hand to speak, but not interrupting others.Answer: CExplanation: Providing detailed guidelines for the discussion, includingthe objectives and time limits, can help ensure that students are prepared and engaged in the group discussions, leading to more effective participation.二、简答题（20分）II.Short-Answer QuestionsQuestion 2:Explain the importance of integrating technology into English language teaching (ELT) in the context of senior high school education, and provide an example of a technological tool that can be effectively used to enhance students’ reading comprehension skills.Answer:The integration of technology into English language teaching in senior high schools is paramount for several reasons. Firstly, it fosters a more engaging and interactive learning environment, which is crucial for maintaining students’ interest and motivation. By leveraging multimedia resources, teachers can present lessons in diverse and dynamic ways, making them more appealing to students who may have different learning styles and preferences.Secondly, technology enables personalized learning. With tools such as learning management systems (LMS) and intelligent tutoring systems, teachers can tailor instruction to meet the individual needs and abilities of each student. This ensures that students at all levels are challenged appropriately and receive the support they require to progress.Thirdly, technology expands access to authentic materials and culturalcontexts. By utilizing online resources and digital libraries, students can access a vast array of current and culturally relevant texts, videos, and podcasts. This exposure not only enriches their linguistic knowledge but also fosters cultural awareness and global citizenship.An example of a technological tool that can effectively enhance students’ reading comprehension skills is the use of interactive e-books or digital reading platforms. These platforms often include features such as highlighting, annotating, and embedded dictionaries, which allow students to actively engage with the text and deepen their understanding. Additionally, many digital reading tools incorporate multimedia elements, such as videos or audio recordings, that can provide context and clarify difficult concepts. Furthermore, some platforms offer comprehension quizzes or interactive questions that encourage students to reflect on and apply what they have read. By using these tools, teachers can create engaging reading experiences that foster critical thinking, vocabulary development, and overall comprehension skills.Analysis:This answer comprehensively outlines the importance of integrating technology into English language teaching in senior high schools. It begins by highlighting the role of technology in creating an engaging and interactive learning environment, which is essential for maintaining student interest and motivation. The answer then emphasizes the benefits of personalized learning, explaining how technology can help teachers tailor instruction to meet theunique needs of each student. Furthermore, the answer discusses the expansion of access to authentic materials and cultural contexts, which is crucial for developing linguistic knowledge and cultural awareness.The example provided—interactive e-books or digital reading platforms—is relevant and specific, demonstrating how technology can enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. The answer explains how these tools enable active engagement with the text, provide context and clarification, and incorporate multimedia elements to enrich the reading experience. Additionally, the inclusion of comprehension quizzes or interactive questions underscores the importance of reflection and application in developing reading comprehension skills. Overall, this answer provides a clear and compelling rationale for the integration of technology in ELT, supported by a relevant and practical example.三、教学情境分析题（30分）III.Teaching Situation Analysis (15 points)Scenario:You are teaching a high school English class and have just finished a unit on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. You notice that while some students have grasped the themes and language of the play quite well, others are still struggling with understanding the context and the archaic language used by Shakespeare. Your next class period is dedicated to reviewing the play and ensuring all students have a good grasp of its content before moving on to thenext topic.Question:Design a 30-minute lesson plan that includes activities to help students who are struggling with understanding Romeo and Juliet. The activities should aim to improve their comprehension of the text and engage them through interactive methods. Your lesson plan should include:•Objectives for the lesson.• A brief description of the activities you would use.•How you will assess whether the students have understood the material better after the activities.•Consideration for differentiation to meet the needs of all learners.Answer and Analysis:Objectives:1.Students will demonstrate a better understanding of the themes and language in Romeo and Juliet by participating in group discussions and role-playing activities.2.Students will identify key quotes from the play and explain their significance within the context of the story.3.Students will engage with the text in a more personal way, enhancing their comprehension and appreciation of Shakespearean literature.Activities Description:1.Quote Cards Game (10 minutes) - Distribute index cards with significant quotes from Romeo and Juliet to pairs of students. Each pair must read the quote aloud and discuss its meaning and relevance to the plot or character development. They will then present theirinterpretation to the class.2.Role-Playing Scene (15 minutes) - Assign scenes from the play to groups of four students. Each group will prepare a modernized version of the scene where they translate the archaic language into contemporary speech. They will perform their scene for the class, followed by a short discussion about the translation choices made and how these affect the interpretation of the original text.Assessment Method:•Observe participation during the Quote Cards Game and Role-Playing Scene.•Evaluate the quality of the presentations and the depth of the subsequent discussions.•Conduct a short quiz at the end of the activity where students match modern translations of quotes to their original Shakespearean versions.Differentiation Considerations:•For students who need additional support, provide them with a list of vocabulary words and their meanings beforehand.•Pair advanced students with those who are struggling to facilitate peer learning.•Allow students to choose between presenting a scene or creating a visual representation of a key moment from the play as an alternative assessment method.This lesson plan aims to make the challenging text more accessible to students through active engagement and modernization, while also providing opportunities for formative assessment and differentiation based on individual student needs.This scenario and the corresponding lesson plan illustrate a practical approach to addressing diverse student needs when teaching complex literary works such as Romeo and Juliet.四、教学设计题（40分）Question:Design a 40-minute lesson plan for a high school English class, focusing on the theme of “Cultural Differences.” The class consists of 30 students, and you have access to a whiteboard, a projector, and a computer with internet access. Your objective is to help students understand the concept of cultural differences, recognize common stereotypes, and develop critical thinking skills to analyze these stereotypes.Answer:Lesson Title: Understanding Cultural Differences: Beyond Stereotypes Objective:By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:1.Define and recognize cultural differences.2.Identify common stereotypes related to cultural differences.3.Analyze and critically evaluate stereotypes.4.Discuss the importance of understanding cultural differences in building respectful relationships.Materials:•Projector and computer with internet access•Whiteboard and markers•Handouts with a list of cultural stereotypes•Group activity materials (e.g., paper, pens, sticky notes)Lesson Outline:1.Introduction (10 minutes)•Begin with a brief discussion about what cultural differences are and why they are important to understand.•Ask students to share their own experiences with cultural differences and stereotypes.2.Presentation (15 minutes)•Use the projector to display a PowerPoint presentation that covers the following topics:•Definition of cultural differences•Common stereotypes related to cultural differences (e.g., food preferences, communication styles, values)•The impact of stereotypes on personal and societal relationships3.Group Activity (10 minutes)•Divide the class into groups of four or five students.•Provide each group with a list of cultural stereotypes and sticky notes. •Instruct students to discuss the stereotypes, identify which ones are true and which ones are false, and explain their reasoning.•Each group will create a poster summarizing their findings and present it to the class.4.Class Discussion (5 minutes)。

英语陈述句变特殊疑问句Transforming a declarative sentence into a special question sentence involves changing the word order and adding a question word. This type of question is used to gather specific information or to seek clarification on a particular topic. For example, the declarative sentence 'She is going to the store' can be transformed into the special question 'Is she going to the store?' by changing the word order and adding the question word 'is'.The process of transforming a declarative sentence into a special question sentence is relatively straightforward. Firstly, the subject and verb are inverted, with the verb coming before the subject. Additionally, a question word such as'what', 'where', 'why', 'how', 'when', or 'who' is added at the beginning of the sentence to indicate the type of information being sought. This transformation allows for a more interactive and engaging form of communication, as it promptsthe listener to provide a specific response.In addition to the structural changes, special question sentences oftenrequire a rising intonation at the end to indicate that it is a question. This intonation pattern helps to distinguish special question sentences fromdeclarative sentences, signaling to the listener that a response is expected. For example, when asking 'Where are you going?', the rising intonation on the word'going' indicates that the speaker is seeking information rather than making a statement.From a linguistic perspective, special question sentences serve an important function in communication by allowing speakers to gather information, seek clarification, and engage in dialogue. By transforming declarative sentences into special question sentences, speakers can elicit specific details and prompt a more dynamic exchange of information. This interactive nature of special question sentences fosters a deeper level of understanding and facilitates effective communication.Furthermore, special question sentences play a crucial role in language acquisition and development. As individuals learn a new language, they must understand how to form and use special question sentences to effectively communicate and interact with others. By mastering the structure and intonation patterns of special question sentences, language learners can enhance their conversational skills and engage in more meaningful interactions with native speakers.In conclusion, the transformation of declarative sentences into special question sentences is a fundamental aspect of language and communication. By altering the word order, adding question words, and using appropriate intonation, speakers can effectively gather information, seek clarification, and engage in dialogue. From a linguistic perspective, special question sentences serve as a vital tool for interactive communication, while also playing a key role in language acquisition and development. Mastering the use of special question sentences is essential for effective communication and meaningful interactions in any language.。

Sentence Interpreting1. I am deeply convinced that China’s reform and opening-up and stability will make positive contributions to peace, stability, and prosperity in Asia and the world at large.中国的改革开放和稳定使我坚定地相信这会对亚洲甚至全世界的和平、稳定和繁荣做出积极的贡献。

2. The exchange of goodwill missions greatly contributes to a better understanding between the two countries.友好访问团为两国间更好地理解作出了巨大贡献。

3. I have had an excellent opportunity to renew old friendships and establish new contacts.拜访老朋友，结交新朋友（重温旧情，结交新友）的绝好机会。

4. Please contact me once you are in trouble.一旦你陷入困境就请联系我。

5. China’s support is a constant source of encouragement to us in the pursuit of the goals of developing and maintaining the independence of our country.中国的支持是我们国家在追求发展和保持独立自主目标时，不懈鼓励的源泉。

---------------------------------------1. I wish to thank you for the incomparable hospitality you have extended to us.我感谢你热情的款待了我们。

2022年上半年教师资格证考试《英语学科知识与教学能力》第1题单选题（每题2分，共30题，共60分）下列每小题的四个选项中，只有一项是最符合题意的正确答案，多选、错选或不选均不得分。

1、To make sure you get into the right ____ while driving on a motorway, you must notice the road signs.A. wayB. trackC. pathD. lane2、The scientists have made an ____ study of the virus that causes the disease.A. exhaustedB. exhaustingC. exhaustiveD. exhaustible3、Sally was a bit shy, but her teacher found her quite ____ discussing a recent film with others.A. at homeB. at mostC. at houseD. at heart4、Men differ from animals ____ they can think and speak.A. for whichB. in whichC. in thatD. for that5、The future of that country is hard to predict ____ the economic system is reformed.A. only afterB. unlessC. now thatD. as long as6、It is necessary that he ____ the assignment without delay.A. hand inB. hands inC. must hand inD. has to hand in7、The letter “you" in the sentence "It doesn't fit you." is pronounced as ____.A. /fu:/B. /tfu:/C. /dgu:/D. /tju:/8、Which of the following shows the correct word stress for "encyclopedia”?A . /'m, saiklopi:dia/ B. /ln, saikla 'pi:dio/ C. /m , saikle pi:dia/ D. /in, saiklapi:'dia/9、You are greeting an acquaintance with "Hello" to perform the ____ function of language.A. performativeB. metalingualC. phaticD. emotive10、Which of the following is the smallest unit of speech that can be used to differ one word from another?A. MorphemeB. SuffixC. Lexis.D. Phoneme11、When teaching such words as "left" and "right", a teacher asks his/her students to touch their left arms and then touch their right eyes. What does this kind of activity exemplify?A. Direct Method.B. indirect Method.C. Grammar Translation Method.D. Total Physical Response.12、What activities are not appropriate for developing the skill of reading for gist?A. Reading a text quickly and writing a summary.B. Reading a text quickly and choosing the best title.C. Reading a text quickly and analyses its discourse patterns.D. Reading a text quickly and then telling what it is mainly about.13、Which of the following refers to a process in which a teacher asks his/her students to analyzing sentences in a passage and then work out their structures?A. Deductive teaching.B. Inductive teaching.C. Task-based teaching.D. Content-based teaching.14、Which of following is the most controlled activity?A. Acting out a dialogue. B、Role-playC、Reading aloud a dialogue.D、Exchanging information.15、In students learn the idiomatic use of English, teachers need to draw students' attention to ____.A. prefixationB. collocation C、suffix D、derivation16、Which of the following exercises is intended to practice the communicative use of "Do you have....?" and "I have ....."A. Changing one sentence pattern to the other.B. Applying those sentence patterns in a conversation.C. Listening to the tape and writing down the sentences.D. Substituting the objects in the sentences with the words given.17、A teacher asks students to write reflective journals about their English learning. The major purpose is to develop students' ____?A. communicative strategyB. metacognitive strategyC. affective strategyD. cognitive strategy18、When a teacher says "I don 't quite understand. What do you mean by saying that?" What does he/she intend to do?A. To refuse.B. To comment.C. To ask for opinions.D. To ask for clarification.19、At what stage will a teacher initiate a discussion with the students on certain topic theirprior knowledge?A. Presentation.B. Practice.C. Performance.D. Lead-in.20、Which of the following is most appropriate for developing a learner's integrated language skills?A. Writing down a phone call messageB. Completing multiple-choice exercises.C. Copying words from a reading passage.D. Filling in the missing words in a passage.21、请阅读Passage 1，完成第21~25小题。

Unit2Secrets to beauty1.Students should have a thorough good command of the useful and important language points in the passage,including the usages of important words and phrases and the structure of difficult sentences.2.Improve students’ability of understanding of the main idea of the text:the confusing pursuit of beauty,and then mastering the comparison/contrast essay writing skill.Key Point：Important words and phrases:rehearsal,arrogant,affix,allotment etc.plus complex sentences in Text ATeaching Difficulties:Structure analysis of Text A and main ideas of each partWriting devices:write a comparison/contrast essayCultural background:Barbie dolls,Buzz-Off,Oprah,Cindy Crawford,Brad Pitt Lecture methodTask-based language teachingMultimedia teaching methodInteractive teaching method教学内容(Unit2Secrets to beauty)教学方法授课时长教学目标Part I Warming upLeading in andexploring the topic小组讨论10mins应知：相关口语表达Pre-readingactivities师生回答20mins应知：听力技巧等Cultural Background重点讲解20mins应知：文化词汇表达Part IItext ATheconfusingpursuit ofbeautyIntensive reading（key words＆PhrasesComplex Sentences）语言重点讲练110mins应知：词汇、音标、长难句应会：阅读、翻译、写作等能力培养与提升Text structure andmain idea语篇结构分析Exercises测验、讲练110minsPartIIIText B Extensive reading（reading strategy）讲练、问答30mins应会：掌握快速阅读策略Unit2Secrets to beautyStep1.GreetingsGreet the whole class warmly.Step2.Lead-in and preparation for readingQuotes:Beauty is not in the face;beauty is a light in the heart.—Kahlil Gibran You can take no credit for beauty at sixteen.But if you are beautiful at sixty,it will be your soul’s own doing.—Marie StopesActivities:(Group discussion)Let them talk to each other about the following questions:1.What are these products in the following pictures used for?（a)lipstick;(b)mascara;(c)powder foundation,etc.2.What do you know about the beauty industry?Cultural background:the beauty industryQuestions Previewing1.What is Barbie dolls?2.Who is Oprah?What is she best-known for?3.Who is Cindy Crawford?And who is Brad Pitt?4.Is a woman inborn or created through the interaction of many complex psychological and societal factors?Step3.Fast readingAsk the Students to read the passage as quickly as they can and then answer the questions on the screen.Let them get the main idea of each paragraph and make clear about the text structure.Text structure:(structured writing)The passage can be divided into3parts.Part I—(Paras.1-2)This part is the introduction.It tells the readers that it is very hard for a man to answer when a woman asks him how she looks.Part II—(Paras.3-10)This part is the body of the essay,in which men and women are contrasted on three points.Firstly,it concerns how the two sexes perceive their own looks.Secondly,it focuses on the psychological and societal factors that cause the differences in the way men and women view their own appearances.Finally,it talks about the different degree of attention women and men pay to the extra details of women’s appearance.Part III—(Para.11)This part is the conclusion,which restates the author’s view that there is no easy way for a man to answer a woman’s question of how she looks.Step4:While-reading ActivitiesStudents are required to look at the Words and Phrases on the screen and give a brief presentation in class.Words and Phrases:1.Desire n.愿望;欲望;渴望;情欲;肉欲;性欲;想望的人;渴望的事物v.渴望;期望;想望;被(某人)吸引;对(某人)产生性欲[C,U]~(for sth)|~(to do sth)愿望；欲望；渴望a strong wish to have or do stha strong desire for power强烈的权力欲2.transient英[ˈtrænziənt]美[ˈtrænʃnt]adj.短暂的;转瞬即逝的;倏忽;暂住的;过往的;临时的n.暂住某地的人;过往旅客;临时工复数：transients派生词：transience n.3.aesthetics英[iːsˈθɛtɪks]美[ɛˈsθɛtɪks]n.(审)美学Aesthetics is a branch of但是，你也不能慷慨地大放空洞之词，赞美她的鞋子和裙子是多么相配，因为她知道你是在说谎。

语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明：本章要点参考了多本教材，其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。

其他同学不做要求。

第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules （ transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。

我在写作业句子英语Certainly! Here's a content generation for the title "I am doing my homework sentences in English":As the sun sets and the evening draws in, I find myself seated at my desk, surrounded by textbooks and notes. The task at hand is to complete my English homework, which includes a variety of sentences that I need to construct.1. Descriptive Sentence: The vibrant sunset paints the sky with hues of orange and pink, creating a serene backdrop for my study session.2. Expository Sentence: English, as a global language, offers numerous opportunities for communication and understanding across cultures.3. Narrative Sentence: Yesterday, I embarked on a journey to the local library, where I spent hours exploring the shelves filled with classic literature.4. Persuasive Sentence: Incorporating more English literature into our curriculum can significantly enhance our language skills and broaden our horizons.5. Argumentative Sentence: While some may argue thattechnology has made handwriting obsolete, I believe that the act of writing by hand is essential for reinforcing memory and understanding.6. Conditional Sentence: If I were to spend more time practicing my English, I am confident that my proficiency would improve significantly.7. Imperative Sentence: Please ensure that all sentences are checked for grammar and spelling before submitting your homework.8. Interrogative Sentence: How can we effectively use English to express our thoughts and ideas in a clear and concise manner?9. Compound Sentence: I will review the vocabulary list and practice the new phrases, which will help me in both speaking and writing English.10. Complex Sentence: Although the English language can be challenging at times, the rewards of mastering it are well worth the effort.As I complete each sentence, I feel a sense of accomplishment and progress. The homework not only serves as a means to practice but also as a stepping stone towards fluency and confidence in the English language.This content is crafted to provide a variety of sentence types that could be part of an English homework assignment, while also adhering to the given title.。

Chapter 1 IntroductionLinguistics，Core of linguistics, Important distinctions, Language, Design features of language, Functionsof languageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languagesin general. Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of social science.It includes general (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics.General linguistics－the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Applied Linguistics:In a narrow sense, it refers to the aapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense, it refers to the fact that findings in linguistic studies are applied to the practical problems. For example, lexicology, translation, speech pathology, recovery of speech ability; sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc…Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics 语音学, Phonology 音位学, Morphology 形态学, Syntax 句法学, Semantics 语义学, Pragmatics 语用学Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 规定性和描写性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay d ow n rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共时和历时The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.Speech and writing: 口语和书面语•The two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write; 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have:1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other;2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past;3. Oral messages are readily subject to distortion while writing messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century. Langue and parole:语言和言语F. de Saussure (Swiss linguist) refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue: the set of conventions and rules language users have to abide by, abstract, relatively stable. Parole: the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, concrete, variable. Saussure: a linguist should abstract langue from parole (to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language).Competence and performance:语言能力和语言应用According to N. Chomsky (American linguist), competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the act realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. competence: stable; performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the competence instead of performance.Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view competence=a property of the mind of each individualTraditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal frameworkLanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” –Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.Design Features (识别特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell.Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 双层性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底层结构The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上层结构Productivity/creativity:能产性、创造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality; and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受时空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of communication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Cultural transmission: 文化传递性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned. Interchangeability：互换性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s fe elings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Speech Elements and FunctionRussian-born structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresser---emotive 感情功能addressee---conative 意动功能context---referential 指称功能message ---poetic 诗意性功能contact ---phatic communion 应酬功能code --metalinguistic 元语功能addresser---emotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.e.g. I hate what they are planning for me.addressee---conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.e.g. Why not go and see another doctor?context---referential 指称功能 The addresser conveys a message or information.e.g. As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.message---poetic 诗意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. e.g. poetrycontact ---phatic communion 应酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Good morning. // 吃饭了吗？God bless you. Nice day. code ---metalinguistic 元语功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics. Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech:The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords(vibration of which→voicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced. Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997.IPA’s basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式/严式标音Diacritics(附加符号): another set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only; Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever. If the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel; otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation:stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [ð] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [ŋ] glides: [w] [j]In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]palatal: [∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] velar: [k] [g] [ŋ] glottal: [h]Vowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth; the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the length of the vowels.כ] [a:][ ]:[i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a] [∂:] [∂] [^] [u:] [u] [כDiphthongs: [ei] [ai] [i∂] [e∂] [u∂] [au] [∂u]Phonology and phoneticsSsimilarity: the study of sounds Ddifference: different approaches and focusesPhonetics: all the speech sounds used in all human languages; 语音研究的方法 [s], [i], [t] Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication; 语音使用的模式(发现语言中语音的组成规则并解释发生的变化). [s] [i] [t]怎样组合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some don’t.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. e.g. Phone [t]---Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位变体.Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs(最小对立体): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: [tin] [din], [bi:t] [bit]All these sound combinations together constitute a minima set. 最小对立集This also applies to the vowels.Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and ccomplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位对立 /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/ccomplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. (音位变体的)互补分布 spit-pit, little,Free variants (音位的)自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either [i:ð∂], [aið∂]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are combined.Sequential rules (序列规则): the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.e.g. spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化规则): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略规则): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. sign-signatureSuprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemes---the sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Word-formation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形态学,词法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(语素/词素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. box+es, desire+ableIn view of word-formation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. e.g. studies, studying, studied (study+, -es, -ing, -ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (语素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. e.g. The morpheme of plurality {s}: cats, bags, matches // The past tense of the morpheme {be} : was, wereAllomorph(语素变体): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph allomorph/wud/ /w∂d/ /∂d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由语素): a morpheme that constitu tes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, …They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots. Bound morpheme(粘着语素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes.Derivational morphemes(派生语素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. e.g. ccomputerize, multimediaIn English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折语素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,…word (part of speech unchanged) e.g. He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, ... A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Stem is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added. It can be a root or a form bigger than a root. E.g. friends, friendshipsBase is alternative to root or stem.Affix are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.All of them are bound morphemes. They can be divided into inflectional and derivational affixes according to the functions.In view of their distribution, they can be classified as prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes in English are all derivational whereas suffixes are both derivational and inflectional.Word-formation Processes: compounding, affixation or derivation, shortening:/blends混成词(smoke +fog—smog), acronyms(缩略语)( laser, dinky), abbreviations(缩略语)(UN, P.R.A., RMB), clippings(缩写词)(fridge, gym, math), backformation (逆构词法)(editor--- to edit)Types of Words:variable words(可变化词): follow, mat, ... invariable words(不变词): since, when, seldom,... grammatical word(语法词)/function word: conj., prep., art., pron. lexical word(词汇词)/content word 实义词: n., v., adj., ...Open class(开放词类)/content words: n., adj., v., adv. closed class(封闭词类)/functional words: conj., prep., art., pron.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyntax, Category, Phrase, Phrase structure rule, Deep structure and surface structureSyntax(句法): a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Categories(范畴）: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Word level categories: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. Three criteria(meaning, inflection and distribution) are employed to determine a word’s category.Phrase categoriesA phrase is a syntactic unit that is built around a certain word category, a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Phrase types:NP: the hardworking people VP: buy a book AP: very excited PP: behind the tablePhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短语结构规则): a special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. NP → (Det) N (PP) ... VP → (Qual) V (NP) ... AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ... PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...Phrase ElementsHead (中心成分）：the word around which a phrase is formed;Specifier（标志成分）: the words on the left side of the heads; They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（补充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修饰语): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read).A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head complementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(complement)Coordination rule（并列规则）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Subcategorization(次范畴化) The information about a word's complement is included in the head. A certain lexical itemrequires a certain type of complement. e.g. to appear, to cut a tree, to give him a bookA sentence-like construction=a complementMiss Hebert believes that she will win.complementizer, complement clause, complement phrase, matrix clauseThe expanded XP rule: XP→ (spec)((Mod) X (complement﹡)(Mod)SentenceStructuralist view: (Bloomfield) It is a maximum free form; it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its complement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule. Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yes-no question, wh-question and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion; Do insertion, Wh movement → Move aInversion (Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. → Move Infl to C.) The train will arrive. → Will the train arrive?Trace(语迹): records of the movement of a word.Do Insertion: Used to form a yes-no question without an overt Infl. E.g. Birds fly. Step 1: Birds do fly. (Insertion of Do)Step 2: Do birds fly? (Inversion of Do)D-structure and S-structureDeep structure: The syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn't fly.Organization of the Syntactic Componentthe xp rule↓deep structure←subcategorization restrictschoice of complement↓transformations↓surface structureWh MovementDeep structure of Wh questions. E.g. You can speak what language.Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. E.g. What language you can speak. Inversion occurs to can. E.g. What language can you speak?Move the wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Move a 移动a规则: A general rule for all the movement rules.a: any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints on movement: a. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. b. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics, Some views concerning the study of meaning, Major sense relations, Sense relations betweensentences, Analysis of meaning, Two-place, one-place, and no-place predicationSemantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Different Views: the naming theory, the conceptualist view, conceptualism, behaviorismThe naming theory (命名论): Proposed by PlatoThe linguistic forms or symbols (i.e. words) used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. They are just names or labels for things.Limitations: applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.; Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the worldThe conceptualist view（概念论）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards’ semantic triangle or triangle of significance thought/referencesymbol/form……………………..referentContextualism（语境论）: (1930-1960)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---elements closely linked with language behavior.J.R. Firth (British linguist): We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Wittgenstein (German philosopher): the meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism（行为主义论）The meaning of a language form is: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield 1933)Jill JackS…………..r………..s…………….RLexical Meaning: Sense (意义) and reference (语义）Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized; the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. e.g. Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.Major Sense RelationsSynonymy 同义关系 It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects e.g. autumn---fall, flat---apartment Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style e.g. start, begin, commence Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning e.g. famous---notorious Collocational synonyms e.g. to accuse …of…/to charge …with…Semantically different synonyms e.g. gaze --- glarePolysemy 一词多义While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than meaning. This is what we call polysemy.Homonymy 同音异义It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. E.g. sun, sonWhen two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. E.g. wind n., wind v.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. e. g. break n., v. Hyponymy 下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.animal (dog, duck, tiger,…)superordinate hyponyms co-hyponymsAntonymy 反义关系It refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Gradable antonyms 等级反义关系 old-youngComplementary antonyms 互补反义关系 alive-dead, male-femaleRelational opposites 反向反义关系 husband-wife, father-sonSense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y. E.g. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.hX entails Y. E.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.X presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous. E.g. The table has bad intentions.Meaning AnalysisComponential analysis 成分分析: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. (语义特征)–Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE–Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, -MALE–Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALEPredication analysis (Sentence meaning)Some basic points: The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning (grammaticality) and semantic meaning (selectional restrictions)The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制), which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Predication analysis (述谓结构分析） Proposed by British linguist G.LeechPredication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s) and predicate. Argument:the logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element or elements in a sentence.Predicate: something said about an argument or it states the logical relations linking the arguments in a sentence.Examples: TOM (SMOKE) Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke? KID, APPLE (LIKE): Kids like apples.Two-place, one-place, and no-place predication ( It is hot. (BE HOT))Chapter 6 PragmaticsPragmatics vs. semantics; Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning; utterance meaning; Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful。