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如果你选择Joomla作为你的CMS系统管理选择，那么相信你是一个"姓福"的站长，因为你现在已经拥有或设计开发了一个美丽的模板，并添加了所有你的创作性的内容到你的新Joomla。
但同时存在一个问题，如果你开始基地Joomla，你会很奇怪成千上万的人渴望拿到你们的产品可能甚至不去找到你的网站，相比之下Wordpress是Joomla的主要竞争对手，它不像Wordpress能展现对搜索引擎非常友好度，为了能得到一个Joomla网站到一个位置，能真正执行令人满意地站内seo因素，笔者想和你分享确切的指导方针。
1、确保你在正确的服务器类型上这是第一个原因也是非常重要的一个原因。
如果您使用的是IIS(Windows)服务器来托管您的Joomla网站,很显然你会很沮丧，因为Mac可能会结束你的所有seo优化工作。
我这样说的原因是，url重现似乎似乎从未凝胶与任何重写模块,IIS 可以使用。
如果您正在使用一个共享的托管账户，重写模块也只是一场噩梦般的设置。
为了使用简洁起见，我只会建议你在你的Joomla网站上设置一个Apache mod_rewrite安装服务器，这样将会有助于你的seo组件。
2、重命名htaccess.txt文件为.htaccess 因为你要想启用URL重写使这些URL有很大的吸引力，你需要开始进行重命名htaccess.txt 文件为.htaccess，这是使用Joomla和mod_rewrite的版本。
3、启用海基会的网址和URL重写在你的Joomla!全球配置中设置"搜索引擎优化的url"和"使用url重写"的选项为"Yes"。
搜索引擎友好的网址是从URL中删除所有动态生成的官样文章，并取代它的别名您正在使用的菜单项在页面上的设置。
URL的重写是设置，从index.php删除/索引url。
启用此项功能必须启用了mod_rewrite，必须要有一个.htaccess文件。
【开发篇】Joomla模块+组件开发简介Joomla!是一套在国内外相当知名的内容管理系统（Content Management System, CMS），它属于Portal（企业入口网站）类型，顾名思义，就是比较适合作为商业类型的网站程序。
Joomla!是使用PHP语言加上MySQL数据库所开发的软件系统，可以在Linux、Windows、MacOSX等各种不同的平台上执行。
目前是由Open Source Matters ()这个开放源码组织进行开发与支持。
我用Joomla框架开发项目已有1年多，所以对于joomla还是有些了解的。
下面我将给大家介绍下我在以前项目中开发的一个比较有用的模块功能，以及相关技术与基本思想。
网站的实例与显示效果可以参考/网站主页上的focus on 模块，当然，我要解说一下，不然你是发现不了什么效果的。
这个模块的功能根据后台的功能在所有存储在jos_content表里的文章中，选出你要显示在前台的文章标题，可以编辑模块来实现对这些文章进行排序，增加新文章，删除文章的操作，这样你只要在后台选择你想要发布的文章就可以显示在页面上了。
实现方式大家要是开发过joomla的话应该知道，joomla中模块里的xml配置文件有params 参数的设置，而其中type的类型是否起作用，是根据目录/libraries/joomla/html/parameter/element/ 文件夹下的文件所决定的，所以这样我们可以参考这些文件写出一个我们自己定义的类型出来。
所以，只要明白这个，这个模块就可以很容易的实现了。
思路做法：自定义类型，生成一个弹框的按钮，用iframe 连接到自己写的component 中，component中对文章进行增，删，改，查的操作等等。
然后把选中的文章ID 跟排序顺序放到你自定义的类型value里面，模块中取得值进行处理。
基本就是这样。
其实模块写起来很简单，主要还是所调用的component组件的处理比较麻烦。
导读Joomla! 是一个人人都可以免费下载的开源内容管理系统（CMS）。
它是中小企业建站的理想选择。
不要让价格来困扰你——Joomla!是强大且稳定的，并且被越来越多的机构选择作为解决方案。
这样普遍的使用使得Joomla!作为一个CMS日益流行。
Google收录的Joomla页面数量的增长率是就一个明显的证据，其大约以每两个月翻一倍的速度在增加（见图片Figure P.1）。
Figure P.1 Joomla-像流行音乐一样随着Joomla!日渐成熟，它已经被越来越多的组织采用。
它最大的优点就是它的灵活性。
你可以很多地方看到它：公司λ学校和大学λλ在线的商业组织中小企业λ非营利性的社团组织λ政府部门λ企业内部与外部互联网合作λ个人与家庭的主页λλ社区门户杂志社与报社λ关于本书对于Joomla! 这个流行的、屡获大奖的开源CMS，本教程会教你用Joomla按你自己需求一步一步，最终开发出一个成功的站点。
本书阐述了对CMS的总体看法，同时也包含了关于内容的组织，编辑以及模板的主要概念。
最后，本书也涉及了一些普遍关注的话题，例如Joomla!如何能让搜索引擎优化(SEO)最佳化，什么资源能在Joomla!社区里获得。
本书致力于Joomla!最新的版本，也就是Joomla 1.5，是一个非常重要的CMS 更新版本。
本书的目标人群本书主要介绍如何使用Joomla! 1.5建立网站，不论是为自己还是为客户。
教程通俗易懂，读者不需要掌握很多技术术语，且不需要精通PHP，CSS等Web开发程序就可以学习。
本书里所解释的概念都很清晰、有条理，并且列举了很多实际例子。
如果你学完了所有章节，你就能独立架设各种不同的Joomla! 站了。
如何使用这本书这本书有几种使用方法：在开发站点的时候从头开始一章一章地学习这本书。
这本书在前面一些章节只是把开发中用的一些基础概念展示出来，但后面的一些章节帮助你理解更深入的概念。
你也可以把这本书当作参考书用。
第一章Joomla!扩展开发：概况你以前开发过动态网站但你的朋友告诉你有关Joomla!的事，所以你决定试一试。
从美食网上那些著名的厨师中得到灵感后，你想建立一个简单的关于餐厅的网站。
这个网站的安装比你期望要建立的内容管理系统要快速和平稳。
当你找到一个精美的模板并添加了一些菜单和一些内容后，你开始考虑增加一些新的特性可以给你带来更多的访问量，甚至是利润。
之后，你安装了购物车来买书，一个论坛来收集意见和一些边栏广告。
为什么扩展JoomlaJoomla!不但能够处理内容文章，而且允许你干净整合各种复杂的应用。
开发者为Joomla!开发各种扩展，如购物车、论坛、职位发布等。
所有这些扩展能够运行在单个数据库、模板和核心。
我们开发出来的扩展，界面是完全统一的。
当你正确地开发扩展后，你就不用登录数据库和做其他基本的配置。
另外，你也可以分发你自己开发的扩展给别人与别人分享你的成果，不需要另外的编程和数据库操作。
自定义VS 扩展Joomla!的代码是设计成可扩展的而不是直接修改它的核心代码。
当有升级版本或者有补丁的时候，Joomla!才会升级它本身的核心代码，而你的扩展是不会被覆盖的。
如何扩展JoomlaJoomla!支持三类扩展，每一类都有其特殊的用途。
组件组件是最基本的，组件就是你所看到的页面的主要部分。
Joomla!的设计是为每个页面加载和运行一个组件。
因此，Joomla!核心的内容管理功能本身也是一个组件(例如: com_content)。
组件通常有强大的后台管理功能。
后台通常用来创建和更新数据库记录。
你也可以通过它允许网站管理员去上传图片或者视频文件。
模块相对于组件而言，一个页面可以有很多的模块。
模块一般由边栏的元素或者是内容菜单组成，模块显示组件的内容，但它们不是页面的主要内容。
Joomla! 也支持不需要编程的内容模块(例如: 自定义模块)。
模块后台的控制是有限的，一般由一些基本的格式组成。
插件当网站需要插入一些代码来实现某些逻辑时，可以由插件实现（以前叫做Mambot）。
Joomla! 3.3 - 基础指南4：Joomla设计、界面、颜色本系列教学转自 Cocoate免费书库，英文原著由Hagen Graf编写，中文翻译由Derek Joe完成模板是一个网站最重要的部分。
它为网站提供外观设计，并吸引新访客在您的网站逗留和浏览。
什么叫设计？设计作为名词，指的是通过一个计划或者绘画显示某事物的功能和前景，并在一定的环境达到某个特定的目标，并满足一系列的需求。
设计作为动词，指的是在一个设计环境下创造一个设计。
因此设计一词可以用于艺术（“纯直觉的”、“内在的”、“自然的”、“我们感觉合适的”）机械工程（一款新车的产品设计）生产制造（计划和执行）流程（业务流程建模）什么是页面布局？页面布局是“图片”设计的一部分工作，它主要解决一个页面的风格元素（如内容）以及这些元素的页面安排。
以Joomla的专业术语来说，页面布局就是在预定的模板位置安排Joomla 的模块和组件。
什么是颜色？颜色是人类的视觉财产，是我们称之为红色、绿色、蓝色等等视觉感觉的总称。
常有些特定的颜色与文化如国旗的颜色相关。
颜色的应用具有多样性，它们与文化的联系甚至与同一种文化不同年代的联系也是多元化的。
HTML颜色和CSS颜色有1600万种不同的颜色值。
它们由红色、绿色、蓝色混合而成，每种颜色的最小值是0，最大值是255。
这些值最终组合成超过1600万种不同的颜色（256 x 256 x 256）。
举例：黑色 = 16进制颜色中的#000000 = RGB颜色中的rgb（0,0,0）有几个工具（如color scheme designer）可以帮助你为你的网站找到正确的颜色（图3）。
图3：Color Scheme Designer（配色方案设计师）模板一个模板包含访问网站的人可以看到的重复性的元素。
使用一个模板编排这些元素，往往可以减少对图片设计技巧的要求，并且把背景元素的修改和其它常用前景内容元素的修改（或交替）的工作量降低最低。
Joomla！模块、组件、插件联系与区别（详细）4.5.1.三者联系如果把Joomla!系统看作一栋大楼，组件就是构成大楼的“墙”。
菜单项则是“墙”的具体名称。
模块就像挂在“墙“上的“画框”。
插件则是可以随意“钉”在“墙”和“框”里的钉子。
有了菜单项代表组件（墙），则模块要显示在某页面(组件)，就很方便了：直接指定该模块出现在代表该页面的菜单项。
详细操作如下。
进入该模块管理界面，在“菜单分配”选项列表中，选中要显示模块的菜单项，该模块就显示在该菜单项代表的页面了。
如图4.73所示。
这模块出现在该菜单项所对应的页面了。
图4.73 模块管理界面“菜单分配”选项插件和组件、模块的关系是嵌入式的，基于事件驱动的。
举个例子来理解，显示文章列表的模块，需要在每篇文章名前都加上一个图标。
要实现这个功能，既可以修改模块程序来完成，也可考虑开发插件（或者安装第三方插件），在显示文章列表前加一个图标。
以上对组件，模块，插件做了形象的讲解。
在Joomla!系统中如何知道页面由何种组件形成呢？可以从网址链接分辨组件的类型。
因为网页实际是组件实现的。
例如，从文章列表的网址中找到“option=”，则后面的参数就表明该组件类型。
如图4.74所示。
com_content文章列表的网址组件类型com_content文章列表的网址组件类型图4.74 从url分辨组件类型知道如何分辨组件类型了，如何知道页面调用何种模块呢？就要双管齐下了：（1）获知模块在前台页位置。
前台页除了形成该页组件显示内容外，其他的显示就是由模块形成的。
要查找显示块对应模块，先找到该模块在页面的位置。
（2）后台根据位置查找模块。
登陆管理后台，单击导航“扩展→模块管理”，单击位置筛选栏，根据（1）里模块的大概位置进行筛选，找出模块。
如何知道系统使用了何种插件呢？插件基于事件驱动，而且嵌入在组件和模块中，从外观判断，比较难于分辨，所以这部分内容在插件讲解的一章会继续探讨。
本教程带你洞察Joomla!的模板系统并告诉你能做些什么。
模板的作用是什么?模板控制了站点的总体显示和布局。
它结合站点CSS提供了整合各种通用元素、模块和组件的架构。
站点的前台和后台都有模板。
当 Joomla! 首次安装时它自动包含了几个模板。
在其他网站你能找到更多模板。
某些模板是免费的，某些则需要购买。
另外，某些开发者可提供模板定制。
你当然也能自己开发模板。
模板通过模板管理器来管理，后者可在你站点管理后台的扩展菜单上找到。
Joomla!为何使用模板？一个初学者的真正指南！Joomla!设计的方式是剥离出核心任务，涉及生成使用软件高效维护的网站。
任务之一就是创建站点美学（外观、感觉和布局）。
这包括诸如在给定页面放置何种内容元素（组件、模块和插件）的决策。
当生成一个web页面，多数元素的定位仍保持不变（菜单，横幅定位，边栏等）。
此外，你期望为每个页面创建同样的外观（字体，头部样式，色彩设计等）。
站点的某些单元你也许想通过改变口味来提示这些页面的不同用途（例如博客单元）。
这需要一些规划，但是一旦你确定了整站的布局，你需要自己生成每个内容页。
这就需要模板了。
你可以单独为每个页面书写代码，或为站点的每个主体单元使用模板，这样当你需要创建一个新页面的时候你就只需要“填空”了。
好，也许这不是很简单，但是教程就是设计用来引导你有效使用模板，从如何开始使用模板，到如何创建自己的模板结束。
1. 使用Joomla! 提供的模板之一2. 从互联网下载免费模板3. 如果需要可考虑付费模板总结–模板控制了站点的外观，并且简化了你创建新页面的工作。
更多细节请参阅下章，“我能对模板做些什么？”模板用来操控提交给浏览器的内容的方式。
这里有些方法你可以用来部署到你的Joomla!站点。
布局模板就是设定你站点主体布局设计的地方。
这包括放置多种不同的元素（组件，模块和插件），它们组合成不同类型的内容。
例如：1. 不同的菜单(你可以从现有选项选择，也可以创建自己的菜单)2. 广告横幅3. 投票4. 页面的主体单元(你可以选择不同的样式比如典型的博客布局或一个新文章等等)如果模板设计用来提供选择，你就能“动态”地改变站点内容布置，或许把主菜单放到页面的右侧或左侧。
Joomla! 3.3 - 基础指南8：功能扩展本系列教学转自 Cocoate免费书库，英文原著由Hagen Graf编写，中文翻译由Derek Joe完成我们已经在“扩展管理”看到，Joomla 3本身带有一些核心扩展。
并且我们已经和其中几个打过交道。
作为网站用户您可能并不关心网站里有哪些功能扩展，而只要网站能按您的要求工作就行。
不过作为一个超级管理员，您其实还是必须知道网站里到底有哪些东西在工作。
回顾一下我们已接触的功能扩展：让我们能够编撰和管理文章并按不同的展示方式在网站发布的内容扩展、与用户管理相关的用户扩展、文章分类管理扩展，等等。
在“组件”菜单里，有旗帜广告、联系我们、Joomla升级、站内信息、新闻联播、重定向、站内搜索、智能搜索和友情链接。
下面我们一起来简单了解一下这些组件及其相关的模块和插件。
由于它们的使用方法和在Joomla 2.5里完全一样，我只是简要介绍下，并提供我们网站的Joomla 2.5教材里的详细介绍的链接。
旗帜广告旗帜广告组件提供一个在您的网站展示广告的手段。
一个旗帜广告由图片和自定义的HTML代码组成。
每次您的网站被访问时，它就能在您旗帜广告库里调用并显示一个旗帜广告。
如果用户点击旗帜广告，他就会被带到您的客户的网站。
旗帜广告组件提供客户、分类、广告管理，以及详细的广告分析。
联系我们每个网站都需要联系信息表单。
根据实际需要，有时候您可能只需要一个联系信息表单，有时候则需要多个。
比如企业网站有时候要展示多个部门的联系信息。
甚至可能您要为每个员工或每个用户提供给一个联系信息表单。
联系我们组件可以完成以上所有需求。
Joomla升级它让您可以选择Joomla自动升级的某个分支来保证你获得相关信息并让您的网站能够持续更新，即您可以选择跟随长期支持版本、标准支持版本、测试版本或完全自定义。
站内信息站内信息是Joomla的核心组件，它负责给后台管理员传递私信，或者说它让后台管理员相互之间收发私信。
Joomla 1.5 模板的功能特点与基本设计思路Joomla1.5 的模板引擎比起Joomla 1.X时代有相当大的进步，在Joomla1.5中允许设计者为模板定制可选参数，这些参数对应不同的选项，例如修改模板背景颜色、字号大小、宽度… 。
用户可以在管理后台的模板管理里修改，参数值保存在模板根目录下的“params.ini”文件里。
重写代码功能也非常不错，这个新的功能提高了Joomla 模板的可访问性，他允许设计者重写Joomla核心组件与模块的HTML代码，在以前Joomla的组件与模块应用了大量的表格，做为一个现代网站，网页布局中已经很少使用表格了，我们通过这个重写代码的功能，可以去掉所有Joomla组件与模块中的表格。
Joomla1.5在默认安装下，里面有一个叫“Beez”的模板，他是重写代码的完美案例，如果想使用重写代码功能，可以参考这个模板。
在模板的根目录下，所有重写的组件、模块的代码都放在“html”文件夹里，Joomla 在加载模板时会查看这个文件夹，如果里面有组件与模块的HTML代码，那么Joomla会使用这个文件夹里的代码代替原组件与模块的HTML代码。
模板可用参数示例下面的文字介绍了设计制作Joomla 1.5模板的基本思路。
制作一个空白的Joomla 1.5 模板：name/index.phpname/templateDetails.xml这两个文件是必须的，并且文件名也必须与上面的例子相同，因为这两个文件是被joomla核心直接调用的，所以不能错。
templateDetails.xml，这个文件里的内容是告诉joomla使用这个模板时会被调用的其它所有文件，包括CSS，JS，图像文件等等。
这里要注意，D是大写的，同时它还包括，作者名称，版权等信息。
Index.php，这个文件是模板的核心文件，用它来告诉joomla，我们如何放置组件与模块。
它是php与(X)HTML的组合。
简易五步法创建Joomla框架模板本指南循序渐进、指导大家如何在几分钟的时间内，基于JEZ Thema、根据PSD设计来创建Joomla！1.5模板。
下面就是本免费基础教程。
我们应该通过下列步骤来建立一个全新的Joomla模板：1.建立开发环境2.分析原始图形化设计3.把原始图形化设计切片为小图片4.创建表示设计的样式表5.完成新创建的Joomla模板通过本指南逐步引导，我将告诉您如何在几分钟内、根据任意一个原始图形化设计来创建一个全新而独特的Joomla 模板。
一、建立开发环境在创建Joomla模板之前，基于JEZ theme base，请确保您的Joomla网站已下载并安装了JEZ Thema。
推荐您把Joomla! 1.5和JEZ Thema安装到本地服务器以更便于开发。
•不知道如何设立本地服务器吗？我推荐XAMPP，它是个完整的安装包，只消点击一下就能帮助您快速设立本地服务器。
然后，您需要下载并安装Joomla! 1.5的最新版。
•就像其他扩展一样，下载并安装JEZ Thema到您的Joomla站点：登录至管理员面板并打开扩展->安装/卸载，在打开的页面内点击浏览按钮并选择下载好的JEZ Thema包，然后点击上传文件&安装按钮。
完成上述步骤后，让我们看下JEZ Thema 的Joomla模板插件参数。
还是在Joomla 管理员面板，打开扩展->模板管理器，在已安装模板列表内选择JEZ Thema作为默认模板并点击它的名字来查看所有可用参数。
你会看到所有参数都是内联文档类型：点击每个参数旁的显示/隐藏详情链接即可阅读指示。
二、分析原始图形化设计本指南内我们将分析一个JEZ_Rego.psd的Photoshop设计图并据此创建Joomla模板。
在分析之前，我们看下JEZ theme base 的默认布局。
如下图所示。
我们将利用默认布局来创建一个Joomla模板。
您将在另外一个指南内（尚未撰写）领略到如何定制默认布局来迎合不同的个人需求。
/subject/subjects-of-joomla/ 242-joomla-doc-standard-parameter-types模板参数详解 - Joomla标准参数类型在上一篇文档中，我们了解了怎样定义模板参数，今天我们来看看Joomla模板中的标准模板参数类型有哪些。
Joomla自带了21种标准的参数类型，通过这些标准参数类型，我们可以定义用于Joomla各种扩展(模板、组件、模块和插件)的参数。
下面是所有标准参数类型的列表，包括参数类型名称及作用。
calendar ：生成日历，可以选择或编辑日期。
category ：生成一个包含指定section中所有category名称的下拉列表。
editors ：生成一个包含所有可用“所见即所得”编辑器名称的下拉列表。
filelist ：生成一个包含指定路径中所有文件名称的下拉列表。
folderlist ：生成一个包含指定路径中所有文件夹名称的下拉列表。
helpsites ：生成一个包含所有用于Joomla安装过程的帮助站点名称的下拉列表。
hidden ：生成一个隐藏的表单项，用来保存那些无法被直接修改参数设置(其实可以在params.ini文件中手动修改此类参数设置)。
imagelist ：生成一个包含指定路径中所有图片文件的下拉列表。
languages ：生成一个包含所有语言安装文件名称的下拉列表。
list ：生成一个可以自定义列表项内容的下拉列表。
menu ：生成一个包含站点中所有菜单名称的下拉列表。
menuitem ：生成一个包含站点中所有菜单项名称的下拉列表。
password ：生成一个用于输入密码的文本框。
radio ：生成一组单选按钮。
section ：生成一个包含站点中所有section名称的下拉列表。
spacer ：生成一个分隔线，用于在视觉上为参数设置表单划分区域，无实际功能。
sql ：生成一个下拉列表；通过查询参数得到的数据库表中的第一列构成了所有的列表项。
Joomla模板制作实战教程【一】-创建一个简单的模板Joomla绝对是一款优秀的CMS相较一些国产CMS她始终不能占据优势地位，很多人说Joomla做模板难、Joomla不支持静态生成、Joomla执行效率低等等，但其实Joomla团队为这些东西做了很多的功夫，细细研究不难发现，Joomla模板只需要会Html+CSS就行了，Joomla的静态生成其实就是System-cache （缓存插件），当做足了优化之后，Joomla的执行效率是相当可观的，如本站（优化的方法会在后面的教程中提及）话说Joomla模板难做，这是很多入门的学习者遇上的足以让他放弃Joomla的门槛，那么我要说的是Joomla模板一点不难，它的难点根本不在于"是否会PHP，而是在于不敢钻研的心，那么为了砍掉这个所谓的“门槛”，我将为大家带来这个系列的模板实战教程。
做之前我们必须要准备这几样东西！11、持之以恒的心22、必要的HTML+CS基础知识33、熟悉了Joomla的使用方法、工作原理44、一丝不苟的工作态度。
55、认认真真的看好教程，不要急着复制粘贴。
开始我们的模板制作（以Joomla为例，完结之后会推出Joomla相关教程）安装好Joomla，在templates/目录下建立一个我们要制作的模板文件夹，命名为jk_joomlask ，这时候在后台我们尚且看不到有jk_joomlask 的这个模板选项。
*Joomla网站系统是基于utf-8编码编写的，所以以下所有操作的文件都务必保存为utf-8 编码。
第一步我们需要让其在Joomla后台中显示这个模板选项，创建文件，不要担心会不会xml，很简单，根据官方文档给出的说明，照着写便是：<xml version ="" encoding ="utf-8" >VDOCTYPE in stall PUBLIC "- All Rights Reserved.#@lice nse - Copyrighted Commercial Software#Author: JOOMLASK#Websites: This file may not be redistributed in whole or significant part.*//* */body{background : #fff ;color: #00O;font-family :Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif ;line-height : ;font-size : 12px;}/*global*/#jk_wrapper {}/*定义每个框架的宽度、居中对齐*/#jk_wrapper .main {width : 1000px; margin : 0 auto ; }/*定义需要设定固定高度的DIV高度*/#jk_header .main { height :70px; background :black ;}#jk_nav .main { height : 63px; background :red ;}#jk_ad_top .main { height : 90px; background :yellow ;} #jk_body .main { height : 800px; background :blue ; } #jk_bottom .main { height : 170px ; background :green ;} 上述样式是给大框加进行了大体上的设定，并附加了颜色加以区分，在后面的控制中我们会把这些背景色全部去掉。
气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语的一般特征第二讲名词短语与名词化结构第三讲时态与语态用法第四讲转述语与转述动词第五讲评价与作者立场第六讲语篇互动机制：元话语第七讲主位结构分析第八讲语篇衔接手段第九讲体裁分析与论文引言部分的CARS模型第十讲摘要、论文方法、结果和讨论部分的宏观结构气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语及其一般特征学术英语(EAP)的基本概念、主要研究问题、教学特征及研究发展简史与普通英语的主要区别（文体正式、高度的专业性、词汇特点（学术英语词汇表、概念外壳名词）、句法特点、模糊语的运用）主要流派（系统功能语法、体裁分析方法）批判性阅读与写作第二讲名词化结构积木结构名词化结构（基本类型，功能）第三讲语态与时态被动语态的运用主动语态运用的时机学术语篇中常用的三种时态时态的语用（语篇）功能？条件句中的时态第四讲主位结构分析系统功能语法的基本概念主位、述位主位化主位推进模式摘要语篇中的主位推进第五讲衔接与连贯基本概念衔接手段第六讲论文引言的宏观结构及其语言特征学术论文的宏观结构CARS模型及其语步识别转述语（转述语分型：完整式转述与非完整式转述，转述动词及其分类，转述动词时态的语法隐喻）第八讲摘要的宏观结构及其语言特征摘要定义、作用及类型宏观结构（语步模式）及其语言特征（时态、语态）标题语言学特征第九讲论文主体部分的宏观结构及其语言特征方法部分（基本内容及语步模式，对数值模式或资料的描述，数值模拟的描述，对天气形势/天气过程的描述，学术语篇中的祈使句，时态）结果部分（基本内容及语步模式，指称研究结果，叙述研究结果，说明或评论研究结果，图表说明，时态）讨论部分（基本内容及语步模式，常用句型，句子副词，时态）结论部分（基本内容及语步模式，时态）第十讲学术语篇中的互动机制：元话语学术语篇的互动性Hyland元话语理论模式学术语篇中元话语的功能（说服的三种手段：气质、动情和说理）作者立场（基本概念、认知型立场标记语、态度型立场标记语、方式型立场标记语）Features of academic writingIntroductionAcademic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.FormalityAcademic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.PrecisionIn academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.ObjectivityWritten language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.AccuracyAcademic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general English does not.HedgingIn any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language.Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, morelong sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.The following features are common in academic written texts:Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs,Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalisation, Attributive adjectivesExamplesHalliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spoken text:You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.with a typical written variant:The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions.The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.Other equivalents are given below (p.81):FormalityIn general this means in an essay that you should avoid:a. colloquial words and expressions: "stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.e. asking questions.PrecisionIn academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".For example:Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they had achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in 1854, and in 1887 it was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas and was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many thousands of casualties.It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, passing throughthe corpus spongiosum, it ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatus .ObjectivityThis means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.1. Compare these two paragraphs:The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it. Which is the most objective?2. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."Write: "This is a very interesting study."Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago." Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."3. ExamplesClearly this was far less true of France than ...This is where the disagreements and controversies begin ...The data indicates that ...This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that .... . .very few people would claim ...It is worthwhile at this stage to consider ...Of course, more concrete evidence is needed before ...Several possibilities emerge ...A common solution is ...Academic writing is explicit in several ways.1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.For more information see Writing Paragraphs: Signalling.2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it. Do THIS in academic writingMcGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.NOTAlthough Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.NOTResearchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.AccuracyIn academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly" , "gathering" or "conference".Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".HedgingIt is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.Language used in hedging:1. Introductoryverbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest2.Certain lexical verbs e.g. believe, assume, suggest3. Certain modalverbs:e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could4.Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually4. Modal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly,perhaps, conceivably,5.Modal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possible6.Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability7. That clauses e.g. It could be the case that .e.g. It might be suggested that .e.g. There is every hope that .8. To-clause +adjective e.g. It may be possible to obtain .e.g. It is important to develop .e.g. It is useful to study .EXAMPLESCompare the following:1.It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economicconcepts was less strong than it is now.The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was lessstrong than it is now.2.The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to mostwomen today.The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to mostwomen today.3.Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not,there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence noevolution.Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not,there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence noevolution.4.Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remainedin possession of the property entrusted to him.Yet a recalcitrant trustee did not remain in possession of the propertyentrusted to him.5.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicatesa separating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic populationdrifting westwards and vice versa.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland shows aseparating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic populationdrifting westwards and vice versa.6.By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country toanother by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight linebetween the points would cross a valley.By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between thepoints would cross a valley.7.There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the onlypossible method of transmission.There are cases where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.8.Nowadays the urinary symptoms seem to be of a lesser order.Nowadays the urinary symptoms are of a lesser order.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of this information or ideas by a system of citation.Citing sourcesIntroductionOne of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." For this reason, any academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your own.In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar. It is essential therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.There are two main ways in which you can show your view (Tadros, 1993): negatively•lack of mention of any other writerpositively•first person pronouns ("I")•comments and evaluations ("two major drawbacks", "of no great merit", " as X insightfully states", )It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own if you do not say otherwise. When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you must make this clear. If you do not do this and use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own, this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made explicit by a system of citation. The object of this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source.You need to acknowledge the source of an idea unless it is common knowledge in your subject area. It is difficult sometimes to know whether something is common knowledge in your subject or needs acknowledging. In general, if your lecturer, in lectures or handouts, do not acknowledge the source you can assume that it is common knowledge within your subject.The object of academic writing is therefore for you to present your ideas in your own way. To help you do this, however, you will need to use the ideas of other people and when you do this, you need to say where the words and ideas are from.There are several reasons for this (See Thompson, 1994, pp. 178-187 for more information).1. You need to show that you are aware of the major areas of thought in your specificsubject. This allows you to show how your contribution fits in, by correctingprevious research, filling gaps, adding support or extending current research orthinking.2. You need to support the points you are making by referring to other people's work.This will strengthen your argument. The main way to do this is to cite authors that agree with the points you are making. You can, however, cite authors who do notagree with your points, as long as you explain why they are wrong. Do not make a statement that will cause your reader to ask, "Who says?"3. If you are a student, you need to show that you have read and understood specifictexts. You need to show that you have read around the subject, not just confinedyour reading to one textbook or lecture notes.4. You must not use another person's words or ideas as your own so you need to saywhere they are from.You usually do this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or synthesise if you need to use information from several sources. Do not forget, though, that the central line of argument, the main voice, should be your own. This means that you will need to comment on or evaluate any other works that you use. If you do not do this, you will be accused of being too descriptive, of not being critical or analytical enough, or of not producing a clear argument.There are many ways of refering to other writers - check with your department for specific information.•The most common system is called the Harvard system. There is no definitive version of the Harvard system and most universities have their own. But the oneused here - the American Psychological Association style - is well known andoften used, especially in social sciences and business (American PsychologicalAssociation, 1983, 1994, 1999, 2001, 2010).•If you are a humanities student, click here or see Gibaldi (2003) and Modern Languages Association (1998) for another version of the author-date system.•Many scientists use a numerical system, often called the Vancouver style or BS 1629. Click here or see International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (1991) for more information.^Citing - APA styleThere are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite, another person's work: a) by reporting or b) by direct quotation.a) ReportingThis simply means reporting the other writer's ideas into your own words.You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same or summarise if you want to make the text shorter. See Reporting: Paraphrase & Summary for more information. There are two main ways (Swales, 1990, p. 148) of showing that you have used another writer's ideas:integralAccording to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983).OR non-integralEvidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983).depending on whether or not the name of the cited author occurs in the citing sentence or in parenthesis.If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:According to Peters (1983, p. 56) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.(At end of essay)ReferencesPeters, A (1983). The units of language acquisition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.^b) Direct QuotationOccasionally you may want to quote another author's words exactly. For example:Hillocks (1982) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 267).(At end of essay)ReferencesHillocks, G. (1982). The interaction of instruction, teacher comment, and revision in teaching the composing process. Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 261-278.If you do so, keep the quotation as brief as possible and quote only when it is necessary. You must always have a good reason for using a quote - and feeling unable to paraphrase or summarise is never a good reason. The idea of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject; you present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, not reproducing their words. Your paper should be a synthesis of information from sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection of quotations. Any quote you use should not do your job for you, but should add something to the point you are making. The quote should support your point, by quoting evidence or giving examples or illustrating, or add the weight of an authority. It should not repeat information or disagree with your point.Please note, though, that some subjects, for example chemistry, hardly ever use direct quotation (Robinson, Stoller, Costanza-Robinson & Jones, 2008, p. 545). Check with your department.Reasons for using quotations:1. quote if you use another person's words: you must not use another person'swords as your own;2. you need to support your points, quoting is one way to do this;3. quote if the language used in the quotation says what you want to say particularlywell.Reasons for not using quotations:1. do not quote if the information is well-known in your subject area;2. do not use a quotation that disagrees with your argument unless you can prove itis wrong;3. do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original source;4. do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the original;5. do not use quotations to make your points for you; use them to support yourpoints.If you decide to use a quotation, you must be very careful to make it clear that the words or ideas that you are using are taken from another writer.This can be done in several ways, either integral or non-integral: Widdowson (1979, p. 5) states that "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect."According to Widdowson (1979),"there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (p. 5).According to Widdowson, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (1979, p. 5).According to one researcher, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (Widdowson, 1979, p. 5).(In all cases at end of essay)ReferencesWiddowson, H. G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.When you are using a direct quotation of a single phrase or sentence, quotation marks should be used around the words, which must be quoted exactly as they are in the original. However, note the following:1. You may wish to omit some of the author’s original words that ar e not relevant toyour writing. In this case, use three dots (...) to indicate where you have omittedwords. If you omit any of the author’s original words, make sure you do not changethe meaning.He stated, "The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when be haviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.2. If you need to insert material (additions or explanations) into a quotation, usebrackets, ([...]).Smith (1982) found that "the placebo effect, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [his own and others’] behaviours were studied in this manner" (p. 276).3. If the material quoted already contains a quotation, use single quotation marks forthe original quotation (‘...’).He stated, "The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.4. If the direct quotation is long - more than two or three lines, it should be indentedas a separate paragraph with no quotation marks.According to Smith (1982, p. 276):The "placebo effect," which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviours were never exhibited again, even when real drugs were administered. Earlier studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to the placebo effect.(In all cases at end of essay)ReferencesSmith, G. (1982). The placebo effect. Psychology Today, 18, 273-278.^Secondary sourcesIn all cases, if you have not actually read the work you are referring to, you should give the reference for the secondary source - what you have read. In the text, you should then use the following method:According to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982, p. 276), the ....。
罗默模型PPT 1: 扉页PPT 2:中国经济高速增长的背后首先，我们来关注一下近年来中国经济的发展情况。
在改革开放30余年来，中国经济进入了快速增长的时代。
据统计，中国近30年GDP平均增速达到9.8%，其中有相当一些年份增速超过了10%，一直列于世界之首。
但我们不容忽视的是，中国经济告诉增长的背后，是中国为之付出了昂贵的代价，资源环境与人力资源的粗放利用，消耗了大量的资源，环境也为之付出了沉重的代价，而且还使我国的经济增长质量始终处于一个较低的水平之上，难以形成核心竞争力，不利于经济的可持续发展。
我们切身体会到的是，虽然伴随着中国经济的高速增长，我们的收入和物质财富有了大幅度的提高，但我们的幸福感确并没有像我们想像的那样跟着告诉攀升，大部分人仍面临着低收入，高物价，高房价，看病难等一系列问题，这与中国经济粗放的增长源泉和经济增长体制是分不开，要解决这些问题，首先我们必须对经济增长的一些理论和刺激经济增长的要素有深入的了解，并使之为我们的经济发展服务。
今天我为大家介绍的内容就是经济增长理论的中一个重要部分——罗默模型。
PPT 3: 讲解目录为了能使大家能更加连贯的理解世界发展过程中经济理论的发展，我今天将主要从以下几个方面向大家介绍。
(1) 现代经济理论发展回顾；(2) 索罗模型回顾；(3) 罗默模型——对阿罗干中学的扩展；(4) 罗默模型——知识技术的内生化；(5) 罗默模型在经济增长中的利用。
PPT 4:现代经济理论发展回顾从世界经济发展的角度来看，在17世纪以前，世界经济的平均增速低于1%，而英国工业革命之后，西方国家的经济迎来了快速的增长，短短20年，经济增长了一倍，这引起了西方经济学界的轰动，不少经济学家对此产生了浓厚的兴趣，想对经济增长的秘密一探究竟。
对于整个现代经济理论的发展，大体可以分为三个阶段：古典经济学阶段，新古典经济学阶段，新经济增长理论阶段。
在古典经济增长理论阶段，一大批古典经济学家主要是从描述性角度阐释经济理论的内涵，1939年英国经济学家哈罗德在主流经济学家中第一个做出了现代经济增长理论，并首次把数学模型引入其中，开始用数学模型研究经济增长的时代。
